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The Victorian
Naturalist
Index to
Volume 122, 2005
Compiled by KN Bell
Amphibians
Frogs, using telephone pits for hibernacula,
249
Hibernacula, frogs in telephone pits, 249
Vertebrate fauna, Black Range, Stawell, 94
Authors
Adams R, Koehler M and Simmons D,
128
Adkins MF, Westbrooke ME, Florentine
SK and McDonald SP, 47
Ambrose GJ, 21
Ambrose GJ, Seidel JE, Florentine SK
and Wilson ME, 179
Archbold M, Poiani A and Browning G,
236
Archbold NW, 257
Archer M, 340
Beech P, 250 (book review)
Bilney Roger J, Bilney Rohan J and Peel
B, 189
Bilney Rohan J, Bilney Roger J and Peel
B, 189
Bingham J, McNabb E and Walters B, 244
Birtchnell M, 1 16 (book review)
Birtchnell M, Tyshing C and Gibson M,
120
Black JH, 351
Browning G, Archbold M and Poiani A,
236
Calder M, 336
Callister KE, Westbrooke ME, Gowans
SA and Gibson MS, 35, 85
Carland R and Kean J, 366
Cavanagh AK, 102
Clark W, 315
Cheal D, 108
Cleeland M and Hynes D, 141
Cleeman N, 212
Clode D, 274
Cohn H, 282
Croome R and Fabbro L, 23 1
Dedman V, 306
Douglas F, 13
Duffell AR and Wilson JA, 209
Endersby ID, 326
Editors, The Victorian Naturalist , 2, 66,
126, 158, 222, 255
Fabbro L and Coome R, 23 1
Falkingham C, 121, 246 (Tribute)
Field R, 218 (book review)
Finlayson B, 213 (book review)
Florentine SK, Adkins MF, Westbrooke
ME and McDonald SP, 47
Florentine SK, Ambrose GJ, Seidel JE
and Wilson ME, 179
Garden D, 1 1 8 (book review)
Gibson M, Birtchnell M and Tysching C,
120
Gibson MS, Callister KE, Westbrooke
ME and Gowans SA, 35, 85
Gibson R and Thompson R, 201 (Tribute)
Gillbank L, 112 (book review), 258
Goldingay RL and Harris JM, 160
Gowans SA, Callister KE, Westbrooke
ME and Gibson MS, 35, 85
Hamilton AJ and Taylor IR, 68
Harris JM. 146
Harris JM and Goldingay RL, 160
Holland GJ. 154 (book review)
Homan P. 94
Hoser R. 119, 249
Houghton S, 290
H ubre gtse V, 63 (book review), 204
Hynes D and Cleeland M, 141
Kean J and Carland R, 366
Keatley MR, Santamaria F and
Schlagloth R, 4
Kemp JE and Pollock AB, 224
Kloot T, 1 53 (book review)
Koehler M, Adams R and Simmons D,
128
Lloyd S, 216 (book review), 217 (book
review)
Lyon J and Ryan T, 78
May T, 319
McDonald SP, Adkins MF, Westbrooke
ME and Florentine SK, 47
McDougall KL and Summerell BA, 202
McNabb E, Walters B and Bingham J, 244
Meagher D, 134, 171
Morton A, 222 (book review)
Muscat K, 256
Peel, B, Bilney RJ and Bilney RJ, 189
Pemberton B, 215 (book review)
Poiani A, Archbold M and Browning G,
236
Pollock AB and Kemp JE, 224
Ryan T and Lyon J, 78
Santamaria F, Keatley MR and
Schlagloth R, 4
Schleiger N, 247, 348
Schlagloth R, Santamaria F and Keatley
MR, 4
Seidel JE, Ambrose GJ, Florentine SK
and Wilson ME, 179
Simmons D, Adams R and Koehler M,
128
Smith BJ, 311
Smith FTFI, 152 (book review)
Summerell BA and McDougall KL, 202
Taylor IR and Hamilton AJ, 68
Thompson R and Gibson R. 201 (Tribute)
Tyshing C. 151 (book review)
Tysching C, Birtchnell M and Gibson M,
120
Veenstra-Quah A, 219 (book review)
Walter J, 330
Walters B, McNabb E and Bingham J, 244
Westbrooke ME, 57
Westbrooke ME, Gibson MS, Callister
KE and Gowans SA, 35, 85
Wilson JA and Duffell AR, 209
Wilson ME, Seidel JE, Ambrose GJ and
Florentine SK, 179
Wright S, 375
Yen AL, 358
Youl R, 115 (book review)
Birds
Bam Owl diet, 244
Cloacal microbes in wild birds, 236
Ornithological Worldwide Literature
(OWL), 126
Tyto alba diet, 244
Vertebrate fauna. Black Range, Stawell, 94
Waterbirds, Lake Borrie ponds, 68
Book Reviews
A Field Guide to Australian Fungi , B
Fuhrer (S Lloyd), 217
Australian Magpie: Biology and
Behaviour of an Unusual Songbird ', G
Kaplan (T Kloof), 1 53
Common Wildflowers of Giraween and
Bald Rock National Parks , P and L
Woodall (A Morton), 222
Fungi Down Under , P and E Grey (S
Lloyd), 216
Guidelines for the Translocation of
Threatened Plants in Australia , L
Vallee, T Flogbin, L Monks, B
Makinson, M Matthes and M Rossetto
(M Birtchnell), 1 16
Herons, Egrets and Bitterns: Their ecolo-
gy and conservation in Australia , N
McKilligan (FTH Smith), 152
In search of sustainability , (eds) J
Goldie, B Douglas and B Furness (B
Pemberton), 215
Kookaburra: King of the Bush , S Legge
(V Hubregste), 63
Nest Boxes for Wildlife: A Practical Guide ,
A and S Franks (GJ Holland), 154
Old Land, New > Landscapes: a story of
farmers, conservation and the landscape
movement , C Williams (R Youl), 115
Regardfully Yours. Selected Correspon-
dence of Ferdinand von Mueller. Vol
1:1840-1859. Vol 2: 1860-1875. (Eds)
RW Home, AM Lucas, S Maroske, DM
Sinkora and JH Voight (L Gillbank), 1 12
Still Glides the Stream : The Natural
History of the Yarra from Heidelberg to
Yarra Bend , G Lacey (D Garden), 1 18
The Complete Field Guide to Australian
Butterflies , MF Braby (R Field), 218
The Darling , (Eds) R Breckwoldt, R
Boden and J Andrew (A Veenstra-
Quah), 2 1 9
The Little Green Handbook, a guide to
global trends , R Nielsen (P Beech), 250
Tree Ferns , MF Large and JE Braggins
(C Tyshing), 151
Where River meets Sea: Exploring
Australia's Estuaries , L Turner, D
Tracey, J Tilden and WC Dennison (B
Fin lay son), 213
Botany
Acacia as skink hibernacula, 1 19
Ballantinia antipoda at Mt Alexander, 179
Banksia , recent literature, 102
Belah woodland, species richness-water
relation, 57
Box-Ironbark, fire hollow formation, 47
Bryophyte, Ortho trichum, 134
Casaurina pauper woodland, species
richness- water relation, 57
Diatom outbreak, Australian Alps, 202
Moss mat community, Mt Alexander, 179
Pediastrum wintonense at Lake Mokoan
and Lake Elphinstone, 231
Orthotrichum , bryophyte, 134
Rainforest, Sambar impact on, East
Gippsland, 189
Southern Shepherd’s Purse at Mt
Alexander, 179
Tabellaria flocculosa outbreak, 202
Thryptomene, animals inhabiting, 204
Vegetation assessment. Murray-Sunset
NP, 85
Vegetation from aerial photography, 35
Wetland vegetation, Ewing Morass and
Lake Tyers, 224
Erratum
Vol 122, part 1 , p 2, cover caption, 66
FNCV
Environment Fund, 121
History symposium, 125“' year
Artists of McCoy’s Zoology \ 366
Australian Natural History Medallion,
326
Early conservation, 258
Communicators: E Coleman and N
Wakefield, 274
Field Nats News , 348
Friends of Woodlands Historic Park, 375
Fungi and FNCV, 319
Future of FNCV, 358
Herbarium and FNCV, 282
Junior FNCV Group, 315
Kershaw Dynasty, 351
Marine studies and FNCV, 31 1
Opening address, 257
SGAP and FNCV, 330
The Victorian Naturalist l, changing con-
tent, 340
VNPA and FNCV, 336
Welcome to symposium, 256
Women in FNCV, 290, 306
Fish
Craterocephalus fluviatilis in Victorian
lakes, 78
Murray Hardyhead in Victorian lakes, 78
Geology
Cercartetus nanus fossil distribution, 160
Eastern Pygmy Possum fossil distribu-
tion, 160
Peat deposit, Rosebud, 247
Insects
Apis mellifera 'drunk’, 120
Butterflies, Ballarat area, 21
Honeybees ‘drunk’, 120
Woodland insects, conservation in
Wimmera, 13
Invertebrates
Firefighting foam effect on soil inverte-
brates, 128
Localities
Australian Alps, diatom outbreak, 202
Ballarat, butterfly diversity and status, 21
Black Range, Stawell, vertebrate fauna, 94
Bogong High Plains, cattle and horse
dung effects on, 1 7 1
Cat Island, Tasmania, Water Rats, 209
East Gippsland rainforest, Sambar impact
on, 189
Ewing Morass vegetation, 224
Kerang Lakes, presence of Murray
Hardyhead, 78
Lake Borrie ponds, (Western Treatment
Plant) waterbirds, 68
Lake Elphinstone, Queensland, presence
of Pedia strum , 23 1
Lake Mokoan, Victoria, presence of
Pediastrum , 23 1
Lake Tyers vegetation, 224
Mt Alexander moss community, 179
Murray-Sunset NP. feral goat damage, 108
Murray-Sunset NP, vegetation assess-
ment, 85
Rosebud, modern peat deposit, 247
Rosanna, exotic snake roadkill, 212
Snake Island, Bam Owl diet, 244
The Gurdies, Western Port, Bobucks pre-
sent, 141
Warby Range SP, Box-Ironbark fire hol-
lows, 47
Western Treatment Plant (Lake Borrie
ponds) waterbirds, 68
Wimmera, woodland insect conservation,
13
Mammals
Bobucks at The Gurdies, 141
Capra hircus , damage in Murray-Sunset
NP, 108
Cervus unicolor , impact on rainforest, 1 89
Cercartetus nanus , fossil distribution, 160
Cercartetus nanus , records from The
Victorian Naturalist , 146
Dung, horse, cow, degrading Bogong
Plains, 171
Eastern Pygmy Possum as Barn Owl diet,
244
Eastern Pygmy Possum, fossil distribu-
tion, 160
Eastern Pygmy Possum, records from
The Victorian Naturalist , 146
Feral goat damage in Murray-Sunset NP,
108
Hvdromys chrvsogaster, Cat Island, Tas.,
209
Koalas, tree size significance in translo-
cation, 4
Mountain Brushtail Possum at The
Gurdies, 141
Sambar, impact on rainforest, 189
Trichosaurus caninus at The Gurdies, 141
Vertebrate fauna. Black Range, Stawell, 94
Water Rats, Cat Island, Tasmania, 209
Miscellaneous
100 years ago, 120, 170, 178, 188, 203,
211,235
125 years ago, 84, 126
Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988, 122
Photography, aerial assessment of vege-
tation, 35
Reptiles
Eulamprus tympanum , hibemacula, 1 19
Exotic snake road kill, 212
Hibernacula, Southern Water Skink in
Acacia , 1 1 9
Hibernacula, snakes in telephone pits, 249
Snakes using telephone pits as hibemacula,
249
Southern Water Skink, hibernacula in
Acacia , 119
Vertebrate fauna, Black Ra., Stawell, 94
Tributes
Bary Dowling, 246
Donald Bruce Foreman, 34
Robert Graham Taylor, 201
Volume 122, part 1 comprises the
Biodiversity Conference Special issue.
Volume 122, part 6 comprises the 125th
year History Symposium Special
Issue.
The
1 PP on,
Victorian
Naturalist
Volume 122 (1) February 2005
Biodiversity Conference Special Issue
From the Editors
The papers published in this issue of The Victorian Naturalist were presented at a biodi-
versity conference held at University of Ballarat in June 2004. Dr Singarayer Florentine
of the Centre for Environmental Management at the university has provided the following
summary statement about that conference:
On Thursday 10 June 2004, 190 delegates from twelve universities, state government
agencies, catchment management authorities, community conservation groups, landcare
groups, industry and environmental consultancies attended a conference entitled
'Biodiversity across the borders' al the Mt Helen Campus. The conference, organised
by the Centre for Environmental Management (CEM). School of Science and
Engineering, promoted the range of research into biodiversity issues being conducted
by staff and students of the Centre as well as researchers based outside the university,
working closely with staff of the Centre. Deputy Vice-Chancellor Professor Wayne
Robinson welcomed delegates, and the keynote address was given by Professor Mark
Burgmann of the School of Botany. University of Melbourne. Sixteen presentations fol-
lowed, the majority by staff and post-graduate students of the Centre. The conference
reinforced the central place that CEM now occupies in biodiversity research.
We are sure that readers will find much of interest in the papers from this conference.
Looking ahead to future issues of The Victorian Naturalist for the remainder of this year,
we can promise readers further diversity in content. We have not been able to include all
the papers offered from the Ballarat conference, so a couple have been held over for a
later issue. The April issue will contain a range of subject matter, indicating some of the
more interesting research undertaken recently. Similarly, the June issue will provide pub-
lication of new' work in a variety of natural science areas.
This year holds the prospect of our publishing the proceedings of a couple of confer-
ences. It is anticipated that the August issue will contain some of the papers that were
delivered by speakers at the FNCV symposium 'Digging in the Bay’, held on Sunday, 12
September 2004.
On the subject of FNCV symposia, readers will no doubt be aware, that the Club will cel-
ebrate its 125th anniversary in May, with a two-day conference. This event will take
place at Mueller Hall at the Royal Botanic Gardens, on the weekend of 28/29 May.
Deatails of the conference and a registration form have been circulated w ith recent issues
of Field Nats News. Copies of the registration form, and up-to-date details regarding the
conference can be obtained also from the FNCV office. We are pleased to report that
speakers at this important event will have the opportunity to publish their papers in The
Victorian Naturalist later in the year. We are confident that in years to come this issue
will be a highly valued number, in keeping w ith the importance of its subject matter.
The
Victorian
Naturalist
Volume 122(1)2005
Editors
Editorial 2
Contributions Does size matter? Tree use by translocated Koalas,
by Flavia Santamarra, Marie R Keatley and Rolf Schlagloth 4
Some guidelines for the conservation of woodland insects in the
Wimmera area, by Fabian Douglas 13
Biodiversity and status of butterflies in the Ballarat region,
Victoria, by Graeme Ambrose 21
Feasibility study for the use of small format large-scale aerial
photography for vegetation condition assessment in north-west
Victoria, by KE Call is ter, ME Wes fb moke, SA Go wans and
MS Gibson... ....... ......... 35
Fire and hollow formation in Box- Iron bark eucalypts of the Warby
Range State Park, by Matthew F Adkins, Martin E Westbrooke,
K Florentine Singarayer and Simon P McDonald. 47
Relationship between perennial species richness and distance
from water in Belah Casuarina pauper woodland, by ME
Westbrooke 57
Book Review Kookaburra: King of the bush, by Sarah Legge, reviewed by
Virgil Hubregtse 63
ISSN 0042-5184
February
: Anne Morton, Gary Presland, Maria Gibson
Cover: Orchard Swallowtail Papilio aegeus aegeus. Photo by Wendy Clark. See page 21 .
Web add ress: http: //www. vienet.net. a u/~fncv/ vicnat.htm
Email vicnat@vicnet.net.au
Contributions
Does size matter?
Tree use by translocated Koalas
Flavia Santamaria 1,2 , Marie R Keatley 1 * 3 4 and Rolf Schlagloth
Abstract
Over-browsing of Manna Gum Eucalyptus viminatis and, in some instances. Swamp Gum E. ovata
has occurred ill areas where Koalas Phascolarctos cine reus have been translocated. A 26-month
study of 30 radio-tracked translocated koalas examined tree use at three release forests in the
Ballarat region. Tree species and tree diameter used by the koalas were recorded. Twenty tree
species were used by the released koalas. Seven tree species were surveyed in the three forests.
Diameter at Breast Height Over Bark (DBHOB) of trees surveyed was significantly different
between forests and species and there was a significant interaction between species and forests
(p<0.001, F=3.48). Koalas will use a wide variety of tree species if available and show a preference
for larger trees. (The Victorian Naturalist 122 ( I) 2005, 4-13).
Introduction
The Koala Phascolarctos cinereus is the
largest arboreal marsupial living in
Australia. Before the arrival of Europeans,
its distribution encompassed the eastern
and south-eastern lowland eucalypt forests
of Australia, between Queensland and
South Australia (Martin and Lee 1984;
Phillips 1990). From the end of the I9lh
century through to the 1920s, following
intensive hunting by white Australians,
deforestation, wildfires and disease
(Warncke 1978; Phillips 1990), many
koala populations throughout Australia
crashed. Around 1000 koalas survived in
Victoria (Lewis 1934). Meanwhile,
between 1880 and 1900, a few koalas were
introduced from Corinella (mainland
Victoria) to French Island in Western Port
Bay (approximately 70 km south-east of
Melbourne) (Lewis 1934. 1954).
The Koala’s diet consists mostly, but not
exclusively, of foliage from the genus
Eucalyptus (H indell et at. 1985). In Victoria,
their highly preferred tree food species
include Manna Gum Eucalyptus viminatis
and Swamp Gum E. ovata (Hindell et at.
1985; Hindell and Lee 1987; Martin and
Ilandasydc 1999) as well as River Red-gum
E. camalclulensis and Southern Blue-gum E.
globulus (Department of Sustainability and
1 School of Science, Environmental Management,
University of Ballarat, Ballarat, Victoria 3353.
: Current address: PO Box 69, Buninyong, Victoria
3357.
’School of Forest and Ecosystem Science, University
of Melbourne, Creswick Victoria 3363.
4 Australian Koala Foundation e/o City of Ballarat, PO
Box 655, Ballarat, Victoria 3353.
Environment (DSE) 2004). The population
of koalas on French Island increased rapidly
due to their inability to disperse from the
island, the abundance of the optimal food
tree species (E. viminatis and E. ovata), the
absence of predators (Pratt 1937) as well as
their Chlamydia- free status (Backhouse and
Crouch 1990). By the 1920s, eucalypt defo-
liation had become a problem, and in 1 923,
a translocation program was begun to allevi-
ate the pressure on the island’s vegetation
(Phillips 1990). Koalas were released into
their former habitat on the Victorian main-
land as well as onto other islands. Up to
now, approximately 21 000 koalas have
been translocated in Victoria (P. Menkhorst
2004 pers. comm, 30 April). Initial release
sites were on other islands because these
were considered safe havens (DSE 2004).
These sites were mainly characterised by the
presence of E. viminalis with little variety of
other tree food species. This choice was
made because it was believed that koalas
would eat only a few eucalypt species. Over-
browsing of E. viminalis and E. ovata has
been occurring on islands and in isolated
forested areas on the mainland (e.g.
Framlingham Forest and Mount Eccles
National Park). Past studies have indicated
that koalas are more generalists than once
suspected (Warneke 1978; Martin and Lee
1984; Phillips 1990) and would use a wide
variety of tree species when available. Since
the 1980s, the policy has been to avoid
releases into isolated areas and into forests
where E. viminalis is the prevalent species
(DSE 2004).
4
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
One of the aspects that has been poorly
investigated in koala research is the size of
the trees used by koalas. Past studies have
acknowledged tree size as one of the
meaningful aspects to take into account
when considering the long-term survival of
hollow-dependent arboreal mammals in
Australia (Gibbons and Lindenmayer
2002; Wormington el aL 2003) and over-
seas (e.g. Fox Squirrel Sciurus niger )
(Conner and Godbois 2002). Koalas have
also been shown to have a preference for
larger trees in a variety of forest types
(Hindell et at. 1985; Hindell and Lee 1987;
Melzer 1995 in Moore and Foley 2000;
Phillips and Callaghan 2000; Santamaria
2002). One hypothesis is that a large trunk
often supports a large crown (Niklas
1994), consequently more food availability
(White 1994) and shelter (Hindell et at.
1985). Koalas’ preference for larger trees
has also been associated with their ability
to climb (Hindell and Lee 1990).
A 26-month study was undertaken to
investigate the outcome of koala transloca-
tion in three forests in the Ballarat area.
Creswick, Enfield and Lai Lai Forests
were selected because of the variety of tree
food species available to koalas for fodder
and/or shelter and the limited availability
of E. viminalis. This paper will focus on
one of the aspects of the research: tree
species use by the translocated koalas with
emphasis on tree size.
Methods
Koalas
Thirty koalas were relocated from French
Island to three forests in the Ballarat region
(Victoria). Twenty females (ten sub-adults
and ten adults) and ten males (five sub-
adults and five adults) were caught. Sub-
adult koalas in this study were independent
animals between one and three years of
age, established by tooth wear (Martin
1981). The thirty koalas were released into
the three forests on 21 October 1997 and
radio-tracked for 26 months until
December 1999. Koalas were radio-
tracked and located during the day
(between 6:00 am and 1 :00 pm) They were
tracked once a week for the first two
months, then every two weeks for the fol-
lowing four months, and once a month for
the last 20 months.
Site of origin
French Island is situated about 70 km
south-east of Melbourne (in Western Port
Bay, Victoria). Its area is approximately 17
410 ha; two thirds of the Island is National
Park (proclaimed in 1997). Approximately
20% (about 220 ha) of the koala habitat on
the island is scattered throughout the Park,
the remainder is in remnant patches scat-
tered across privately owned farmland
(Parks Victoria 1998). Four indigenous
species of eucalypts remain on the island:
E. viminalis , E. ovata. Messmate Stringy-
bark E. obliqua and Narrow- leaved Pepp-
ermint E. radiata. Koalas on the island
show a strong preference for the first two
species to the point that these are often
defoliated (Martin 1985). Koalas have been
consistently translocated from French
Island by the Victorian Government since
1923 (DSL 2004) to avoid further defolia-
tion of trees. Koalas studied during this
research represented a small percentage of
the koalas which were translocated from
the island by the then Department of
Natural Resources and Environment (now
DSE) in 1997.
Release sites
The sites chosen to release the koalas
were Creswick State Forest and Park
(north-east of Ballarat), which is approxi-
mately 6985 ha including a softwood plan-
tation (approximately 2850 ha) abutting the
State Forest, Enfield State Forest and Park
(south-west of Ballarat), which is about
9054 ha. A softwood plantation (approxi-
mately 54 ha) also abutting this State
Forest; and Lai Lai State Forest (south-east
of Ballarat) approximately 1550 ha.
Sites were chosen because of the scat-
tered presence of E. viminalis and the pres-
ence of a variety of other eucalypt species
(Table 1). The three forests chosen are
classified as Open Forest (Land
Conservation Council (LCC) 1980).
More detailed descriptions of the vegeta-
tion can be found in the Ecological
Vegetation Classes (EVC) (Commonwealth
and Victorian Regional Forest Agreement
Steering Committee (CVRFASC) 1999).
The vegetation at these sites has been clas-
sified under several EVCs. Vegetation
types found at the release sites also occur
in large areas throughout western Victoria.
Vol. 122 (1) 2005
5
Contributions
Tree species listed in the descriptions
might not be found in some sites within the
release forests. Furthermore, species non-
characteristic of this region, native and
non-native introduced tree species, were
recorded during this study.
Survey
The trees in which koalas were found
were given a sequential number and tagged
for future reference. When the same koala
was found on a previously marked tree, the
tree was counted only once. If a different
koala was located in an already marked
tree, the tree was counted again. Species
and diameter at breast height over bark
(DBHOB) of the trees occupied by koalas
were recorded. Eucalyptus obliqua and
Brown Stringy-bark E. haxteri were
grouped together due to the difficulty of
distinguishing the two species in the
absence of accessible buds and fruits, and
the similarity of their trunks often slightly
burnt by the latest bush lire.
To test whether koalas were actively
selecting trees according to species or size,
the frequency and size class distribution of
each species were estimated in each forest
using Point-Quarter Sampling (Brower et
at. 1998). Fourteen 200 m transects were
randomly located through the areas used by
the translocated koalas. From each point
along the transects, the nearest tree in each
quadrant (NW, NE, SE, SW) was selected
for identification and measurement of
DBHOB. During the survey, E. obliqua
and E. baxteri were grouped together.
Statistical analyses
A two-way AN OVA was used to com-
pare DBHOB of the surveyed trees and the
trees used by the koalas amongst the three
forests and amongst species (data were
transformed to base 10 logarithms). A G-
test (Fowler et al. 1998) was performed to
compare the frequencies of the surveyed
tree species and the frequencies of the
species used by the translocated koalas in
Creswick, as well as classes of DBHOB of
trees surveyed and the trees used by the
koalas in all three forests.
Results
Tree Species
Koalas were found in 20 tree species in
all. In Lai Lai, koalas used 15 species in
Creswick 16 and 20 in Enfield. Some of
these were planted on private properties
and/or plantations (e.g. Monterey Pine
Finns radiatp and Blue Gum E. globulus)
where koalas dispersed during the study
period. Eight tree species were surveyed in
Creswick (Fig. 1), eight in Enfield (Fig. 2)
and 1 I in Lai Lai (Fig. 3). Analysis
between the frequencies of the surveyed
tree species and the frequencies of the
species used by the translocated koalas in
Creswick showed that proportions were
significantly different (/?<0.01, dj= 5). The
frequency of koalas using E. viminalis
was higher than the surveyed frequency of
this species (Fig. 1). The frequencies of the
surveyed E. ovata and the frequencies of
usage of this species were similar.
Stringybark species (E. macrorhyncha , E.
baxteri and E. obliqua) were strongly
avoided at this site. Statistical tests on the
frequencies was not carried out on the
Enfield data due to the great difference in
the number of tree species surveyed and
the species used by the koalas. Neverthe-
less, Fig. 2 indicates that the percentage of
stringy barks (E. obliqua and E. baxteri )
and E. ovata used by the koalas is higher
than the percentage of the species surv eyed
in the forest. Although numbers are very
low, the data also suggest that the percent-
age use of E. viminalis was higher than the
percentage of the species surveyed.
Analysis could not be performed on the
Lai Lai data because the value of some fre-
quencies was less than 5. Nevertheless, the
data suggests that some species surveyed,
such as E. ovata and E. radiata. have been
preferred; other species such as Broad-
leaved Peppermint E. dives have been
used at a low frequency (Fig. 3). Use of E.
viminalis appears to be similar to the fre-
quency of this species in the area. The use
of Sugar Gum E. cladocalyx was limited
to an old (9 years of age) female that spent
45% of her time in a private property,
moving amongst planted E. cladocalyx.
DBHOB
Analyses and box-plots on the diameter
of trees surveyed in the three forests are
shown in Table 2 and Fig. 4 respectively.
DBHOB of trees surveyed was significant-
ly different amongst forests (p- 0.047,
F=3.73) and species 0?=0.019, F=4.28)
6
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Table 1. Tree species as listed by the Land Conservation Council (1980) Victoria in the Creswick,
Enfield and Lai Lai Forests.
Sites
Common overstorey
species
Associated tree species
Common
understorey species
Creswick
Messmate Stringybark
Eucalyptus obliqua
(Open Forest III)
Narrow-leaved Peppermint
E. radiata, Candlebark E.
rubida, Manna Gum E.
viminalis , Broad- lea ved
Peppermint E. dives. Scent Bark
E aromaphloia, Swamp Gum E.
ovata, Monterey Pine Finns
radiata ( p 1 antation )
Blackwood Acacia
melanoxylon, Silver
Common Cassinia
Cassinia aculeata
Enfield
E. obliqua ,
Brown Stringybark E.
baxteri, E. ovata, E.
rubida, (Open Forest II)
E. aromaphloia. E. radiata, E.
dives , Red Stringybark E.
macrorhyncha, P. radiata
(plantation)
A. melanoxylon,
Late Black Wattle A.
mearnsii.
Lai Lai
E. obliqua (Open
Forest II)
E. radiata, E. rubida, E. dives,
E. aromaphloia, E. ovata
A. melanoxylon, A.
dealbata, C.
aculeata.
Fig. 1. Percentage of tree species used by the translocated koalas compared to percentage frequency of
tree species in Creswick State Forest and Park. Eucalyptus obliqua and E. baxteri have been combined.
Trees surveyed n~ 124; trees used by koalas n=247.
(Fig. 5). There was also a significant inter-
action amongst species and forests
(/?<0.001, F=3.48) indicating that the size
of trees of each species could be influ-
enced by the forest type and/or history.
Analyses and box-plot of the diameter of
trees used by the koalas in the three forests
is shown in Table 3 and Fig. 6. respective-
ly. There was no significant difference in
the size of trees used amongst the three
forests, but there was a significant differ-
ence of DBHOB amongst the different
species of trees used (/?=(). 001, F=7.34).
This difference can be attributed to two
species (Fig. 7), E. viminalis and Acacia
melanoxylon . When these two species are
not taken into account, the DBHOB of
trees used by the released koalas is not sig-
nificantly different across the species and
the forests, ft is also shown that there is no
interaction between forests and species,
indicating that the size of trees of different
species chosen by the koalas does not vary
between forests.
Vol. 122 (1) 2005
7
Contributions
Fig. 2. Percentage of tree species used by the translocated koalas compared to percentage frequency
of tree species in Enfield Forest. Eucalyptus obliqua and E. baxteri have been combined. Trees sur-
veyed n=128; trees used by koalas n=256.
Fig. 3. Percentage of tree species used by the translocated koalas compared to percentage frequency
of tree species in Lai Lai Forest. Eucalyptus obliqua and E. baxteri have been combined. Trees sur-
veyed n=128; trees used by koalas n=194.
C res wick
Fig. 8 shows the frequencies of the
DBHOB of trees surveyed and of trees
koalas used in Creswick Forest. The last
category includes trees with a DBHOB
between 81 and 146 cm. Analysis per-
formed on the frequencies showed that the
proportions were statistically significantly
different (p=0.01, df=l). Koalas mostly
used trees with a DBHOB larger than the
DBHOB commonly present in Creswick.
Furthermore, trees with DBHOB between
31 and 40 cm were used slightly more
often than trees with DBHOB between 21
and 30 cm.
Enfield
Fig. 9 displays the frequencies of the
DBHOB of trees surveyed and of the trees
in which koalas were found in Enfield. The
8
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Table 2. Descriptive statistics on the diameter of trees surveyed in the three forests.
Forest
Number of
trees
DBHOB
range (cm)
mean
s.d
median
Creswick
112
10-134
44.3
24.0
40.0
Enfield
64
9- 63
36.6
14.6
23.0
Lai Lai
120
8-118
32.1
16.6
30.0
Fig. 4. Box-plot showing the median, quartiles,
and extreme values of the DBHOB of all trees
surveyed in the three forests. The box represents
the interquartile range which contains the 50%
of values. The whiskers are lines that extend
from the box to the highest and lowest values,
excluding outliers. The line across the box indi-
cates the median. ‘O' indicate the outliers.
last category includes trees with a DBHOB
between 61 and 200 cm. Koalas showed a
marginal preference for trees with DBHOB
class of 41-50 cm. Despite the wide range
of DBHOB. the >61 category was also
actively chosen given its low percentage
availability at the site. However, trees with
DBHOB classes of 21-30 cm and 31-40 cm
were frequently chosen. The frequencies of
the DBHOB of the trees surveyed and the
DBHOB of the trees used by koalas were
significantly different (p<0.0 1 , df=5).
Lai Lai
Fig. 10 shows the frequencies of the
DBHOB of trees surveyed and of trees in
which koalas were found in Lai Lai. The
last category includes trees with a DBHOB
between 71 and 165 cm. There was a signif-
icant difference (/?<0.01, dfrl) between the
frequencies of the diameters in the two
groups. This is also evident from Fig. 10
where it appears that the trees in which
koalas were most frequently found in Lai
Lai had a DBHOB greater than the DBHOB
of trees mostly available in the area. The
DBHOB classes most commonly found in
Fig.5. Boxplot showing the median, quartiles,
and extreme values of the DBHOB of each
species surveyed for the three forests combined.
Eucalyptus obliqua and E. baxteri have been
combined.
the forest were 11-20 cm and 21-30 cm,
whereas the koalas were mostly found in
trees with DBHOB between 3 1 and 50 cm.
Discussion
Species
Koalas were released into State Forests,
but private properties and plantations,
where they could find a wide variety of
tree species both native and non-native to
choose for food and/or shelter, could easily
be accessed. The species used by the
koalas were of a wider variety than the
species surveyed in the forests. During this
study, koalas were occasionally observed
eating leaves of trees they were using.
Most of the time, however, koalas were
observed sitting in the trees in the morn-
ing. Some studies dealing with Queensland
koalas (Melzer et at. 1995; Ellis el a!
2002) have highlighted that often, but not
always, daytime roosting is not a good
indicator of diet. Previous studies on
Victorian koalas (Robbins and Russell
1978; Hindell el al 1985; Martin 1985;
Hindell and Lee 1987, 1988), however,
have shown that trees used during the day-
Vol. 122 (1) 2005
9
Contributions
Table 3. Descriptive statistics on the diameter of trees used by the translocated koalas in the three
forests.
Forest
Number of trees DBHOB range (cm)
mean
s.d
Median
Creswick
182
12-146
51.48
27.7
45.0
Enfield
185
5-110
41.0
17.6
41.0
Lai Lai
165
7-165
45.8
23.2
44.0
170
170
160-
0486
Fig. 6. Box-plot showing the median, quart iles,
and extreme values of the DBHOB of all the
trees used by the released koalas in the Lhree
forests.
time are also used as fodder. It is important
to underline, though, that none of those
studies was dealing with translocated ani-
mals. The results of this study indicate that
the translocated koalas utilised a wide range
of tree species even though the frequencies
of some of the chosen species in the forest
were low. Nevertheless, when E. viminaiis
was present (e.g. Creswick Forest) this
species appeared to be highly preferred.
DBHOB
This study strongly suggests that the
choice of trees by koalas is not only driven
by the presence of certain species but also
by tree size. It is apparent from the results
that koalas mostly preferred trees of the
larger average diameter than those sur-
veyed. The preference for larger trees was
reflected at a species level where koalas
used larger trees amongst species. At a for-
est level, koalas used a tree size class pro-
portionally greater than what was com-
monly available in each area. Although the
results indicate that the size of trees in the
forests is a possible function of the forest
types and the species, the tree size chosen
by the koalas is not different between
forests and/or species if E. viminaiis (the
largest species) and A. metanoxylon (the
Fig. 7. Box-plo! showing the median, quartiles,
and extreme values of the DBHOB of each
species used by released koalas. Eucalyptus
obliqua and E. baxten have been combined.
narrowest species) are not taken into
account. E. viminaiis is the species with
larger tree sizes both surveyed and used by
the koalas. This is probably due to the
location in which larger E. viminaiis are
found. Trees in Creswick, Enfield and Lai
Lai have been used for sawlog production
and/or firewood. Trees with a DBHOB of
25 cm or larger arc harvested for saw logs
and trees with a smaller diameter are con-
sidered residual round wood and chipped
for paper or board products (Department of
Natural Resources and Environment
1996a). The largest specimens are mostly
found in gullies (Costermans 1994) where
legal requirements prevent logging
(Department of Natural Resource and
Environment 1996b). Preliminary results
of a survey using the Koala Habitat Atlas
plot survey methodology (Phillips and
Callaghan 2000) carried out in the Ballarat
area by the Australian Koala Foundation
(unpublished data) has indicated that the
mean DBHOB of trees with koala scats
present was 100.5 cm (nearly twice the
mean diameter shown in this study) whilst
trees without scats had a mean DBHOB of
50.2 cm. The survey was carried out most-
ly in unlogged areas. This could imply
that, if given the opportunity, koalas would
10
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
1-12 13-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81 +
DBHOB classes (cm)
Fig. 8. Comparison of frequency distributions of DBHOB for trees in which koalas were sighted in
Creswick Forest versus trees sampled along transects, all species combined.
70
60 -
50 -
o 40 -
1-10 10-20
21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61 +
DBHOB classes (cm)
Fig. 9. Comparison of frequency distributions of DBHOB for trees in which koalas were sighted in
Enfield Forest versus trees sampled along transects, all species combined.
select trees of larger size than they choose
in logged forests.
Since a large trunk could mean a large
crown (Niklas 1994) the selection for trees
of bigger size can be linked to foliage
abundance (White 1994). It appears that a
link exists between adequate nutrition and
successful progeny bearing (White 1994)
as well as prevention of diseases (Lanyon
and Sanson 1986 in White 1994). One rea-
son for koalas' preference for larger trees
is the greater access to nutrients in the soil
by larger trees with larger root systems
(Phillips and Callaghan 2000). However,
in some mainland isolates and on islands in
Victoria where koalas have been translo-
cated, overpopulation occurs despite exten-
sively defoliating E. viminalis. Koalas still
display high reproductive success (DSE
2004). Over-browsing has been linked to
the high payability of the leaves caused
by land management practices that
enhance fertility and moisture in the soil
(Jurskis and Turner 2002).
Preference for large trees for food, shel-
ter and nesting in tree hollows has been
documented for a wide variety of arboreal
marsupials (Wormington et a/. 2003). A
study in New South Wales (Kavanagh and
Webb 1998) has documented the negative
Vol. 122 (1) 2005
11
Contributions
Fig. 10. Comparison of frequency distributions of DBHOB for trees in which koalas were sighted in
Lai Lai Forest versus trees sampled along transects, all species combined.
impact of logging of large trees on the
Greater Glider Petauroides volam, Sugar
Glider Petaurus breviceps and Yellow-bel-
lied Glider Petaurus australis and other
species. It is possible that the removal of
large trees for timber production or land
development in Victoria, and more broadly
in Australia, might have a future impact on
the health and ultimately survival of the
Koala as much as it has been shown to
impact on the long term survival of hollow
dependent fauna. Future studies should
examine the relationship between tree size
and koala density, health and survival.
References
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the Koala pp. 313-17. Lds AK Lee. KA Handasydc
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Conner LM and Godbois IA (2002) Habitat associated
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Costermans L (1994) Trees of Victoria and adjoining
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Department of Natural Resources and Environment
Victoria (1996a) Forests Service Technical Reports
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Department of Natural Resources and Environment
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Ellis WAF1, Mel/.er A. Carrick FN and Hasegawa M
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tics for field biology, (John Wiley and sons:
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Gibbons P and Lindenmayer DB (2002) Tree hollows
and wildlife conservation in Australia. (CSIRO
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species selection by free-ranging koala population in
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Hindcll MA and Lee AK (1987) Habitat use and tree
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Received 2 September 2004; accepted 17 January’ 2005
Some guidelines for the conservation of woodland insects
in the Wimmera area
Fabian Douglas'
Abstract
Threatened woodland habitats in the Wimmera area of western Victoria have a vital role to play in
maintaining insect biodiversity within the region. This work outlines some of the important ecologi-
cal processes that insects perform and provides land management guidelines for the maintenance of
viable insect populations in remnants of native vegetation. Some notes are also included on a selec-
tion of typical woodland and/or grassy woodland insects that occur in western Victoria. These
include brief descriptions of the listed species and some basic information on their biology. (The
Victorian Naturalist 122(1) 2005, 1 3-20).
Introduction
The plant communities that comprise the
various types of woodland and grassy
woodland in the Wimmera area (of west-
ern Victoria) provide food and shelter for a
wide variety of insects. Trees, understorey
shrubs and forbs, perennial grasses, para-
sitic plants and fallen timber all have a
vital role to play in maintaining the biodi-
versity of insect populations. A healthy
insect population that is balanced and
'School of Science & Engineering, University of
Ballarat, Ballarat, Victoria 3353. Email:
fabiando@bigpond.com
species rich ensures that pollination of
native plants takes place, nutrients are
recycled and that there is a reliable food
supply for many vertebrate animals such as
amphibians, reptiles, birds and small mam-
mals (Crouch in prep.).
Unfortunately, since European settlement
many woodland and grassy woodland
insects have become restricted to remnant
areas of natural habitat as a result of the
widespread clearing of native vegetation
for agriculture. Some species are now
endangered and are only known to occur at
Vol. 122 (1) 2005
13
Contributions
one or two sites in the entire Wimmera
area. Woodland remnants such as the
Glenlee Flora Reserve (at 19 km NE of
Nhill) and the Kiata Native Plants &
Wildlife Reserve (on the south side of the
Western Highway at Kiata) provide a valu-
able refuge for such species and the
ecosystems to which they belong.
However, when the Wimmera is consid-
ered as a whole, it is apparent that such
reserves are rare and that a number of
woodland and grassy woodland habitat
types are poorly represented in the major
reserves within the region. For example,
much of the Little Desert National Park is
covered by heath land and mal lee-heath
habitats. For this reason, it is important
that remnants of woodlands and grassy
woodlands on private land are managed in
such a way that their biodiversity is not
seriously compromised and if possible pro-
tected under Trust for Nature (Victoria)
covenants.
The dominant tree species throughout
most of the woodland and/or grassy wood-
land habitats in the Wimmera are Black
Box Eucalyptus largiflorens , Yellow Gum
E. leucoxylon and River Red Gum E.
camaldulensis (all Myrtaceae), Bulokc
A llocasuarina luehmannii ( Casuarinaceae)
and Slender Cypress Pine Ca/litris gracilis
(Cupressaceae).
Notes on various species of woodland
insects
The following is a small list of some
woodland insects and the plants that are
associated with various aspects of their life
cycles. The common names that are used
for the butterflies follow Braby (2000).
However, when these differ from the older
(but still often used) common names of
these species, the older names in brackets
follow the more recently used names in the
heading for each species. With the excep-
tion of the widely accepted common
names of Pale Sun-moth for Syne mo n
sclene , Golden Sun-moth for 5. plana and
Grey-furrowed Flower Beetle (or Grey-
furrowed Rose Chafer) for Trie haul ax
philips ii, the other common names that are
applied to the moths, beetles and cicadas in
this work are. to the authors knowledge,
proposed here for the first time.
Butterflies and Moths, Lcpidoptera:
Small Grass-yellow1 Butterfly Eurema
smilax, Pieridae.
The Small Grass-yellow is a small, bright
yellow butterfly with a wingspan of about
3 cm. Although it is on the wing through
the warmer months of the year it is usually
seen during spring and autumn. The larvae
of this butterfly feed on Senna species
(Caesalpiniaceae) and probably utilise
Desert Cassia Senna nemophila in the
Wimmera area.
Spotted Jezebel Butterfly (Mood White)
Delias aganippe, Pieridae
This spectacular butterfly has a wingspan
of about 6 cm. It is boldly patterned in
black and white with bright red and yellow
markings on the underside of the hind-
wings. The protracted adult flight period of
this species starts during August and con-
cludes in May. Its gregarious larvae feed
on a number of parasitic plants. Swreet
Quandong Santalum acuminatum
(Santalaceae) and Box Mistletoe Amyema
miquelii and Buloke Mistletoe Amyema
linophyllwn (both Loranthaceae) seem to
be the most commonly used larval food
plants in the Wimmera area.
Fiery Copper Butterfly (Eltham Copper)
Paralucia pyrodiscus, Lycaenidae.
The Fiery Copper is threatened in Victoria
and has only one known population within
the Wimmera area. It is a small metallic
orange and blackish-brown butterfly with a
wingspan of approximately 2.5 cm. As with
many species in the family Lycaenidae, the
larvae of this species have an obligate rela-
tionship with a particular genus of ants.
During the day the larvae shelter in tempo-
rary nests of these ants and are probably
protected from predators while feeding at
night. In exchange for this the larvae secrete
a sugary solution from a gland on the sev-
enth abdominal segment that is eagerly con-
sumed by the attendant ant.
The larval food plant of the Fiery Copper
is Sweet Bursaria Bursaria spin os ct
(Pittosporaceae) and in western Victoria
the attendant ant is No tone us ect at am-
mo ides. At the Wimmera site this species
has two generations annually with adults
flying during late spring and early autumn.
14
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Southern Purple Azure Butterfly
(Genoveva Azure) Ogyris genoveva,
Lycaenhlae.
This colourful species exhibits sexual
dimorphism to a remarkable degree with
males being dark purple on the upperside
of the wings while the females have metal-
lic blue or bluish-green uppersides with
broad black margins and a bean shaped
white patch near the apex (tip) of each
forewing. The w'ing expanse of this species
is about 5 cm for males and 5.5 cm for
females. Within the Wimmera area this
species occurs near the Grampians where it
is on the wing during December and
January. The larvae of the Southern Purple
Azure feed on Box Mistletoe growing on
various Eucalyptus species and are attend-
ed by sugar ants in the Camponotus conso-
brinus species group.
Satin Azure Butterfly (Amaryllis Azure)
Ogyris amaryllis meridionalis,
Lycaenhlae.
The Satin Azure is usually seen as it flies
around its larval food plant, which in the
Wimmera area is usually Buloke Mistletoe
growing on mature Bulokes. It is a shining
metallic blue butterfly with narrow black
margins around the fore and hind wings
and a wingspan of about 3.4 cm.
Although a number of other Mistletoe
species are utilized as larval food plants by
this species in other regions, it seems that
Buloke Mistletoe is favoured above all
others throughout most of the Wimmera.
Numerous small black ants, belonging to
the Iridomyrmex ntfoniger species group,
usually attend the larvae of the Satin
Azure.
In the Wimmera, the adult (light period
for this species commences in September
and concludes in April.
Varied Dusky-blue Butterfly (Western
Dusky-blue) Candalides hyacinthina
simplex a, Lycaenhlae .
This species is a small butterfly with a
wingspan of 2.5 cm. In the subspecies sim-
plexa the upperside of the wings are deep
metallic blue with the apical (outer ) half of
the forewings sooty black. Varied Dusky-
blue larvae feed on Dodder Laurel
Cassytha species (Lauraceae) with Coarse
Dodder Laurel Cassytha malantha being
the most frequently chosen species in the
Wimmera area. Unusually for a member of
the family Lycaenidae, the larvae of this
butterfly appear to be only casually associ-
ated with ants.
This is another species that has a very
long adult flight period with adults first
appearing during August and persisting
until April. As individual adults would
only live for about a fortnight or less, it
seems that there would be several genera-
tions of this species per year.
Six-spot Wood Moth Endoxyia opposita,
Cos si due.
Although this species seems to be rare, it
is probably widely distributed throughout
the Wimmera area. However, it appears
that its occurrence is restricted to areas of
woodland that contain Bulokes as the dom-
inant or co-dominant tree species. As the
larvae of Endoxyia species are borers in
the timber of living trees, the habitat pref-
erences of the Six-spot Wood Moth indi-
cate that its larvae may feed on the wood
of Bulokes. The nocturnal adults of this
species emerge from late December to the
end of January. Males fly rapidly and both
sexes are sometimes attracted to artificial
light.
The Six-spot Wood moth is predominant-
ly brownish-grey with a delicate, reticulat-
ed or net-like black pattern on the entire
upper surface of the forewings, and also
along the outer edges of the hindwings.
The males have the remainder of the hind-
wings silky white, wTiile in the females the
hindwings are mainly light grey. Males
have a wingspan of approximately 6.5 cm.
The females are larger, with a wingspan of
about 9 cm.
Unlike many of the other Endoxyia
species, which have a black, horseshoe
shaped marking on the thorax, this species
has most of this characteristic 'horseshoe’
marking reduced in such a way as to form
a series of six black thoracic spots.
Pale Sun-moth Synemon selene,
Castniidae.
This is a species of special interest, as it
was originally discovered near Two Wells
in South Australia where equal ratios of
males and females were collected histori-
cally. However, when it was discovered in
Victoria, it was noted that no males were
present in the Victorian populations.
Vol. 122 (1) 2005
15
Contributions
Following these initial discoveries,
between the mid 1800s and early 1900s,
the species was thought to have become
extinct in both states as a result of habitat
loss. It was then rediscovered in the
Wimmera during 1991 by the late Frank
Noelker and the author. Subsequent work
that has been done on this species by the
author (F. Douglas unpublished data) has
shown that there are five distinct morphs
or forms that occur in Victoria. This work
has also demonstrated that all of these
Victorian forms of the Pale Sun-moth are
parthenogenetic. i. e. that they are capable
of reproducing asexually.
As far as is known the parthenogenetic
state of this species in Victoria is unique
within the family Castniidae and is most
unusual because the five forms must be
genetically isolated from one another as
they would be incapable of interbreeding.
It is also noteworthy that all five of the
Victorian forms of the Pale Sun -moth arc
now restricted to relatively small remnants
of native grassland and grassy woodland. It
seems that all of the forms are endangered
with two of them being critically endan-
gered. During the past few years the author
has searched without success in the Two
Wells area of South Australia for an extant
population (with males) of the non-
parthenogenetic form.
The Pale Sun-moth is diurnal and flies
only when the sun is shining. A casual
observer would easily mistake this species
for a butterfly because it has clubbed
antennae, a relatively slender body and
bright coloration. The uppersides of the
forewings are cryptically patterned in
shades of fawn, brown and grey with small
whitish markings. When the moth is rest-
ing, these camouflaged forewings are used
to conceal the upperside of the brightly
coloured hindwings, which are boldly
marked with yellowish-orange and greyish-
black. This species has a wingspan of about
4.5 cm. The larvae of the Pale Sun- moth
live underground and it seems likely that
they feed on the roots of wallaby grasses
Austrodanthonia species (Poaceae). Adults
of this species have a fairly brief flight
period that stalls during February and fin-
ishes in early March.
Golden Sun-moth Synemon plana,
Castniidae
This species has a similar life history
(and habitat requirements) to the Pale Sun-
moth. It also has larvae that live under-
ground and probably feed on the roots of
wallaby grasses. However, the adults fly
from late October to mid November in the
Wimmera area and the species is not
parthenogenetic. The sexes are very differ-
ent in appearance, with the upperside of
the males being dark brown with a series
of delicate greyish-white patterns on the
forewings. The females have similar
coloured forewing uppersides to the males
but there the similarity ends, as their hind-
wing uppersides are pure golden-yellow
with a few small black spots towards the
outer edge.
The females of this species are poor fliers
and use their brightly coloured hindwings
as a signal to attract a mate. The Golden
Sun Moth could also be mistaken for a but-
terfly as it is day flying and in common
with all other sun moths has strongly
clubbed antennae. The wing expanse is
about 3.5 cm for males and 3 cm for
females. This species is now listed as criti-
cally endangered under the Common-
wealth Environment Protection and
Biodiversity ' Conservation Act 1999 and is
listed as threatened under the Victorian
Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988. It
occurs at a few sites in Victoria, three of
which are in the Wimmera (near Nhill).
Silver-striped Swift Moth Trictena atri-
palpis, Hepialidae
Also known as the Bardi Grub Moth, this
impressive nocturnal species appears dur-
ing autumn, just before or during rain.
With a wingspan of approximately 10 cm
for males and 1 3 cm for females it is one
of the largest insects to be found in the
Wimmera area. The males are predomi-
nantly dark blackish-grey with two longi-
tudinal silvery-white markings on the
upperside of the forewings. These mark-
ings are surrounded by an intricate succes-
sion of wavy or curved pale grey lines that
resemble the patterns of agate. The females
are usually a paler shade of grey and have
less distinct forewing markings.
Eucalyptus species are the larval food
plants of this species, with Yellow Gum
16
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
and Red Gum being frequently utilised
throughout the Wimmera. The larvae live
in underground galleries where they feed
on the roots of these trees and probably
take several years to reach maturity.
Pupation occurs in a deep, more or less
vertical tunnel from which the large
brownish-orange pupal shell is left pro-
truding after the moth has emerged. It
seems that the adult life-span of this
species is very short (two or three days) as
the adults have non functional mouth parts
and do not feed. They are sustained for just
long enough to find a mate and lay eggs,
by fats that are accumulated in their bodies
during the larval stage.
Beetles, Coleoptera:
Grey-furrowed Flower Beetle or Grey-
furrowed Rose Chafer Trichaulax philip-
sii, Scarabaeidae
The Grey- furrowed Flower Beetle is a
diurnal species that flies during summer
and early autumn. It is easily recognised
by the three deep grooves filled with short,
stiff, silvery-grey hairs that run longitudi-
nally down each elytron (wing cover). The
remainder of the elytra are shiny black,
which adds contrast to the hair-filled
grooves. The head and legs are also black
and the pronotum (exposed part of the tho-
rax when viewed from above) is deep
maroon. Both sexes are about 2,5 cm long.
It is likely that this species is an impor-
tant pollinator of various summer flower-
ing Eucalyptus species as the adults spend
long periods of time feeding on nectar and
pollen in the forest canopy. Generally,
flower beetle larvae feed on damp, rotten
timber or humus rich soil, in which they
finally pupate inside an oval cocoon, con-
structed out of the surrounding material.
However, despite careful searches, the
author has not found the early stages of the
Grey Furrowed Flower Beetle. This could
be due to the possibility that this species
breeds inside old, hollow, termite infested
trees. This theory is supported by observa-
tions made on two separate occasions
when an adult female was seen flying
around and finally into the hollowed out
branches of very old Yellow Gums.
Copper Stag Beetle Lamprima varians,
Lucanidae
This diurnal beetle exhibits sexual dimor-
phism. Males are a metallic copper-bronze
colour with enlarged mandibles that pro-
ject anteriorly for 3 mm to 4 mm beyond
the head. They are variable in size and can
be from 1.5 cm to 2.5 cm long. The
females are usually smaller than the males
and measure about 1 .5 cm to 1 .9 cm long.
Their mandibles are also shorter and usual-
ly project for about 1 mm (beyond the
head). The metallic coloration of the
females is spectacular and ranges from
brilliant greenish-gold through shades of
green to deep ultramarine blue and some-
times bluish-purple. The adults fly during
November and December and during this
time are usually seen resting on under-
storey shrubs such as Wallowa Acacia
calamifolia (Mimosaceae) and Slender
Hop Bush Dodonaea vis cos a
(Sapindaceae). They will also visit flower-
ing shrubs such as Broom Baeckea
Baeckea behrii (Myrtaceae).
The larvae of the Copper Stag beetle feed
internally on the sap-wood of dead timber
and pupate within the timber in capsule-
shaped cavities known as pupal cells.
Throughout the Wimmera, large fallen
branches of Red Gum and Yellow Gum
and stumps of Silver Banksia Banksia
margin at a and Desert Banksia Banksia
ornata (both Proteaceae) are frequently
chosen as larval food. In Victoria, the life
cycle of this species usually takes three
years to complete. Incredibly, after emerg-
ing from their pupae during late summer
and autumn the adults do not break out of
their pupal cells until the following flight
season, approximately nine months later.
Purple and Yellow Jewel Beetle Temog-
natha pascoei, Buprestidae
So far as is known this is one of the rarest
jewel beetles that occurs in Victoria. The
records of this species from the Wimmera
area that the author is aware of are as fol-
lows: (a) One elytron (wing cover) of a
male, found by the author on private land
near the Barrabool Flora and Fauna
Reserve (at 7 km SSE. of Murtoa) on 19
January 1991. (b) One dead specimen
found by K. V. Hateley in the Glenlee
Flora Reserve during the 1940s. (c) Two
Vol. 122 (1) 2005
17
Contributions
female specimens collected by J. Hill in
the Kewell area during the late 1800s or
early 1900s. The only other Victorian
record that the author was able to find is of
one very old specimen in the insect collec-
tion of the Museum of Victoria. This spec-
imen is a male that is simply labelled
‘Mallee district, Victoria'.
This impressive species is one of the
larger members of the family Buprestidae.
The males measure about 3.5 cm with
females a little larger at approximately 4
cm. The coloration of the two sexes is sim-
ilar. The head and pronotum are metallic
purple or coppery-purple, with a narrow
creamy-yellow stripe along the sides of the
pronotum. The elytra (wing covers) are
creamy-yellow for the first (basal) two
thirds of their length. The remaining (api-
cal) third of the elytra are black with a pur-
ple or reddish-purple metallic sheen. This
metallic section of the elytra is at the pos-
terior end of the beetle when the elytra are
closed. The adult flight period of the
Purple and Yellow Jewel Beetle is proba-
bly during January and February. In
Western Australia the adults have been
found feeding on nectar from the blossom
of Eucalyptus species (M. Hanlon 2002
pers. comm.). Therefore, it is possible that
in the Wimmera area it may feed at the
blossom of Black Box, Dumosa Mallee E.
dumosa or Bull Mallee /:. behriana.
Very little is known about the life history1
of this species. However, from what is
known about the larval host plants of some
of the other species in the genus
Temognatha , it seems likely the larvae of
the Purple and Yellow Jewel Beetle are
borers in the timber of live Bulokes.
As jewel beetles in the genus
Temognatha usually distribute their eggs
widely, with only one or two eggs being
laid on a particular larval host plant, it
becomes apparent that they may require
comparatively large areas of natural habitat
for their survival. The small amount of
available data on the Purple and Yellow
Jewel Beetle would seem to indicate that it
has become regionally endangered in
Victoria as a result of habitat loss within
the Wimmera area (due to the widespread
clearing of Buloke woodlands for agricul-
ture). The recent establishment of corridors
of native vegetation along roadside verges
and watercourses to connect existing rem-
nants of Buloke woodland in the Wimmera
should help to increase the population
level of this species in Victoria.
Cicadas, Hemiptera:
Buloke Cicada Cicadetta sp. aff. tigris,
Cicadidae
The author first discovered this distinc-
tive species during 1997, at Wedding’s
Reserve near the north-west end of Lake
Hindmarsh. Since then, twelve more small
populations have been located in the
Wimmera and southern Mallee areas. It
now appears that this cicada has a restrict-
ed and patchy distribution within a rough
triangle that runs from Staples’ Bushland
Reserve at 7.7 km SW of Rainbow to near
Pimpinio and across to a site at 14 km NE
of Nit ill. Two of the known populations
occur in the Glenlee Flora Reserve. The
Buloke Cicada is a medium sized species
with a wingspan of about 6 cm for males
and 7 cm for females. It is black with light
brown markings and has transparent
wings, except for a conspicuous ‘w‘
shaped, dark brown marking near the apex
(tip) of each forewing.
The call of the male is most unusual and
is a valuable aid to finding populations of
the species. It is best described as a sharp
’chip chip chip chi-chi-chip, chip chip chip
chi -chi-chip’ etc. etc. This is continuously
accompanied by a soft shivering sound that
pulsates in time with the chipping call. The
males usually call in unison for periods of
half an hour or more, before falling silent
for similar lengths of time. These bouts of
calling occur more frequently during warm
to hot weather conditions and can take
place at any time from mid morning to
about half an hour after sunset.
As its proposed common name implies,
this cicada is associated with Bulokes. It
has been found only in stands of these
trees with occasional males calling from
neighbouring eucalypts. To date, it has
never been recorded in pure stands of any
Eucalyptus species. In addition, several
nymphal exuviae that probably belong to
this species have been found on the trunks
and lower branches of Bulokes. The adult
flight period of the Buloke Cicada starts in
late November and continues until early
March.
18
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Creaking Branch Cicada Cicadetta spin-
osa, Cicadidae
The presence of this wary cicada can be
detected by its call, which resembles the
creaking sound of two branches rubbing
together in the wind. As each male cicada
repeats this sound at approximately five-
second intervals when calling, the noise
can be virtually continuous (from mid
morning to sunset) when population levels
of this species are high.
The Creaking Branch Cicada is probably
dependent on Eucalyptus species for its
nymphal and adult food supply, as
nymphal exuviae have been found under
Yellow Gum and Black Box. In most cases
the adults are also found in eucalypts and
calling usually occurs in these trees as
well. It is a widely distributed species in
the Wimmera area and can be locally com-
mon in suitable woodland habitats. As with
the preceding species, the adult flight peri-
od commences in late November and con-
cludes during March.
The coloration of the Creaking Branch
Cicada is predominantly black with brown
or yellowish-brown markings on the thorax
and abdomen. There is also a conspicuous
pale yellow marking on the posterior end
of the abdomen. The wings are transparent
with yellow basal membranes on the
forewings that are visible when they are
spread open. The wing expanse of this
species is about 5.5 cm for males and 6.5
cm for females.
Some guidelines for insect conservation
in woodland habitats
Some guidelines for the long-term con-
servation of insects and other invertebrates
in native woodland and grassy woodland
habitats are as follows:
1. ) Keep any form of soil disturbance or
cultivation to as small an area as possible,
i. e. during the harrowing of firebreaks or
the construction of fences etc. Damage to
the surface crust of the soil destroys native
vegetation and the associated insect fauna.
It also encourages introduced grasses and
weeds to invade the disturbed area and
become established.
2. ) Avoid tree planting and soil distur-
bance in natural woodland glades. These
open areas of native perennial grasses and
forbs are the habitat of many insects,
including the Pale Sun-moth and the
Golden Sun-moth.
3. If feasible, expand the size of remnant
areas of woodland by planting out adjacent
degraded land with locally indigenous
species of plants. Ideally, these should be
raised from seed stocks that have been
gathered from plants within or as near to
the area in question as possible.
4. Protect the ecological integrity of rem-
nant woodlands by controlling trouble-
some introduced weeds such as 1 iorehound
Murrubiitm vulgare and exotic pest animal
species such as Rabbits Oryctolagus
clinic ulus and Foxes Vutpes vuipes.
5. Take care not to confuse (and destroy)
native Sweet Bursaria with introduced
African Boxthorn Lycium ferocissimum .
Sweet Bursaria is the larval food plant of
the Fiery Copper Butterfly and also pro-
vides nectar for a very wide variety of ben-
eficial insects.
6. If native parasitic plants such as
Dodder Laurels, Mistletoes or Quandongs
are present, do not remove them to protect
host trees. The larvae of several butterfly
and moth species feed exclusively on the
foliage and/or flower buds of parasitic
plants.
7. Leave dead and fallen timber alone. It
provides food and/or shelter for a vast
array of native animals and is essential (as
food) for many species of beetles and other
invertebrates to complete their life cycles.
8. Do not plough firebreaks through rem-
nant native vegetation on roadside verges.
Doing this can destroy or seriously deplete
local populations of native plants as well
as the beneficial insects that directly or
indirectly depend on them for their sur-
vival. Roadside verges are often the only
places where some of the most threatened
woodland habitat types remain in entire
districts of largely cultivated farmland.
9. If it is deemed necessary to cool-burn
a particular woodland remnant (for fuel
reduction purposes), it is recommended
that the entire area should not be burnt out
at the same time. Any prescribed burning
should be carried out on a rotational basis,
in longer (preferably much longer) than
annual cycles, so that some parts of the
woodland area are left unburned for con-
siderable periods of time. This practice
ensures that there is always some suitable
Vol. 122 (1) 2005
19
Contributions
habitat (i.e. food and shelter) available for
wildlife, including insects.
10. Sheep grazing can sometimes be used
as a valuable tool to maintain biodiversity
in woodland habitats. Jn many cases a
moderate grazing regime is necessary to
prevent certain plant species from prolifer-
ating at the expense of others. For exam-
ple, when open grassy woodlands are not
grazed for long periods of time, grasses
such as some of the taller spear grasses
Austrostipa spp. tend to replace the shorter
growing wallaby grasses. Eventually, an
ecological process of this nature has a neg-
ative effect on the populations of certain
endangered species of insects that feed on
the wallaby grasses. However, as some
native plant species are highly palatable to
stock, it is recommended that grazing
should be largely (or in some cases entire-
ly) excluded from reasonably large sec-
tions of a given woodland remnant.
1 1 . One of the most threatened types of
habitat within the Wimmera area is wood-
land that is dominated by Bulokes. For this
reason it is essential that such areas are
carefully managed so as not to seriously
compromise their ecological values.
Although some of the insects that need
Bulokes for their survival are still relative-
ly common in the region, the gradual loss
of mature trees over time will doubtless
cause a widespread decline in their abun-
dance in the future. To avert this situation,
it is recommended that the regeneration of
Bulokes should be actively encouraged,
especially in areas that abut existing stands
of mature trees.
12. It is imperative that efforts to conserve
and restore indigenous woodlands and their
associated wildlife are carried out on as
large a scale as possible. Although the rea-
sons for this are many, one of the most
important is that a comparatively large area
of habitat is likely to contain a greater spec-
trum of native plant and animal species.
This in turn allows for more complete and
frequent interactions between the species
that are present and facilitates the balanced
function of ecological processes.
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to the following people who
helped with the production of this work. Mr. E.
D. (Ted) Edwards (CSIRO Division of
Entomology) for providing the author with
much information on various aspects of the
Castniidae (Sun-moths); Mr. M. Hanlon provid-
ed the author with biological and taxonomic
information on the Bupreslidae (Jewel Beetles);
Mr. K. V. Hatcley allowed the author to study
specimens of Temognatha pascoei held in his
private insect collection; Dr M. S. Moulds
(Australian Museum Sydney) clarified the taxo-
nomic status of the Buloke Cicada Cicadetta sp.
a IT. tigris; The late Mr. 0. F. Noelkcr, Mrs. J. T.
Noelker, Mr. C. R. Crouch and Mr. D. Crouch
for assistance w ith field work during the past
eighteen years; Dr Ken Walker, Ms. Catriona
McPhee, Mr. Peter Lily white and Mr. Peter
Marriott for permission to study the insect col-
lection held at Museum Victoria.
References
Author's note: Although the following refer-
ences are not cited above, they contain the taxo-
nomic names that have been used in this work.
To the author's knowledge all of these taxonom-
ic names are valid, as at 25 May 2004, except
that Froggatl (1007) used the former generic
name Stignwdera for the Purple & Yellow Jewel
Beetle Temognatha pascoei . How ever, the cur-
rent generic name of this sp. is correctly used
for two other congeneric spp. in Hangay and
German (2000).
Braby MF (2000) Butterflies of Australia: Their identi-
fication. biology and distribution. Vol I and 2.
(CSIRO Publishing: Collingwood. Victoria)
Couch CR (in prep.) Tangible benefits of native vegeta-
tion: Restoring the balance and saving a dollar. (To
be published in 2005 by the Wimmera Catchment
Management Authority, Horsham. Victoria)
CSIRO (1979) The Insects of Australia: a textbook for
students and research workers . (Melbourne
University Press; Melbourne)
CSIRO (1996) Checklist of the Lepidoptera of
Australia. (CSIRO Publishing: Collingwood.
Victoria)
Froggatl WW (19.07) Australian Insects. (William
Brooks & Company: Sydney)
Hangay G & German P (2000) Insects of Australia.
(Reed - New Holland Publishers: Sydney)
Eum I, Barlow I & Ross J (1998) Plains Wandering.
(Trust for Nature [Victoria] & Victorian National
Parks Association: Melbourne)
Matthews- EG (1984) A guide to the Genera of Beetles
of South Australia: Part 2 Polvphaga: Eucinetoidea,
Pascilloidea , and Scarahaeoidea. (South Australian
Museum: Adelaide)
McCann IR (1989) The Malice in blower . (Victorian
National Parks Association: Melbourne)
Mi/unuma T and Hagai S (1994) The Lucan id Beetles
of the World. (Published by Mushi-sha: Tokyo,
Japan)
Moulds MS (1990) Australian Cicadas. (New South
Wales University Press: Sydney)
Strahan R (ed.) (1983) The Australian Museum
Complete Book of Australian Mammals. (Angus &
Robertson Publishers: Sydney)
Received 2 September 2004; accepted 16 December 2004
20
The Victorian Naturalist
Biodiversity and status of butterflies
in the Ballarat Region, Victoria
Graeme J Ambrose1
Contributions
Abstract
The butterfly fauna of the Ballarat region is not well known, reflecting a lack of comprehensive sur-
veys. This paper firstly characterises the Ballarat region and documents butterfly species found
locally. Forty-five species from live families and 31 genera are now known for the region, including
one introduced species. Management issues include habitat fragmentation and degradation. Some
species are insufficiently known in the region to permit the development of management strategies.
( The Victorian Natural is t 122 (1) 2005, 21-34).
Introduction
The butterfly fauna of the Ballarat region
is poorly documented. Before 1995, just 1 1
species had been recorded on the Victorian
Butterfly Database for the grid squares that
include Ballarat and environs: 143°45’00"
E, 37°35'00" S and 143°55W E, 37°35,00M
S. Surprisingly, the list excluded several
abundant species. This paper records
species found in the vicinity of Ballarat,
with some notes on the broader region,
extending as far as Ararat, Castlemaine
and Lismore. It documents the status of
each, their flight season and habitat use
within the region. Database records are
supplemented by records from transects
made from 1 99 1 to 1 994, subsequent casu-
al observations by the author, unpublished
observations by naturalists, and literature
records, including notes on regional
species from the Ballarat Courier.
Common and scientific names of butter-
flies follow' the usage in Braby (2000).
Characteristics of the Ballarat region
The Ballarat region is depicted in Fig. 1.
Ballarat (population 86 000) lies 100 km
west of Melbourne, Victoria, at altitudes of
400-500 m ASL. Ballarat is extensively
urbanised, but has many areas of remnant
vegetation within its outer suburbs. The
urban/rural fringe of Ballarat is a dynamic
environment that is strongly influenced by
human activities. Prior to European settle-
ment, the volcanic plains near Ballarat
bore grasslands and grassy woodlands.
These have been greatly diminished and
fragmented by the combined impacts of
grazing, cropping and urbanisation.
'Environmental Management, School of Science and
Engineering, University of Ballarat, Ballarat, Victoria
3353.
However, there are still substantial rem-
nants of mixed-eucalypt open-forest on
nutrient-poor Ordovician soils, as well as
plantations of Monterey Pine Pinus radia-
ta and eucalypts.
Grasslands on volcanic soils are dominat-
ed by Common Tussock-grass Poa labil-
lardieri or Kangaroo Grass Themeda trian-
dra. Grassy woodlands on volcanic soils
have an overstorey of Manna Gum
Eucalyptus viminalis and Messmate E.
obliqua. Mts Warrenheip and Buninyong,
volcanic peaks of about 740 m to the east
and south-east of Ballarat, retain their orig-
inal dominant vegetation ( E . viminalis/E.
obliqua/ P. tabillardwri ) .
Many open-forests in the region (Fig. 1 )
are still regenerating after widespread clear-
ance and soil disturbance during the gold
rush and/or subsequent logging. Mixed-
eucalypt open-forests on Ordovician soils
typically include Messmate, Sccnt-bark E.
anomaphloia , Narrow-leaf Peppermint E.
radiata and Blackwood Acacia melanoxy-
lon , w ith a diverse understorey of shrubby
legumes (including many peas, family
Fabaceae), forbs: such as Wattle Mat-rush
Lo man did filiform is and Grey Tussock-
grass Poa sieberiana. In damper gullies.
Manna Gum, Swamp Gum E. ovata and
Yarra Gum E. yarraensis commonly form
the canopy. The understorey includes Sweet
Bursaria Burs aria spin os a. Slender
Tussock-grass P. tenera , Soft Tussock-
grass P. morrisii , Weeping Grass
Microlaena stipoides and various sedges.
Butterfly fauna of the Ballarat region
Forty- five butterfly species from five
families and 31 genera are now known,
Vol. 122 (1)2005
21
Contributions
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T O
5 H o
including the introduced Cabbage White
Pier is rapae (Table 1). The most diverse
families in the region arc Nymphalidae and
Lycaenidae, with 13 species each. Twenty-
five species forage for nectar in urban
parks and gardens, including 14 species
that also breed there, outside vegetation
remnants. Five of these make significant
use of exotic vegetation as larval food
plants and nectar sources. Most butterfly
species occupy either forest understorey or
open situations, including grasslands, pas-
ture and gardens. Few species are associat-
ed with tree canopies.
Potential occurrences in the region
It is acknowledged that the small number
of knowledgeable observers in the region
is unlikely to have recorded all local
species. Indeed, it is hoped that the publi-
cation of this paper will stimulate interest
in the region's butterflies and increase the
number of informed and interested lepi-
dopterists. Cryptic and high-flying species,
and those noted in Table 1 as localised and
uncommon, are likely to be under-record-
ed. Further populations of some species
will probably be discovered in suitable
sites, particularly if intact habitat and lar-
22
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
val foodplants are still widespread. This is
likely to be the case with species depen-
dent on Oxalis and Gahnia , for example.
Species dependent on introduced Citrus
and related genera are either uncommon
for unknown reasons (e.g. Dainty
Swallowtail Pupil io anactus) or still in the
process of extending into the area (e.g.
Orchard Swallowtail P. a e gens aegeus).
Citrus trees, with the exception of Lemons
and Cumquats, are not w idely grow'n near
Ballarat because of the cold climate.
Localised and uncommon species that hill-
top (listed in Table 1) may be more effec-
tively sought on the summits of prominent
local hills and mountains. A number of
species not recorded to date are likely to
occur in the region. Some of these are
known to hilltop. Table 2 lists some possi-
ble candidates.
The species listed in Table 2 may have
escaped detection because they are
localised and sedentary, rare, or fly high in
the canopy. Others inhabit less well
searched montane and damp, moist habi-
tats that are more distant from Ballarat.
Table 2 suggests that the most productive
areas in which to search for further species
in the reg ,n are hilltopping sites, damp
montane forests and damp understoreys
with Gahnia sedges. Promising localities
to search for damp forest species include
wetter parts of the Wombat State Forest
(Trentham and Daylesford-Korwein-
guboora-Spargo Creek areas), Ln field
State Forest and the Mt Cole/Ben Nevis
region. The four lycaenids that require
drier forests, woodlands and heathlands are
all hilltopping species with associations
between their larvae and ants. They may
be most effectively detected on prominent
hill summits near suitable plant communi-
ties that have relatively intact under-
storeys. Systematic searching during sum-
mer for the two possible vagrants (see
Table 2) is unwarranted because of the low
probability of encountering them.
Hilltopping
Hilltopping is a form of serial polygyny
in which males attempt to attract females
to their territory (lek) by displays.
Butterflies assemble at prominent features
on the landscape, the males seeking mates
and courting. The hilltopping behaviour of
species may differ according to available
Vol. 122 (1) 2005
vegetation and in the location on the hill-
top, height above the ground, time of day
and time of year. After mating, females
disperse to suitable habitats containing lar-
val foodplants, where they lay their eggs
(Common and Waterhouse 1981 ).
Males of some species tend to set up
perching territories on the summits.
Perching hi 1 hoppers are capable of rapid
flight. They may dart up quickly to investi-
gate passing insects and then court poten-
tial mates or pursue rivals (F Douglas 2004
pers. comm. 10 June). They include small-
er understorey species such as skippers
(ochres Trapezites spp.. Bright Shield-
skipper Signeta flammeata), as well as
lycaenids (e.g. some azures Ogyris spp..
Rayed Blue Candalides heath i heat hi).
Larger hilltopping species may be camou-
flaged at rest (e.g. Vanessa spp.. Marbled
Xenicas Geitoneura klugii klugii and
browns Tfetero nymph a spp.). Butterflies
such as the Tailed Emperor Polyura sem-
pronius and some Geitoneura species have
perching sites but also intermittently patrol
a larger area (F Douglas 2004 pers. comm.
10 June).
Males of broader- winged species, adapt-
ed for gliding, are able to patrol suitable
areas searching for females in an energy-
efficient manner. They may do so over
longer periods during the day than the
perchcrs. These include swallowtails
Papilio spp., the Forest Brown Argynnina
cyrila and the Imperial Jezebel Delias
harpalyce. Cabbage Whites tend to be
quite mobile, ascending and patrolling
mountains, but arc not considered hilltop-
pers (Wainer and Yen 2000).
Mt Buninyong and Mt Warrenheip are
significant for hilllopping butterflies, par-
ticularly those that are uncommon or wide-
ly dispersed or localised, such as the
ochres Trapezites spp. and sw'allowtails
Papilio spp. Wasps, hoverflies. and proba-
bly other insects, may also hilltop at these
sites. Large numbers of dragonflies hawk
for these hilltopping insects in the canopy
at the summits. Both mountains have been
proclaimed as scenic reserves. The Land
Conservation Council, Victoria (1981) rec-
ommended that their management should
aim to protect the relatively undisturbed
native vegetation. This should also assist in
conserving the local insect communities.
23
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Vol. 122 (1)2005
25
Contributions
Historic Records
Eight species are known only from his-
toric records (Table 1) and their current
status in the region is unclear. One of
these, the Narrow-winged Pearl-white
Elodina pcuiusu , is a rare vagrant that does
not breed in the region. Two other species
have larval foodplants that are not plentiful
in the region. The larvae of the Varied
Dusky-blue C uncial ides hyacintha hya-
c inf hci feed on the hem i parasitic dodder-
laurels Cassytha spp. (Lauraceae), which
are uncommon close to Ballarat. The
Saltbush Blue Theclinestes serpentata is
facultatively myrmeeophilous. Its larvae
feed on various chenopods (Chenopodi-
aceae). (Few chenopods are abundant
locally, except for an introduced annual.
Fat Hen Chenopodium album). The other
three species are ochres Trapezites spp..
discussed under 'Use of Urban Areas’. The
Amethyst Hairstreak Jatmemis iciliiis has
been recorded once (December 1982) at
Kalinina Park, Castlemaine, in association
w'ith Wire-leaf Mistletoe Ainvema preissii
(Loranthaceae) growing on wattles (DF
Crosby 2004 pers. comm.). The Amethyst
Hairstreak is possibly a rare resident of
northern areas. Other historic records are
discussed under 'Vagrants’ and
'Management Issues’.
Seasonal Changes in the Butterfly
Community
Some early season butterflies (Yellow
Admiral Vanessa ilea , Australian Painted
Lady V. kershawi and Cabbage White)
arrive from late August, on days with
northerly winds. These are later supple-
mented by locally emerging adults. Several
other species are known only as uncom-
mon vagrants or migrants. Most uncom-
mon migrants, such as the Small Grass-
yellow Eitrema smilax , arrive in October
and November in association with greater,
but highly variable, numbers of the Caper
White Belenois Java reutonia. In some
years during the mid-late 1980s there were
sufficient Caper Whites appearing sudden-
ly in spring to prompt media attention.
Numbers of migrant species have been
very low since the mid-1990s, possibly
because a lengthy drought produced an
extended series of poor breeding seasons
in their area of origin. Prevailing winds
can also influence the number of migrants
arriving in an area, but this possibility has
not been investigated. Smaller numbers of
migrants appear in late summer and
autumn.
Butterfly abundance and diversity
increase through spring and summer. Late
summer-autumn butterflies include four
skippers and two nymphalids (Shouldered
Brown Heteronympha penelope sterope
and Silver Xenica Oreixenica lalhoniella
her ceus), which lend to breed in gullies,
forest understoreys, clearings and forest
margins. All but the last species venture
outside forested areas to forage for nectar.
Dense forests and pine plantations are
occupied only during the warmest months,
mostly by female Common Browns
Heteronympha merope me rope. Butterfly
numbers and diversity eventually decline
as nights become cooler in April.
Influence of the Cool Climate
The Ballarat region has a cool climate
because of its altitude and inland location.
Nights and winters are colder than those of
Melbourne because temperatures are not
moderated by the ocean. As a result, many
butterflies in the Ballarat region have short-
er flight seasons than those in Melbourne or
Victoria generally. Species such as the
Imperial Hairstreak Ja I menus evagoras
evagoras may have fewer generations per
year than elsewhere because of the shorter
warm season. Early season species either
disperse into the region from warmer areas
to the north or emerge later than lowland
individuals. Few late-season species survive
past April. Apparently no butterflies over-
winter as adults: none is seen after the onset
of cold weather and frosts in early May,
even on occasional sunny winter days.
Adults of three species require cool,
moist and sheltered conditions: Splendid
Ochre Trap-ezi/es svnvnomus soma , Silver
Xenica and Ringed Xenica Geitoneura
acantha (Braby 2000). In the Ballarat
region, diey often dwell in sheltered gullies
where their larval foodplants are less des-
iccated. Silver Xenieas are also found in
the cooler and moistcr conditions of the
summits of Mts Buninyong and
Warrenheip. The Ringed Xenica is known
from sheltered gullies (e.g. around the
Union Jack Creek bridge, Buninyong) but
26
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
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not from the mountains. Crosby
(1998) described the Ringed
Xenica as non-alpine at Mt
Buffalo because it frequented
shady damp areas around the
base of the mountain but not
higher altitudes. The three
species emerge earlier than low-
land adults, probably facilitated
by Ballarat’s cooler summer.
There are insufficient local
records of the Splendid Ochre
to comment on its distribution
near Ballarat. It is likely to be
uncommon because its larval
foodplant. Spiny-headed Mat-
rush Lomandra longifolicr is not
abundant close to Ballarat. A
recent trend towards landscap-
ing with this plant may provide
more opportunities for this and
other species. Splendid Ochres
By from December to April,
Silver Xenicas from late
December until April, while
Ringed Xenicas fly from
November to April.
Use of Urban Areas
Most of the common urban
butterflies are not sedentary and
feed on. nectar from garden
plants and weeds. Some lay eggs
on weeds and cultivated plants,
including grasses, legumes,
plantains, nettles and daisies. In
some cases, there is a correlation
between watering and butterfly
abundance: in the early 1990s,
Common Grass-blues Zizina
lahradus labradus were more
abundant in gardens with
watered lawns than those left
dry. Current restrictions prevent-
ing the watering of lawns in
Ballarat have diminished the
numbers of this species.
Long-flowering exotic plants
with taproots, such as Smooth
Catsear Hypochoeris glabra and
Hairy Hawkbit Leontodon sax-
atilis , continue to produce nectar
and attract butterflies through
late summer and autumn when
few native plants (apart from
28
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Sweet Bursaria and Messmate) are flower-
ing in habitat remnants. The two exotics
mentioned often penetrate remnant under-
storeys.
Butterflies breeding in urban areas
include amongst their larval foodplants
introduced species that are cultivated or
associated with disturbance. Grass-feeding
larvae of the White-banded Grass-dart
Taractrocera papyria papyria and Green
Grass-dart Ocybadistes walkeri sot his
include exotic grasses in their diet and
appear to benefit from luxuriant grass in
urban areas. Australian Painted Ladies are
more common in gardens (especially cot-
tage gardens) and pastures than in rem-
nants with native daisies. Ongoing summer
watering of nectar and foodplants,
enabling them to remain turgid, may per-
mit this and other multivoltine garden
species to continue producing rapidly
developing further generations over sum-
mer. The Meadow Argus Junonia villida
calybe was found to be associated with dis-
turbed sites and exotic plantains Plantago
spp. rather than the native Varied Plantain
P. varia. The larvae are also often found
on centaury Centcmrium spp. (Gentian-
aceae), common pink- flowered weeds rep-
resented by three species in the region.
Centauries are able to grow in disturbed
and bushland situations too dry for plan-
tains. Yellow Admirals show a preference
for laying eggs on exotic annual stinging
nettles (Small Nettle Urtica lire ns) rather
than on the perennial native Scrub Nettles
U. incisa , as demonstrated by choice
experiments (Harris 1993 ). The former is a
weed of damp rich soils, including well-
manured pastures, volcanic soils, stock-
yards at Delacombe and gardens in urban
Ballarat, while the latter grows in riparian
vegetation (e.g. below Lai Lai falls). The
Lesser Wanderer Dements chysippus pet il-
ia and Monarch D. plexippus plexippus are
able to breed in the region only because
butterfly fanciers cultivate (frost- tender)
Swan Plants Asclepias spp. in more pro-
tected locations to attract them.
Suburbs lacking remnants (e.g.
Wendouree) tend to have less rich butterfly
communities. However, even quite small
vegetation remnants in urban areas contain
rich butterfly communities, provided the
understorey is largely intact. Dense shade
is inimical to understorey plants and is
avoided by most butterflies except at the
height of summer. Sunny glades in open-
forest seem to promote species richness, as
demonstrated by the experimental creation
of a glade in the University of Ballarat
Regional Arboretum, Mt Helen, although
they also increase butterfly observability.
Particularly rich remnants include those
along track margins in the Canadian State
Forest, Webbs Hill Rd, Buninyong,
Wombat State Forest and Tinworth
Avenue, Mt C'lcar. Remnants with retained
older trees (e.g. in Peady St Reserve, Mt
Pleasant, University of Ballarat Regional
Arboretum, Mt Helen, Union Jack Creek
reserve and Webbs Hill Rd, Buninyong)
may contain the locally uncommon Dark
Purple Azure Ogyris abrota and the Silky
Hairstreak Pse it d a l m e n it s chi o r i n d a
zephyrus and Imperial Hairstreak Jalmemts
evagoras. All three require bark or wood
crevices for at least one of the following
activities: egg deposition, larval sheltering
and pupation.
Cabbage Whites undergo several genera-
tions during their long flight season,
becoming very abundant by autumn. They
are especially common around canola
crops and stands of cruciferous weeds such
as Brass tea , Raphamts , Rorippa and
Cap sella, but also frequent gardens with
cruciferous vegetables or weeds.
Some species do not use urban areas
(Table 1), and are confined to the vicinity of
native vegetation remnants. These include:
• Those whose larvae largely or exclusive-
ly eat local native plants (most skippers
except the grass-darts, Chequered
Swallowtail Papilio demo lens
sthcnelus , Silver Xenica, Ringed
Xenica, Forest Brown, lycaenids except
the Long-tailed Pea-blue Lamp ides
hoc ficus and Common Grass-blue);
• Those whose larvae feed on moist grass-
es or mat-rushes in sheltered sites over
the warmer months (as described
below);
• Those using leaf litter for larval shelters
or pupation sites (ochres and other skip-
pers);
• Those relying on adult camouflage
against leaf litter (some nymphalids);
• Sedentary and localised species (designat-
ed Toe’ in Table 1; mainly hesperiids);
Vol. 122 (1) 2005
29
Contributions
• Those having obligate relationships with
ants. Many lycaenids have these rela-
tionships. The exceptions are either
non-myrmecophiles ( Caudal hies spp.)
or facultative myrmecophiles (Long-
tailed Pea-blue. Common Grass-blue);
• Forest understorey species (ochres
Trapezites spp.: xenicas Oreixenica,
Geitoneura spp.) that are sedentary and
form localised colonies do not use
urban areas except in the immediate
vicinity of bushland remnants. The
three ochres (Montane Ochre Trapezites
phigal i o i de s p h iga lioides , Yellow
Ochre T lutea lutea and Splendid
Ochre T. synunomus soma) all form
localised colonies and depend on leaf
litter or tussock bases as larval shelters
and pupation sites. The larvae feed on
mat-rushes. The ochres may be locally
rare or extinct because of habitat loss or
understorey disturbance. The Yellow
Ochre is discussed further under
'Management Issues’. Montane Ochres
may be present but mistaken for the
moderately common Heath Ochre T.
phigal ia phigalia. Geitoneura adults
depend on camouflage against a back-
ground of leaf litter. Two of the xenicas.
Ringed Xenica and Silver Xenica, have
grass-feeding larvae and require moist
sheltered conditions where grasses do
not desiccate severely over summer.
Vagrants
Five vagrant species are listed in Table 1.
The Monarch or Wanderer Danaus plex ip-
pus plexippus is recorded from gardens in
Lismore, Avoca, Creswick, Broomfield
and Ballarat, (Thomas 1992a, 1993a,
1993b, 1997a) although doubtless it travels
widely and appears elsewhere. The same
applies to the Lesser Wanderer, which is
recorded from Creswick (Thomas 1997b)
as well as Ballarat (University of Ballarat
campus, Mt Helen). Both wanderers occur
sporadically in small numbers and are not
seen every year. The larvae of both feed on
Swan Plants or Milkweeds, usually the
South African species Asclepias pubescens
and A. fruticosa ( Asclepidaceae). The lat-
ter, though somewhat frost-tender, is
sometimes available in local nurseries.
Both wanderers apparently breed occasion-
ally in the region.
The Tailed Emperor was first recorded in
the Ballarat region during February/March
2001. A dead gravid female was discov-
ered in the Rainforest Garden at the
University of Ballarat. Mt Helen, near
planted specimens of two larval food-
plants, Flame Tree Brachychiton acerifoli-
um and Kurrajong B. populneus
(Sterculiaceae). The species is known to
disperse widely and occasional records are
noted from Victoria (Braby 2000). The
Tailed Emperor has a wide range of larval
foodplants, mostly legumes, but also kurra-
jotigs and other rainforest trees (Braby
2000). The female may have dispersed
from a small colony that was discovered in
Castlemaine in 1993 and persisted for at
least four years. Several members of the
Castlemaine Field Naturalists’ Club report-
ed Tailed Emperors in Castlemaine in
2001 (R Thomas 2001 pers. comm. 10
March). Butterflies in that population
favoured Silver Wattle A. dealbata and
Coolamundra Wattle A baileyana
(Mimosaceae) as larval foodplants (R
Thomas 2001 pers. comm. 10 March, quot-
ing Gary Sobcy, proprietor of 'Sky-
dancers’ butterfly farm in Castlemaine).
Mr Sobey is also aware of unpublished
sightings of the species in Stawell, Maldon
and Bendigo. Males have been observed
hilltopping at Mt Piper, Broadford, and Mt
Paps, Mansfield (D. Britton 2004 pers.
comm.).
Management Issues
Sands and New (2002) evaluated the con-
servation status of Australian butterflies,
considered the threatening processes
involved and proposed an action plan to
address these processes. None of the
species recorded for the Ballarat region is
listed as a threatened taxon in Victoria,
although subspecies of three are listed for
other states.
The Yellow Ochre has previously been
noted in Beaufort, Mt Clear and
Buninyong (Thomas 1990b). This species
has a very brief Bight period at any one
site, is effectively camouflaged at rest, and
thus is easily overlooked. It does survive in
lightly grazed habitats, and may even ben-
efit from having grass cover removed from
around the larval foodplant (Wattle Mat-
rush). Thomas (1992a) records a sighting
30
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
of the Yellow Ochre from Creswick late in
the nineteenth century. It was also
observed in the 1980s at the Buninyong
cemetery (1981), the Canadian gully near
Hocking Avenue, Mt Clear (1980),
Beaufort (1981), 3.5 km east of Beaufort
(1981) and on a roadside on a hill behind
Castlemaine East High School (1987) (DF
Crosby 2004 pers. comm.). In addition,
hilltopping Yellow Ochres were observed
in territorial disputes with Montane Ochres
on a hill south of Chewton, near
Castlemaine, on the Dingo Farm turnoff
(DF Crosby 2004 pers. comm.). The fate
of most of these populations is unknown.
However, the Yellow Ochre may have
been eliminated from the Buninyong
cemetery during the 1990s because of an
expansion of graves] te/ mown lawn areas,
as well as more intensive mowing and
extensive tidying operations by the Friends
group. This needs to be verified. Mowing
has significantly altered the structure and
composition of the remnant grassland,
which is dominated by Kangaroo Grass.
The larval foodplant and nectar sources
such as riceflowers Pimelea spp. and
native daisies are now confined to relative-
ly small areas at the periphery of the site
and are kept low by mowing. Scarcely any
native grassland survives outside the ceme-
tery. Other small cemeteries with remnant
grasslands that include Wattle Mat-rush
(e.g. at Clarendon) would be worth search-
ing for this and other species dependent on
the groundcover flora. Cemeteries in towns
not subjected to large population increases
are likely to have better preserved grass-
land flora and fauna.
The Green Grass-dart has recently been
seen in urban gardens in Ararat (2000,
2001, 2004), Mt Clear (2002) and Mt
Helen (2004) between November and
January, although it probably flies until
about April. In each instance, only one
individual was seen foraging for nectar. It
appears that this species has established in
small numbers in both Ararat and Ballarat.
The grass-eating larvae are known to dis-
perse in instant turf and may have originat-
ed in Sydney (Braby 2000), although they
also appear to have separately extended
their range, spreading along the Murray
valley and into the Victorian Mallee and
Wimmera as early as the mid-1980s (F
Douglas 2004 pers. comm.). However, the
Ballarat climate is cooler and wetter than
that of these areas. The Green Grass-dart
tends to form small, localised colonies,
often where the White-banded Grass-dart is
also found. Its caterpillars require broad-
bladed grasses that remain green over sum-
mer (F Douglas 2004 pers. comm.).
Suburban gardens, with Panic Veldt-grass
Ehrharta crecla, bromes Bronrus spp. and
various lawn grasses, are close to local
sightings. Sites with suitable grasses may be
more restricted in occurrence beyond urban
areas, but might include gullies, riparian
vegetation and stands of Kangaroo Grass.
The Chequered Swallowtail is a widely
distributed and abundant migrant, but sel-
dom reaches southern Victoria (Braby
2000). Its larvae feed on scurf-peas or
Psoraleas Cullen spp. (Fabaceae). Small
numbers of Chequered Swallowtails were
discovered during the early 1990s,
patrolling stands of Mountain Psoralea C.
ads cen dens on the summit of Mt
Warren heip. 1'hey may breed there regu-
larly or more likely re-establish at intervals
via migrants. Similar but smaller stands at
the summit of Ml Buninyong are not
known to be used. Before the early 1990s,
Mountain Psoralea was not known to be
suitable for Chequered Swallowtail larvae.
Plants grown from seeds obtained at the
Mt Warrenheip site were supplied to
Melbourne Zoo’s Butterfly Department.
The curator reported that Chequered
Swallowtails in the Butterfly House laid
eggs on the plants. The larvae completed
all instar stages and successfully pupated
(N Dowsett 1993 pers. comm. 22 June).
Chequered Swallowtails are at risk from
the establishment of communications tow-
ers at the summit of Ml Warrenheip. A
commercial FM transmitter erected in the
1990s largely eliminated the biggest patch
of Mountain Psoralea at the site. Although
Mt Warrenheip is a scenic reserve, it is
sparingly managed. The absence of tire has
caused tussocks of Common Tussock-
grass to close over, severely restricting the
intertussock spaces required by Mountain
Psoralea and other f'orbs. (The species
regenerated well from the soil seed bank
following a small fire started by lightning
in the mid-1990s.) Forget-me-not Myosotis
sylvatica is invading intertussock spaces in
Vol. 122 (1) 2005
31
Contributions
damper parts of the summit, but prefers
damper and more shaded habitats than
Mountain Psoralea.
Weed invasion of habitat remnants is
common, particularly in volcanic soils and
the richer, damper soil of gullies. Dry
ridges and slopes are often comparatively
weed- free. Many gullies are heavily infest-
ed with blackberries Rubus spp. These out-
compete larval Ibodplants such as Slender
Tussock-grass, Soft Tussock-grass,
Weeping Grass, Hairy Rice-grass
Tetrarrhena distichophylla, Forest Wire
Grass T. jtincea and wallaby-grasses
Austrodanthonia spp. Many browns and
skippers arc disadvantaged by weedy gul-
lies, especially those requiring summer
shelter and moisture or larval foodplants
(e.g. sedges and grasses) that do not desic-
cate over summer and early autumn. The
Varied Sword-grass Brown Tisiphone
abeona albifascia provides an example. In
this region it is known from a vagrant in
Mt Helen and two localised populations,
one near Mt Buangor and the other, dis-
covered in 2004, 2 km SW of Spargo
Creek (pers. obs.). Both colonies are asso-
ciated with drainage lines and wet gullies
containing Red-fruited Saw-sedge G.
sieberienuh the principal larval foodplant.
Other potentially suitable habitats exist
within several kilometres of both sites,
although their size and quality vary. There
is circumstantial evidence to suggest that
the butterfly is capable of at least short-
range dispersal, perhaps also occurring as a
vagrant over larger distances (F Douglas
2004 pers. comm.). Consequently, the but-
terfly could discover and use surrounding
patches of the sedge. Some gullies appear
too dry to support many sedges. Other,
damper gullies with richer soils, often near
farmland, may be overgrown with black-
berries. Red-fruited Saw-sedge has been
almost eliminated over the past decade in
two gullies near Spargo Creek as blackber-
ries proliferated. This has permanently
diminished opportunities for local coloni-
sation of the most suitable sites by Sword-
grass Brow ns, perhaps jeopardising the
local metapopulation. The species may
eventually be confined to smaller patches
of foodplants in subopt imal sites.
The Grassland Copper Lucia limbaria
was noted in pastures above the Woady
Yaloak River to the west of Cape Clear
(Thomas, 1992c), near the south-western
edge of the Enfield State Forest. It was
seen with Common Grass Blues in early
March 1992, but was difficult to observe
because of w indy conditions. The species
was also recorded in March from near
Newstead (Thomas, 1993b). The number
of individuals seen is not recorded. As sug-
gested by the common name, this species
is found in open pastures and grassy
plains. Its caterpillars feed on prostrate
native wood-sorrels, the Shady Wood-sor-
rel Oxalis exilis and Grassland Wood-sor-
rel O. perennans (Oxalidaceae), previously
listed under the exotic species Yellow
Wood-sorrel O. corniculata (Braby 2000).
These wood-sorrels are found w'idely in
the region, even in somewhat disturbed
grassy habitats and pastures. However, the
butterfly tends to form small and often
transient colonies (Douglas and Braby
1992) that may be widely separated. They
may thus take a lot of effort to find. The
larvae feed at night and have an obligate
relationship with small black ants
{Iridomyrmex species, gracilis group or
rufoniger group) (subfamily Dolichoderi-
tiae) (Braby 2000). The ants tend them by
day in galleries in the soil beneath the
foodplant. They pupate in these galleries.
Populations of the Grassland Copper tend
to be temporary and sporadic, although
they may persist even in degraded or dis-
turbed areas provided the ant and food-
plants remain (Braby 2000). Given the
fragmented and degraded state of many
grasslands in the region, these two sight-
ings should be followed up. Observations
are needed to determine whether the popu-
lations are still extant or if new ones have
formed. The size of any that currently exist
should be estimated. Management issues
should be identified and addressed.
The Bright Copper Paralucia anrifer is
recorded from only one location, along
roadside verges of Webbs Hill Rd,
Bumnyong, on the margin of the Garibaldi
Forest. There are two generations annually,
a smaller one in November- December and
a larger one in late January- March. A
small black ant, Anonychomyrma sp.
( nitidiceps group) (subfamily Dolichoderi-
nae) attends the Bright Copper (Braby
2000). Ant colonies and Bright Coppers
32
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
are invariably associated with stunted
shrubs of Sweet Bursaria in drier and more
sunlit locations. Foraging adults rarely
travel more than 20 m from the colony,
limiting their access to scattered Sweet
Bursaria stands. This reduces the likeli-
hood of new colonisations or recolonisa-
tion of stands with the appropriate ants.
The Webbs Hill Rd population may be at
risk from roadside grading, road widening,
slashing or tilling for fire prevention or the
spraying of woody weeds. Some locals
mistakenly believe that Sweet Bursaria is a
weed because it is a spiny shrub. It may be
sprayed in any case because the roadside
stands are interspersed with Gorse Ulex
europaeus and Blackberry'.
The forest-dwelling Silky Hairstreak is
considered rare in Victoria (Braby 2000)
and the species has undergone a serious
decline in Tasmania (Couchman and
Couchman 1977). It frequents wattles,
including Blackwood, Late Black Wattle
A. mearnsii and Silver Wattle and pupates
under the bark of nearby trees (Common
and Waterhouse 1981). The Silky
Hairstreak is associated with the Forest
Black Cocktail Ant Anonyehomyrma
biconvexa (formerly Iridomyrmex foetans ,
subfamily Dolichoderinae) that forms
colonies in tree trunk heartwood or the
ground layer. Understorey clearing (Prince
1988) and other processes (New 1990)
may disadvantage both ant and butterfly.
Small, localised populations of the Silky
Hairstreak have been found to the south-
east of Ballarat. Adults were first seen in
the region between 1996 and 1998, on the
margin of the Garibaldi Forest at Webbs
Hill Rd, Buninyong, and at the University
of Ballarat Regional Arboretum (pers.
obs.). Three pupae were located at the
summit of Mt Buninyong in February
1998. They were found under the loose
bark of a Manna Gum growing beside a
large Blackwood. These pupae were
reared, with adults emerging in spring (F
Douglas 1999 pers. comm.). Prior to this,
the species was known in Western Victoria
only from the Grampians and sites east of
Gisborne (Common and Waterhouse
1981). However, Braby (2000) gives some
additional localities for this species in the
Ballarat region, including Mt Buangor
State Park, Trentham Falls, the Wallace-
Gordon district, Korweinguboora and
Bullarto South.
The Amethyst Hairstreak is recorded in
the region only from adults and pupae col-
lected in December 1982, 3.5 km east of
Beaufort at a bend in the Langi Kal Kal
Road (DF Crosby 2004 pers. comm.). They
were closely associated with a roadside
stand of Late Black Wattle, now felled for
unknown reasons. Although roadside
verges can preserve some local native
plants and their fauna, they are not neces-
sarily secure from a variety of damaging
processes.
Drier understoreys in many Ballarat rem-
nants bear dense stands of exotic shrubby
peas (brooms Cytisus and Genista , Furze
or Gorse). These can exclude most other
understorey plants and contribute long-
lived seeds to the seed bank. As some con-
solation, the Long-tailed Pea-blue uses
them as larval foodplants. Ironically, but-
terflies are attracted to the nectar, pollinat-
ing shrubs that are stifling the understorey.
Remnants adjacent to pine plantations (e.g.
Tin worth Avenue, Mt Clear and parts of
Canadian State Forest) are colonised by
pine seedlings. In the absence of fire, these
mature to provide dense shade and more
seeds. By degrees, the understorey is oblit-
erated by shading. Volunteering pine
seedlings must be removed from high
quality butterfly habitat or the understorey
should be burnt at intervals, before young
pines cast substantial shade or litter and
prior to their setting seed.
In summary, management for native but-
terflies in the region is primarily a matter
of habitat management. Habitat degrada-
tion, fragmentation and loss occur as a
result of agriculture and urban develop-
ment. weed invasion, infrastructure works
and detrimental activities on roadsides and
other public land. Some species in the
region are too poorly documented to per-
mit the development of management
strategies.
Acknowledgements
I thank Neil Hives for his extensive fieldwork,
discussions and entomological advice. Fabian
Douglas, Roger Thomas, David Crosby, Gary
Sobey and David Britton provided valuable sug-
gestions and information. The ‘Nature Notes’
column by Roger Thomas, published in the
Ballarat Courier over many years, made a sub-
Vol. 122 (1) 2005
33
Contributions
stantial contribution to the tabulated data.
Thanks to Marion O’Keefe for creating the map.
References
Anderson F. and Spry FP (1893) Victorian Butterflies
and Haw to Collect Them. (H. Hearrie and Co:
Melbourne)
Braby MF (2000) Butterflies of Australia. Their
Identification, Biology and Distribution. (CSIRO
Publishing: C'ollingwood, Victoria)
Common 1FB and Waterhouse DF (1981 ) Butterflies of
Australia. Revised edition. Australian Natural
Science Library. (Angus and Robertson: Sydney)
Couchman LE and Couchman R (1977). The butter-
flies of Tasmania. Tasmanian Year Book. 11. 11-96.
Crosby DF (1998) The butterflies of Mount Buffalo
National Park. The Victorian Naturalist 115. 222-
225.
Douglas F and Braby MF ( 1992) Notes on the distribu-
tion and biology of some HesperiLdae and
Lyeaenidae (Lepidoptera) in Victoria. Australian
Entomological Magazine 19, 1 17-124.
Gullan PK (2002) Wild Things of the Ballarat Area.
CD-ROM. Viridans Pty. Ltd., Bcntleigh East.
Victoria.
Harris J (1993) The Life History of the Australian
Admiral, Vanessa itea, in the Ballarat District.
(Unpublished report. Biological Resource
Management, Ballarat University College: Ballarat)
Land Conservation Council. Victoria (1981) Proposed
Recommendations. Ballarat Study Area. (LCC;
Melbourne)
New TR (1990) Conservation of butterflies in
Australia. Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera
29. 237-253.
Prince GB ( 1988) The National Conservation Status of
the hairstreak butterfly Pseudahncnus chlorinda
Blanchard in Tasmania. (Report to Tasmanian
Department of Lands, Parks and Wildlife: Hobart)
Sands DPR and New TR (2002) The Action Plan for
Australian Butterflies. (Environment Australia:
Canberra)
Thomas R (1990a) Buttcrl lies Say Spring is Here.
Courier , Ballarat, 29 September, p. 37.
I homas R (1990b) Skipper Butterflies Similar to
Moths. Courier. Ballarat. 19 May, p 38.
I homas R (1991 ) Insect Life is on the Move. Courier ,
Ballarat. 13 April, p. 69.
Thomas R (1992a) Creswick Butterflies from the Past.
Courier. Ballarat. 4 April, p. 25.
Thomas R (1992b) The Wildlife of Mt. Buninyong.
Courier , Ballarat, 29 February, p. 33
I homas R (1992c) Butterfly Spotted at Woady
Yalloak. Courier, Ballarat, 28 March, p. 63.
Thomas R ( 1993a) Rare visitor is a First for Region.
Courier. Ballarat. 20 February, 1993, p. 28.
Thomas R (1993b) Passage of a Rare Butterfly.
( oiirier. Ballarat, 6 March, p. 36
Thomas R (1993c) Insects Working Together. Ants
Tend to Butterflies in Early Stages of Life. Courier.
Ballarat, 17 April, p. 14.
I homas R (1994) Hungry Swallows cat Butterflies.
Conner, Ballarat. 12 March, p. 28,
4 homas R ( 1995) Wattles are Important for Butterflies.
Courier. Ballarat. 19 August, p. 32.
Ihomas R (1997a) Meet the Wanderer. Courier ,
Ballaiat, 20 December, p. 28.
I homas R (1997b) Lesser Wanderer is a Surprising
Butterfly. Courier, Ballarat, 6 December, p. 35.
Thomas R (1998) Hot Winds Bring Butterflies.
Courier Weekend Magazine. Ballarat. 31 October, p.
17.
Wainer JW and Yen AL (2000) A Survey of the
Butterfly Fauna at the Paps Scenic Reserve,
Mansfield, Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist 117,
131-140.
Received 26 August 2004; accepted 16 December 2004
Donald Bruce Foreman
1945-2004
Although not an FNCV member, Don Foreman had a connection with the Club through his posi-
tion on the Australian Natural History Medallion General Committee, as a representative of the
Toowoomba Field Naturalists Club. Don also influenced many Club members with an interest in
botany through his work at the Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne from 1984-1997, initially as
Botanist and later Collections Manager. Born in Trangie, NSW, and educated at the University of
New England, Don initially worked as a forest botanist in Papua New Guinea and then as a lectur-
er in the Botany Department at UNE.
At RBG Melbourne Don carried out taxonomic studies on Proteaceae and Monimiaceae, and
was the author of a publication on Victorian Isopogon and Petrophile in The Victorian
Naturalist, In addition. Don co-ediled the introductory volume of Flora of Victoria (which
remains a very valuable resource on a variety of facets of Victoria’s flora) and was editor of
Muelleriu, journal of the National Herbarium of Victoria. Don introduced a computer database
system of information on the herbarium specimens, laying valuable groundwork for the current
Australian Virtual Herbarium project, which will see data on all Australian plant specimens in
the Herbarium database and available over the internet. Don later worked in Canberra on the
Flora of Australia; then in a gardening business, and not long before his death was Botanist in
Residence at the Geelong Botanic Gardens (the first botanist at these Gardens in its 152 year his-
tory). Don was widely respected for his knowledge, patience and willingness to help others.
A detailed obituary for Don by Neville Walsh appeared in Australian Systematic Botany Society
Newsletter 199. which also contains an appreciation by Barry Conn of Don's time in Papua New
Guinea.
TomMay
Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne
Birdwood Ave, South Yarra. Victoria 3141
34
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Feasibility study for the use of small format
large-scale aerial photography for vegetation
condition assessment in north-west Victoria
KE Callister1, ME Westbrooke1, SA Gowans1 and MS Gibson'
Vegetation condition assessments are increasingly being undertaken across Victoria but have largely
focused on field techniques. This study compared Held techniques with small format large-scale aeri-
al photography for vegetation condition assessment of semi-arid woodland in the Murray :Sunset
National Park' (north-west Victoria). Aerial photograph interpretation was undertaken using on-
screen digitising, and supervised and unsupervised classifications, to determine cover ol individual
trees, tree condition, identification of tree species, and percentage cover ol the tree canopy, bare
ground and ground cover. Accuracy assessments were performed lor each variable and relative costs
For field survey and aerial photography interpretation were calculated. Costs were similar for field
survey and aerial photography. Percentage cover of the tree canopy was reliably determined from
aerial photography analysis (7? - 0.91 on screen digitising, R - 0.78 supervised classification).
However, percentage cover of bare ground, ground cover and tree condition were not reliably
assessed from aerial photography. (The Victorian Naturalist 122(1) 2005, 35-46).
Introduction
Vegetation condition assessment is
increasingly being used as a tool for moni-
toring vegetation that has been subject to
disturbance. The National Framework for
the Management and Monitoring of
Australia’s Native Vegetation (DNRE
2002) has highlighted vegetation condition
assessment as an essential component of
native vegetation management. Condition
assessments have been used since the early
1900s for monitoring rangelands
(Dyksterhuis 1949), and are increasingly
being developed as an assessment tool in
Victoria to assess impact of disturbances,
particularly grazing within National Parks
(e.g. Miller et al. 1998; Gibson el aL 1999;
Westbrooke et al. 2001; Gowans and
Westbrooke 2002; Leversha and Gowans
2003) .
Smith (1989) provides a useful definition
of condition for rangelands, which is
applicable to other vegetation types and
land uses, stating:
[Condition] is not a characteristic ... which
can be measured directly. Attributes such as
plant cover or density, standing crop, soil tex-
ture, can be measured or estimated in the field.
Trend in these parameters over time can be
measured. Range condition, however, is an
interpretation of these data in light of what is
assumed to he possible or desirable. The selec-
tion or weighting of attributes chosen for mea-
surement reflects the values and objectives of
the person or agency making the evaluation.
'Centre for Environmental Management. School of
Science and Engineering, University of Ballarat, PO
Box 663, Ballarat, Victoria 3353
The definition suggests the condition of
vegetation is influenced and defined by the
goals and ideals of the assessor and may be
described in good or poor Condition depen-
dent on their views. Therefore, it is possible
that vegetation may be in good condition
for one goal, but poor condition for another.
For example, vegetation may be in good
condition for stock grazing, but poor condi-
tion for habitat of a threatened species. This
has implications for design of condition
assessments, which must relate to manage-
ment goals and identified issues for a site.
Field survey has long been the traditional
method for condition assessment; howev-
er, remotely sensed data are increasingly
being used for vegetation condition moni-
toring. The first aerial photographs were
taken in 1885 from a hot-air balloon in
France (Mikhail and Bethel 2001) and by
1913, aerial photographs began to be used
for mapping purposes (Wolf and Dewitt
2000). Aerial photography was used exten-
sively for topographic mapping between
the first and second World Wars, and rapid
advancements since have led aerial pho-
tography to become indispensable as a tool
for vegetation mapping and monitoring
(Wolf and Dewitt 2000).
Progress in aerial photography has led to
the development of standardised cameras
and techniques; how ever, there is substan-
tial additional cost involved in the use of
this specialised equipment (Warner et al.
1996). Small format aerial photography
Vol. 122 (1) 2005
35
Contributions
(SFAP) provides a low-cost alternative to
standard aerial photography. The format
size of the camera refers to the dimensions
of the film or charge-coupled device
(CCD) (Warner et al. 19%). A metric aeri-
al survey camera uses a 230 mm square
format, whereas SFAP utilises standard
cameras with smaller formats (e.g. the
common 35 mm), with the main advan-
tages being cost and flexibility (Warner et
al. 1996; Rowe et al. 1999; Abd-Elrahman
et al. 2001). Small format cameras are con-
siderably cheaper to purchase than metric
cameras, and are also lighter and cheaper
to mount within single engine light aircraft
which are commonly employed for this
type of imagery (Rowe et al. 1999). SFAP
allows for flexible image acquisition. The
camera can either be hand-held for oblique
photography, or mounted in the undercar-
riage for vertical photographs. The date of
imagery acquisition can be chosen, leading
to greater flexibility with weather condi-
tions (Warner et al. 1996; Rowe et al.
1999). Colour and colour infrared photog-
raphy are also easily obtainable with SFAP
(Warner et al. 1 996),
The main limitations of SFAP occur
through the use of standard cameras with-
out lens calibration, or film flattening
devices, leading to potential for image dis-
tortion (Warner et al. 1996). In addition,
positional accuracy may be low in relation
to the high resolution of these images
(Abd-Elrahman et al. 2001). Despite these
limitations, SFAP has been used for a
number of vegetation mapping projects,
and has been adopted for monitoring pur-
poses in the forestry industry (Warner
1994; McCormick 1999; Rowe el al. 1999;
Abd-Elrahman et al. 2001 ).
Techniques for monitoring forestry and
rangeland productivity have been widely
published (Smith and Woodgate 1985;
Tickle et al. 1998; Taube 1999; Wallace
and Thomas 1999; Hyyppa et al. 2000;
Pickup et al. 2000). However, few studies
have utilised aerial photography for vege-
tation condition assessment in conserva-
tion reserves (e.g. Wallace and Furby
1994; McCormick 1999; Callister 2004). '
The objectives of this research were to:
(i) investigate suitable techniques and
parameters for remotely sensed condition
assessment using SFAP; and
(ii) compare costs and outcomes of SFAP
assessment with on-ground assessment of
vegetation condition assessment.
Methods
Study area
The study was undertaken within Belah
Casuarina pauper ex L.A.S. Johnson and
Pine-Buloke Callitris gracilis subsp. mur-
r aye ns is (J. Garden) K.D. Hill -
Al/ocasuarina luehmannii (R.T. Baker)
L.A.S. Johnson woodlands in the Murray-
Sunset National Park. Vegetation and the
study area are described in Gowans et al.
(in press).
The earliest available aerial photographs
for the study area were taken in 1941, with
further images recorded in most decades
through to the 1980s. However, spatial
coverage is incomplete, temporal coverage
is variable, most photographs are in black
and white, and resolution is variable
between years. Therefore, it was necessary
to obtain more recent, targeted aerial pho-
tography.
Aerial photograph acquisition
Aerial photographs were taken of Belah
and Pine-Buloke woodlands at locations
across the Murray-Sunset National Park.
Aerial photography was taken on 28 May
2001 using a Nikon D1 digital camera
mounted in the belly of a high wing
Cessna 182RG aircraft. The camera was
remotely controlled and slaved to a Nikon
motor drive to enable photographs to be
taken by the pilot in flight. The Nikon D1
is a 2.7 megapixel digital camera with a
23.7 x 15.6 mm, 12 bit RGB CCD (red
green blue charge. coupled device) deliver-
ing 2000 x 1312 pixel images. The lens
used was a Nikkon 14 mm F2.8 with a 78
degree angle of view.
The camera was rigid mounted to a cam-
era mount installed on the co-pilot’s seat
rails enabling in-flight pan and tilt camera
adjustments. The camera was then posi-
tioned over the aircraft's camera hatch pro-
viding a vertical view of the landscape
below. A retractable undercarriage provid-
ed the opportunity for an uninterrupted
view of the ground below as well as pro-
viding greater stability for the photograph-
ic platform when retracted.
A cloud-free day was chosen for the pho-
tography, however, by midday some cloud
36
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
cover appeared, resulting in cloud shadows
on some photographs. A ground speed of
1 00 knots ( 1 85 km/hr) was planned for the
flight; however, due to upper wind and
drift this speed was not always achieved.
Height was determined from the air-
craft's altimeter, which was calibrated
using pressure (area QNH) determined by
Flight Service in Melbourne with an esti-
mated error of plus or minus 45 m.
Optimal photograph scale for condition
assessment was determined using pho-
tographs taken from three heights; 1000
feet (approx. 300 m, minimum safe flying
height) above ground level; 2000 feet
(approx 600 m) and 4000 feet (approx
1200 m) above ground level. Images were
saved as Joint Photographic Expert Group
(JPEG) files which give good compression
with minimal geometric or visual degrada-
tion (Lammi and Sarjakoski 1995). Aerial
photograph pixel size, the on-ground
dimensions covered by each photograph
and scale arc presented in Table 1 .
An eight channel Garmin 12 XL Global
Positioning System (GPS) unit was carried
within the aircraft. An aerial attached to
the inside of the rear window ensured
satellite coverage throughout the flight.
The time was recorded as the digital photo-
graph was taken, and this was related to
the time of GPS points recorded continu-
ously on the GPS track function. Many
more sophisticated systems of linking GPS
to cameras exist, however this low-tech
solution provided low cost photograph
acquisition.
Aerial photographs were located on-
ground using the GPS waypoints, and scale
was calculated using on-ground measure-
ments. Eight photographs were selected
from two target areas to investigate meth-
ods for aerial photograph analysis.
Photographs chosen covered areas in a
range of conditions, as determined by ear-
lier field-based condition assessment
(Gowans et al. in press).
Three techniques were investigated to
perform these analyses: on-screen digitis-
ing, unsupervised classification, and super-
vised classification. The main variables
assessed using aerial photograph interpre-
tation and the field parameters used for
accuracy assessment are listed in Table 2.
On-screen digitising
On-screen digitising was selected as one
of the simplest methods for analysis of
unpaired (non-stereoscopic) digital pho-
tographs. An auto balance procedure was
performed in Microsoft Photo Editor to
adjust the brightness and contrast of each
image to produce an optimal display.
Measures of individual tree cover were
determined in a Geographical Information
Systems (GIS) by on-screen digitising, by
approximating tree canopies with ellipses.
Tree condition and identification of tree
species were also visually assessed using
on-screen digitising.
Unsupervised classification
To enable classifications using IDRISI32
(Clark Labs 2002), the aerial photographs
were first separated into three colour
bands; red, blue and green. An unsuper-
vised classification procedure was used to
determine percentage cover of tree canopy
cover, bare ground, shadow and ground
cover (including cryptogams, litter and
dried annual ground cover). An ISO-
CLUST procedure was applied in
IDRIS 1 32 (Clark Labs) where a seeding
process is performed using a colour com-
posite image to locate initial clusters.
Pixels are then assigned to the nearest clus-
ter mean using a maximum likelihood pro-
cedure. The mean of each class is then
updated and pixels are reassigned. This is
repeated until no further significant change
in classes or pixel assignment occurs
(Eastman 2001). Fourteen clusters were
created and grouped into classes represent-
ing tree canopy cover, bare ground, shad-
ow, and ground cover (including cryp-
togams, litter and dried annual ground
cover) by visual inspection of the image.
Supervised classification
Supervised classification techniques were
trialled using a maximum likelihood classi-
fier. Training areas were defined for tree
canopy cover, bare ground, shadow, and
ground cover (including cryptogams, litter
and dried annual ground cover). The area
of individual shrubs was too small to
enable training areas specifically for shrub
species.
A maximum likelihood procedure was
used to classify the image, using spectral
Vol. 122 (1)2005
37
Contributions
Table 1. Dimensions of aerial photographs showing scale, on ground dimensions and pixel size.
Height above sea level (m)
Scale
Dimensions (m)
Pixel size (cm)
300
1:1130
275 x415
20
600
1:2390
645 x 980
50
1200
1:5730
1320x2005
100
Table 2. Parameters derived from small format aerial photography, and the field data used for accu-
racy assessment. * Method for field assessment described in Gowans et at.
SFAP Parameter
Method of analysis
Field data used for accuracy
assessment
Foliage cover of
individual trees
On screen digitising
For 47 trees on three large
scale photos tree condition
was recorded, and canopy
width was measured at two
perpendicular cross sections
using a measuring tape.
Canopy area was calculated
using the mean of the two
canopy widths.
Tree condition
(individual trees)
On screen digitising
Measured on a five point
scale.*
Identification of
tree species
On screen digitising
62 trees occurring within the
smallest scale maps (300 m
AS LI were identified to
species level in the field.
Percentage cover
tree canopy
Supervised classification
Visual estimate of projected
foliage cover by one observer.*
Percentage cover
bare ground
Supervised classification
Visual estimate of bare
ground by one observer.*
Percentage cover
ground cover
Supervised classification
Visual estimate of
cryptogam ie cover, cover of
litter plus cover of projected
foliage cover of native and
introduced species in the
ground stratum.
Percentage cover shadow
Supervised classification
N/A
signatures calculated from the training
areas. In this procedure, pixels are
assigned to a class based on probability
contours from the training areas (Gibson
and Power 2000). The default of equal
class membership prior probabilities wras
used due to a lack of information on the
likely extent of each cover class within the
image.
Parameter selection
Correlations of parameters assessed in
the field survey (including measures used
to determine condition and other raw data
collected) were performed to investigate
relationships with the quadrat condition
indices. Coefficients of determination were
calculated to determine how much of the
variance in the field vegetation condition
scores was explained by each parameter.
This was used to assist in determining
appropriate parameters to analyse with aer-
ial photography. Preliminary analysis sug-
gested that some parameters violated the
assumptions of normality and homoscedas-
ticitv. and so Spearman’s Rank Order
Correlations were performed.
Accuracy assessment
Following completion of the aerial pho-
tograph analysis, sites covered by the pho-
tographs were located on the ground to
provide comparative data against which to
measure aerial photograph interpretation
results. Field data at these sites were col-
lected using the methodology for field con-
dition assessment (Gowans et at. in press)
or as outlined in Table 2. A plot size of 50
38
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
m x 50 m was used to investigate vegeta-
tion condition within the aerial pho-
tographs.
Regression equations were calculated to
determine the relationship between field-
based measures and aerial photograph
interpretation. Accuracy assessment of tree
condition and tree species identification
were analysed using error matrices, and
Kappa values were calculated to indicate if
the extent of agreement between the two
data sets was greater than that expected by
chance. A Kappa value of one indicates a
perfect agreement, with all observations
falling on the diagonals of the error matrix,
and a value of zero indicates agreement no
better than chance (Agresti 1990).
Data cost and availability
To determine the cost of obtaining SFAP,
two aerial photography contractors were
contacted and asked to provide a quote for
performing 100 aerial photos within the
study area. This was compared to the costs
of undertaking a field-based assessment.
Results
Eight aerial photographs were selected
from two target areas and measures of
individual trees, and percentage cover
parameters were investigated using digitis-
ing and classifications. This information
was used to test the accuracy of measures
as presented below.
Parameter selection
Correlations of each variable with the
quadrat condition indices indicated that
percentage cover of trees, percentage cover
of bare ground, and tall shrub species rich-
ness were most strongly correlated with
the quadrat condition indices (Table 10).
Coefficients of determination showed that
percentage cover of tree layer accounts for
almost 50% of the variability in the
quadrat condition indices (Table 10).
Individual tree parameters
Table 3 suggests aerial photograph mea-
sures of individual tree canopies using on-
screen digitising were a reliable measure
when compared with Held based measures.
Tree condition, however, was not reliably
detected from on-screen digitising of large-
scale aerial photographs, with an overall
accuracy of 44.7% and Kappa of 0.12
(Table 4).
Table 3. Relationship between tree canopy
areas calculated from SFAP at 300 m ASL and
field measurements of tree canopy.
Parameter Tree canopy area
Regression equation y = 1 .06x - 5.9
R2 0.87
P <0.001
N 47
Some differences in colour, form and
shadow outline were observed between
different tree species, enabling differentia-
tion of species using on-screen digitising
of aerial photographs taken at 300m ASL.
Overall accuracy calculated from the error
matrix was 73% with a Kappa of 0.59
(Table 5).
Percentage cover parameters
Comparisons of SFAP analysis of canopy
cover within a 50 m x 50 m quadrat, with
field-based estimates of tree layer cover
showed good relationships between digi-
tised canopy measures, and supervised
classifications of canopy cover for all
scales of aerial photographs (Table 6).
Regressions confirmed a strong relation-
ship between field canopy cover estimates
and supervised classifications and digitis-
ing techniques, but no relationship
between bare ground and ground cover
(Table 7).
Costs of SFAP and field survey techniques
Table 8 shows the approximate costs for
acquiring and analysing 100 aerial pho-
tographs to produce an interpolated map of
vegetation condition within a large study
area such as the Murray- Sunset National
Park. Within the Murray-S unset National
Park (6363 km2), 100 photographs at^the
largest scale would cover 1 1.5 km" or
1.8% of the Murray-S unset National Park.
If positional accuracy is important, then
ortho rectified imagery can be purchased,
although at significantly higher cost. A
quote for orthorecti fied imagery from a
local supplier suggested costs of approxi-
mately $520 per knf (Lourens, UW
[Qasco] 2002 pers. comm. 4 February).
Table 9 indicates approximate costs of
performing a field-based condition assess-
ment at a remote site such as the Murray-
Sunset National Park. Costs are based
upon the study outlined previously
(Gowans et al. in press) and assume per-
Vol. 122 (1) 2005
39
Contributions
Table 4. Error matrix of tree condition estimated from SFAP compared with ground measures.
SFAP tree
condition scores
Field survey tree condition scores
1 2 3
4
Total
1
2
1
3
10
6
2
1
21
3
1
9
10
4
24
4
-
1
_
_
1
Total
5
20
16
6
47
Table 5. Error matrix of tree species identified from SFAP, compared with field identification.
( Myoporum platycarpum subsp. platycarpum , Casuarina pauper , Callitris gracilis subsp. murrayen-
sts , Alectryon oleifolius subsp. canes ecus).
Aerial photo Field identification
identification Myoporum Casuarina Callitris Alectryon
Myoporum
7
-
5
2
Casuarina
-
4
1
_
Callitris
-
-
12
2
Alectryon
3
-
4
22
Table 6. Comparison of canopy cover calculated using on-
field estimates of canopy cover and total perennial cover.
-screen digitising and classifications with
Height
Photo
Field estimate Digitised
Supervised
Unsupervised
ASL
ID
%
%
classification
classification
300
1
2
2
2.8
2.3
300
2
2
4
4.9
21.0
300
3
5
7
8.0
9.0
600
4
35
29
48.1
30.2
600
5
5
4
6.9
11.9
1200
6
2
8
23.9
25.8
1200
7
5
8
16.3
28.8
1200
8
10
6
19.4
9.4
Table 7. Relationship between photographic calculation and field estimates of condition parameters.
Parameter and analysis Regression equation R2 P
Canopy cover
Supervised classification
y=0.66x-2.49
0.78
0.01
Unsupervised classification
-
0.19
0.28
Digitising
y=1.24x-2.33
0.91
0.00
Bare ground
Supervised classification
0.07
0.53
U n s uperv i sed c 1 ass i tl cat i on
-
0.001
0.96
Ground cover
Supervised classi ftcation
-
0.07
0.51
Unsupervised classification
-
0.19
0.29
forming 100 randomly located quadrats
across an area the size of the Murray-
S unset National Park (6363 km-). With
1 00 quadrats of 0. 1 ha each, approximate-
ly 0.02% of the semi-arid woodlands in the
Murray-Sunset National Park would be
sampled. It is difficult to estimate the num-
ber of samples that would ideally be
required due to the large number of factors
that affect the required sample size.
Factors including the heterogeneity of the
site or surface variation, distribution of the
sampling (random or systematic) may all
influence the required sample size
(Haining 1993).
Discussion
Results suggest that whilst many of the
aerial photograph measures appear to be
reliable, condition assessment by aerial
40
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Table 8. Costs for obtaining and analysing aerial photographs to determine vegetation condition.
Task / Item
Resources
Units
Total Cost
Aerial Photography
Acquisition
Flying time
Photo prints
5 hours
1 00 photos
$ 2500.00
$ 3000.00
Sub-total
$ 5500.00
Ground Truthing
Field survey
Travel
Meals/accom
Data entry
2 botanists
travel
5 days
2000 km
4 nights
Sub-total
$ 8400.00
Imagery Analysis
SFAP interpretation
Accuracy assessment
1 scientist
1 scientist
1 5 days
5 days
Sub-total
$ 13 600.00
Total cost
$27 500.00
Table 9. Costs to undertake a field based condition assessment of approximately 100 random points
across an area of 6000 km2.
Task / Item
Resources
Units
Total Cost ($)
Field Survey
Field Survey
Travel
Meals/accom
2 botanists
travel
1 4 days
3000 km
13 nights
Sub-total
20 000.00
Data Analysis
Plant ID, data entry
and analysis
1 botanist
1 2 days
Sub-total
5 600.00
Total cost
25 600.00
photography is unlikely to result in any
cost savings over a field-based study. This
appears to be largely due to the costs for
ground-truthing results of the aerial photo-
graph interpretation. The number of days
required for SFAP interpretation will
depend upon the methods chosen, and it is
possible that these costs could be reduced
by using a simple method such as a dot
grid, where a count of cover types falling
under the dot is made. Up to 30-40 photos
a day can be analysed by a skilled analyst
using this method (Norton-Griffiths 1988).
which may significantly reduce aerial pho-
tograph interpretation time and costs.
Field survey, particularly in remote areas,
is costly due the amount of time required
and travel costs, so therefore only a small
proportion of the study area can be directly
assessed. Some studies have recommended
sampling rates of 2% (Bird et at. 2000),
which would be expected to result in great-
ly increased costs in a remote area such as
the Murray- Sun set National Park. It is
expected that the costs of aerial photogra-
phy would be relatively less under a more
intensive survey effort, as the ground
truthing element would remain constant.
Repeat studies may also be more economi-
cal due to the limited need for ground
truthing.
Potential aerial photograph parameters
The breadth of previous studies using aeri-
al photography analysis suggests that many
vegetation parameters could be measured
with the use of large-scale, SFAP (e.g.
Warner et at. 1996; McCormick 1999;
Vol. 122 (1) 2005
41
^ Table 10. Spearman’s correlation and co-efficient of determination of parameters with quadrat condition indices. * = significant at the 0.05 level; ** = significant at
the 0.01 level.
Contributions
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regenerating shrubs 0.368** 0.447** 0,185** -0.421** -0.451** 0.326** 0.117 -0.465** 0.180* 0.252** 0.401** 0.460** 0.479** 1
Quadrat condition
index 0.705** 0.545** 0.391** -0.452** -0.549** 0.476** 0.247** -0.656** 0.558** 0.572** 0.343** 0.609** 0.532** 0.598**
Contributions
Cameron et at. 2000; Fensham and Fairfax
2002). Potential parameters for aerial photo-
graph condition assessment examined in
this study were tree species, tree canopy
cover, cover of perennial vegetation, and
cover of bare ground. Whilst tree condition
was not successfully determined using on-
screen digitising (overall accuracy 44.7),
previous studies have shown that measures
of tree condition can be accurately obtained
using colour-infrared film and stereoscope
(Margules & Partners Pty Ltd et at. 1 990).
It is possible that the number of different
tree species present confounded the analysis
of tree condition. It is first necessary to cor-
rectly identify the tree species, before it can
be determined if the canopy is in the expect-
ed shape for the species. It is likely that
obtaining stereoscopic pairs may aid in
more accurately determining tree condition.
Determining tree species richness by
accurate identification of tree species was
relatively successful, with on-screen iden-
tification of tree species resulting in an
overall accuracy of 72.6%. It is likely that
this could also be improved by using
stereoscopic viewing of image pairs, as has
been used in a number of other studies
reporting higher accuracy in species identi-
fication (Hall and Aldred 1992; McCorm-
ick 1999). However, this would result in
higher costs of image acquisition due to
the need for overlapping images and an
increase in analysis time. Alternatively,
development of an aerial photograph key
may also aid tree species identification.
Many studies have shown that vegetation
cover calculated from aerial photography
is a good approximation of vegetation
cover on the ground (Tueller et at. 1988;
Knapp et al. 1990; Soule and Knapp 1999;
Fensham 2002). Percentage cover calcula-
tions of tree canopy from SFAP provided
some of the most accurate data in this
study. Similarly, percentage cover calcula-
tions from large-scale aerial photography
has been shown to correlate well with on
ground measures in other arid environ-
ments (Tueller et at. 1988; Knapp et al.
1990). Tueller et al. (1988) also found that
species identification and density counts
provided less reliable information than
cover estimates.
Lack of regeneration has been identified
as a major threat to semi-arid woodlands in
north-west Victoria (Cheal 1993;
Westbrooke 1998; Sandell et al. 2002).
Therefore, determining presence or
absence of tree regeneration would be a
useful assessment tool. Unfortunately, no
tree seedlings were present on any aerial
photograph, and so seedling detection
accuracy was unable to be investigated.
However, previous studies suggest that
regeneration of tree species can be detect-
ed using aerial photography. In a study on
forest regeneration within Mixed Boreal
Forest in Canada, regeneration in cutover
forestry sites was examined using 1:10 000
aerial photograph stereo pairs (Hall and
Aldred 1992). Seedlings measured ranged
in height from 0 to 201 cm, and as expect-
ed, greater ability to detect larger seedlings
was observed. No seedlings under 15 cm
were able to be detected; however, the
overall seedling percent detectability for
cutover sites was 62% (Hall and Aldred
1992). Identification of tree seedlings was
performed in another study of regeneration
of forestry areas in Virginia, using large-
scale aerial photography and colour film
(Smith et al. 1986). Loblolly Pine Pirns
taeda seedlings (mean height 44-66 cm)
were not able to be accurately detected at a
scale of 1 :890, but were accurately detect-
ed (overall accuracy 72-75%) at a scale of
1:297.
These previous studies suggest that it may
be possible to identify tree seedlings on
aerial photographs of semi -arid woodland
in north-west Victoria, provided the images
of the seedlings were not obscured by other
vegetation such as other tree canopies, tall
grasses or shrubs. Using the current set-up,
aerial photos would have to be flown at
between 100 to 150 m above ground level
to detect seedlings. This is likely to be bor-
der-line for safe minimum Hying heights,
and to minimise image blurring, a high
shutter speed would be required.
In producing a condition index from aeri-
al photography, compared with field sur-
vey techniques, the number of parameters
identified from aerial photos would proba-
bly be reduced due to the time required to
analyse many different features from aerial
photography. The choice of aerial photo-
graph scale, film types and techniques for
analysis should be determined according to
the parameters to be measured. For exam-
Vol. 122 (1) 2005
43
Contributions
pie, whilst broader scale photographs pro-
vide a cheaper coverage of large areas, the
types of variables that can be calculated
from broad-scale photographs is limited.
Further research is required to determine
optimal sampling regimes for interpolation
models if maps are to be produced from aer-
ial photography analysis within large areas
such as the Murray-Sunset National Park.
Much variation in the quadrat condition
indices is explained by the percentage
cover of trees within the quadrat. The co-
efficient of determination shows that per-
centage tree cover explains almost 50% of
the variation in the quadrat condition
indices. Therefore it is expected that
remote assessment methods that can accu-
rately determine percentage tree cover will
be strongly correlated to the quadrat condi-
tion indices. It is likely that the addition of
more explanatory factors will increase the
relationship between the quadrat condition
indices and a condition assessment based
on aerial photography.
Advantages of smalt format aerial pho-
tography
The main advantage of aerial photogra-
phy over other remote data sources is the
detail of potential measures. Aerial pho-
tography at an appropriate scale can be
used to provide objective measures of
many of the parameters used in field sur-
veys of vegetation. The use of aerial pho-
tography can reduce travel costs whilst
enabling a larger sample to be surveyed
with all photos captured within a short
period. If simple measures are used, such
as dot-grid estimate of cover, set-up costs
can be less than those required for other
remote data sources, and staff training may
be minimal (Tueller et at. 1 988).
Limitations with small format aerial pho-
tography
One of the main limitations with aerial
photography with a study area of the size of
the Murray-Sunset National Park is the need
for interpolation of data for map production.
Even at the smallest scale used, more than
2400 photographs would be required to
cover the study area of 6330 km2. The cost
of obtaining orthorecti fied or colour-infra-
red imagery also quickly becomes prohibi-
tive within this large study area.
Whilst there are many methods for
achieving high positional accuracy with
SFAP, the challenge is to find a method
that does not greatly increase the associat-
ed costs. Factors impacting on the posi-
tional accuracy of SFAP include synchro-
nisation between the different components
(digital camera and GPS), accuracy of nav-
igational equipment and altitude sensors,
mounting platform stability, lens distor-
tion. and weather conditions (Abd-
Elrahman el at . 2001). The limited posi-
tional accuracy of SFAP may be problem-
atic in a location such as remote semi-arid
woodland with few identifying ground fea-
tures. However, with the use of an appro-
priate sampling method, positional accura-
cy may not be highly important in deter-
mining the vegetation condition of an area
such as the Murray-Sunset National Park,
provided the samples are located within
the correct vegetation community.
Some parameters that formed an impor-
tant part of the field-based condition
assessment, such as regeneration of trees
and understorev species and species rich-
ness, were not able to be reliably assessed
using SFAP. Field survey also enabled
assessment of some of the potential
impacts upon vegetation condition such as
observation of grazing animals, scats and
browse damage on -plants. New threats
could also be discovered during field sur-
vey, for example, observation of a new
pest species. These threats are unlikely to
be detected using aerial photography until
considerable change to the vegetation has
taken place.
Limitations of the study
It must be emphasised that this was a fea-
sibility study only. There are a number of
limitations with the analyses, particularly
the number of samples performed at each
photograph height above ground level.
Further research is required to determine a
complete method for aerial photography
condition assessment, and to fully test the
accuracy of parameters. In addition, a more
objective measure for field-based percent-
age cover measures should be used in future
comparisons with aerial photography.
44
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Condition mapping from aerial
photography
To complete a map of vegetation condi-
tion from aerial photography interpreta-
tion. interpolation-modelling procedures
similar to those applied in the field-based
assessment (Gowans et al. in press) could
be applied. The accuracy of the interpola-
tion model is dependent upon many factors
including the heterogeneity of landscapes
and disturbances, sampling regime and
number of samples taken (Haining 1993).
The reliability of interpolation models
reduces with greater distance between
adjacent quadrats and without further accu-
racy assessment the reliability of the model
is unknown.
As aerial photograph measures of vegeta-
tion condition do not provide the same
level of detail as field-based measures, it
would be expected that interpolation mod-
els based on aerial photography would not
exceed the accuracy of field assessment
models.
Conclusions
SFAP provides an alternative to field-
based methods of vegetation condition
assessment. Whilst SFAP is unlikely to
provide significant cost savings over field-
based methods, greater flexibility in image
acquisition and access are provided. Aerial
photograph condition assessment is likely
to be of most use in remote areas inacces-
sible by road, where field-based methods
are less feasible. Further research is
required to refine methods for aerial pho-
tography. However, initial investigation
suggests that tree species identification and
tree canopy cover measures provide poten-
tial for determining vegetation condition in
Belah and Pine-Buloke woodlands. Strong
correlations between tree canopy cover and
other vegetation condition parameters used
in field survey suggest that tree canopy
cover measures may describe much of the
variability in vegetation condition.
Acknowledgements
Aerial photography was conducted by Daryl
Chibnall from Aerovision who also provided
technical assistance with flight planning.
Funding was provided for this research through
the Parks Victoria Research Partners Program
and the authors would like to thank a number of
people from Parks Victoria for assistance and
support for the project including Mike Wouters,
John Wright and Peter Teasedale. This research
was completed whilst the primary author was on
a PhD scholarship at the University of Ballarat.
Thanks to the many staff and students from the
University of Ballarat, and volunteers from
Conservation Volunteers Australia who assisted
in field work.
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Received 30 September 2004; accepted 17 December
2004
46
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Fire and hollow formation in Box-Ironbark eucalypts
of the Warby Range State Park
Matthew F Adkins', Martin E Westbrooke1, Singarayer K Florentine'
and Simon P McDonald2
Abstract
Hollows are an important, hut rare, resource for several vertebrate species in the Box-Ironbark
forests of central Victoria, yet there is limited knowledge of the hollow formation process within
these forests. This study assessed the external features of trees from burnt and unbumt areas of forest
to determine the influence of fire on hollow formation in Box-Ironbark eucalypts. Significantly
greater proportions of trees in burnt areas had scars than trees in unbumt areas (j > = 0.05). Within
burnt areas. Red Stringybark Eucalyptus macrorhyncha trees were more likely to contain scars, as
were trees of smaller diameter. Fire had less inlluence on the number of small, medium, large and
very large dead branehes/braneh stubs than tree diameter. Similarly, Iree size rather than fire was a
major determinant in the occurrence of hollows. There was no difference in the number of epicormic
knobs between trees in burnt and unbumt areas, w hich may indicate that the fire was not particularly
intense and therefore did not influence hollow formation as much as more intense fires would have.
The greater number of scars in burnt trees might eventually lead to differences in hollow numbers
between burnt and unbumt trees; however, the most common type of dead wood source within trees
was dead branehes/braneh stubs, which did not differ significantly between trees in burnt and
unbumt areas but was influenced most by tree size. ( The Victorian Naturalist 1 22 ( I ) 2005, 47-56).
Introduction
The use of semi-enclosed cavities, or hol-
lows, in live and dead standing trees by
arboreal vertebrates and birds is common
on most continents. In Australia, it is esti-
mated that approximately 15% of all ter-
restrial vertebrates use hollows (Gibbons
and Lindenmayer 2002). At least 100 of
the rare, threatened or near-threatened ver-
tebrate species on state or commonwealth
endangered lists utilise hollows (Gibbons
and Lindenmayer 2002), The lack of hol-
low-bearing trees within Victoria is of
such concern that their removal is consid-
ered a threatening process under the
Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act
(1988). Over the past twenty years, studies
into hollows in both standing and fallen
(logs) eucalypts of several different
species have shown a positive correlation
between tree age and the proportion of
trees containing hollows, number of hol-
lows per tree and/or hollow size
(Mackowski 1984; Mackowski 1987;
Newton-John 1992; Lindenmayer et at.
1993; Rose 1993; Taylor and Haseler 1993;
Bennett el at. 1994; Williams and Faunt
1997; Ross 1999; Soderquist 1999; Wor-
1 Centre for Environmental Management, School of
Science and Engineering, University of Ballarat, HO
Box 663, Victoria 3353. E-mail: madkins(5j csu.edu.au
: Spatial Data Analysis Network, Charles Sturt
University, PO Box 789, Albury NSW 2640
mington and Lamb 1999; Lindenmayer et
at. 2000). Since tree size increases with age
it is the big, old trees within our forests
that are valued highest as hollow
resources. Within wood-production areas
trees are often routinely felled before
reaching hollow-bearing size, restricting
and inhibiting hollow recruitment and lim-
iting the survival prospects of hollow-
using fauna in many forest types around
Australia.
Since Furopean settlement of central
Victoria, vast tracts of Box-Ironbark
Forests (B1BF) have been cleared. Today,
only 15 - 20% of these forests remain
(EC'C 1997) and show considerable
changes in structural composition. Large
trees within wood production areas are
rare, with most trees less than 40 cm in
diameter (Soderquist 1999). Prior to
European settlement the BIBF comprised
open stands (approximately 5 trees/ha) of
trees estimated to be 75 - 90 cm in diame-
ter at breast height (dbh) (Newman 1961).
Hollows suitable for use by vertebrates are
more likely to occur in trees at least 60 cm
in diameter, yet trees this size or larger
currently account for only 6% of the stems
within these forests (Soderquist 1999).
Even if all wood production were to end
immediately it would still take many
decades for most trees to form hollows
Vol. 122 (1) 2005
47
Contributions
since the average diameter growth rate of
Box-Ironbark eucalypts is approximately
2.5 mm/year (Lloyd and Lau 1986).
Knowledge of the hollow formation process
is lacking for eucalypts in this forest type
(Soderquist 1999) and is required to ensure
the most appropriate retention strategies are
implemented to support healthy populations
of hollow-dependent fauna.
The process of hollow formation in euca-
lypts occurs through decay and consump-
tion of non-living heartwood at the centre
of trees by fungal and termite species
(Wilkes 1982; Mackowski 1984; Wilkes
1985). These organisms penetrate into the
heartwood region via scars caused by fire
or wind and/or dead branches and branch
stubs (Wilkes 1982; Wilkes 1985). Actual
excavation of wood tissue by fungi is neg-
ligible (Mackowski 1984), but in some
instances termite consumption and excava-
tion occurs, or is accelerated, only where
fungal decay of wood tissue has occurred
(French 1978; Ruyooka and Edwards
1980; Perry ct at. 1985). Heartwood is the
area most susceptible to fungi and termites
because it has no active defence mecha-
nism to repel them. Instead, heartwood
must rely on the anti-fungal and anti-ter-
mitic chemicals (extractives) deposited
when first formed to deter these organisms
(Rudman and Da Costa 1958; Raven el ai
1992). A radial gradient of susceptibility to
fungal and termite attack occurs within
heartwood with the innermost heartwood
(oldest tissue) usually being more suscepti-
ble than the outer heartwood (younger tis-
sue) (Rudman 1964; Da Costa and
Osborne 1967; Rudman and Gay 1967;
Ruyooka and Edwards 1980; Ruyooka and
Griffin 1980; Ruyooka and Groves 1980;
Wilkes 1985; Wilkes 1985). This is due to
the progressive breakdown of these chemi-
cals over time (Rudman 1964; Rudman
1965 ) resulting in lesser amounts of resis-
tant chemicals occurring in the oldest tis-
sue (Hillis 1971). Thus the heartwood of
eucalypts becomes susceptible to attack
only when sufficient time has elapsed,
which varies between species (Rudman
1964; Hillis 1971).
Previous fire damage in the form of scars
is positively associated with either the
presence of hollows or decay organisms in
standing trees and logs (McCaw 1983;
Perry et al. 1985; Taylor and Haseler
1993; Williams and Faunt 1997; Whitford
2002). A scar involves the partial death
(i.e. death to one side or portion of the
stem) of the vascular cambium. The dam-
age caused by fire may influence the likeli-
hood of hollow formation in several ways.
Wilkes (1985) found that fungi entered
eucalypts via scars, while enclosed
(included) scars caused by fire are suscep-
tible to termite attack (McCaw 1983).
Basal fire scars were correlated with the
occurrence of snag-tops in giant sequoia
trees of North America (Rundel 1962).
This creation of extensive areas of dead
wood in the crown may increase the
chance of decay-causing fungi entering a
tree. The creation of epicormic growth fol-
lowing fires is a common response of
many eucalypt species. Potential infection
by decay organisms can occur when epi-
cormic branches are shed from the main
stem and the knob from which they grow
is occluded (Jacobs 1955). The association
of lire with the presence of hollows and its
ability to reduce the average age of den
trees used by the Common Ringtail and
Common Brushtail Possums in Western
Australian eucalypts (Inions el at. 1989)
implies that fire has potential use as a man-
agement tool, a concept supported by Rose
(1993) and Williams and Faunt (1997).
However, the extent to which fire influ-
ences the hollow formation process and the
precise manner of its influence is
unknown.
The aims of this study were to (i) deter-
mine the influence of tire on hollow for-
mation by comparing the number of hol-
lows and features that predispose hollow
formation between burnt and unburnt trees
(ii) determine the influence of other factors
such as tree size and tree health and (iii)
identify some of the hollow-forming ter-
mite species within these forests.
Knowledge gained from this study will
guide future research and contribute to the
formation of appropriate strategies for
managing hollows in these forests and,
thus, animals that utilise these hollows.
Materials and Methods
Study site
The area chosen for this study site was
located within the Killawarra Forest (for-
48
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
merly Killawarra State Forest) of the
Warby Range State Park, 13 km north-west
of Wangaratta, Victoria (146°14’44” E,
36°14’05” S) (Fig. 1 ). The site contained an
area of forest burnt by wildfire in 1990.
The area immediately surrounding the fire
boundary within the Killawarra Forest
according to historical records had not pre-
viously been burnt. The fire started at the
southern extent of the boundary and pro-
gressed north. The fire was intense at times
but according to records was of low inten-
sity upon reaching the Killawarra Forest.
(Fig. 1).
Study design
A total of 159 standing eucalypts (130
Mugga Jronbark E. sideroxylon and 29 Red
Stringybark E. macrorhyncha) were ran-
domly sampled along four 90 m transects
using the point-quarter technique at 10 m
intervals. Two transects were in the burnt
area and two in the unburnt area. Burnt
areas were identified using historical maps.
Transects in this area were run through
patches that contained visual evidence of
previous fire. Areas containing relatively
denser stands of young Acacia saplings
and the occurrence of charcoal on stumps
and logs were used as indicators. Unburnt
areas of similar tree composition, tree size
distribution, slope and orientation to burnt
areas were chosen.
Tree assessment
The type and number of hollows, dead
branches/branch stubs, scars and epicormic
knobs were visually assessed for each tree.
All provide areas for fungi to access euca-
lypt heartwood (Jacobs 1955; Wilkes
1982; Wilkes 1985). The scale used for
assessing crown senescence is shown in
Fig. 2. All features wrere recorded by
ground-based assessment, and their posi-
tion noted as from the base (up to 1 m
from base of tree), the bole (the area along
the main stem from 1 m above the base to
crown break) and the crown (area above
crown break) (Fig. 3). Visual estimates of
the size of branches on trees were regularly
tested by measurement of visually similar
sized branches on the ground. In addition,
the presence of previous termite activity
based on the presence of mud galleries was
recorded.
Fig. 1. Location of Warby Range State Park and
boundary of 1990 lire.
Statistical A na lysis
All data -were analysed for normality.
Continuous data that was normally distrib-
uted was analysed using a One-way
ANOVA. Continuous data that was not
normally distributed was analysed using
the Kruskal- Wallis rank sum test.
Categorical data that w'as not normally dis-
tributed and contained at least 5-counts/cat-
egory were analysed using Pearson’s chi-
square test with Yate’s continuity correc-
tion. For data that contained <5 -counts/cat-
egory Fisher’s exact test was used.
Data were analysed using the statistical
package S-Plus 2000 Professional Release
2 (MathSoft Incorporated 1988-1999).
Where presented, standard error is equal
to ± 1 .
Results
Sampled trees
The mean dbh of E. sideroxylon trees
was 3 1.4 cm (n = 130) and for E.
macrorhyncha 17.6 cm (n = 29). Only 4%
of the total trees were > 60 cm dbh, while
nearly 80% of the trees were < 40 cm dbh
(Fig. 4). Only one E. macrorhyncha tree
Vol. 122 (1)2005
49
Contributions
Table 1. Tree attributes measured.
Feature
Description
Area
Tree species
Diameter at breast height
Hollows
Scars
Dead branches/branch
stubs
Epicormic knobs
Crown senescence
The location of the tree as being in either the 1990 fire area (burnt) or
non-fire area (unburnt)
Identification based on leaves, bark and fruits
Diameter of tree measured at a height of 1 .3 m
The number of hollow entrances in three different size classes. A hollow
is defined as a hole > 2 cm wide (at its narrowest point) and > 10 cm deep
(Woodward 1993; Soderquist 1999).
Small = 2.0 cm 4.9 cm w ide
Medium = 5.0 cm 9.9 cm wide
Large = 1 0.0 cm 1 9.9 cm wide
The number of scars (areas of exposed dead wood) in three different size
classes; small, medium and large. Scars were noted to be caused by either
injury or, where obvious, areas of exposed old stumps not yet occluded by
regrowth (coppicing) stems.
Small = <50 sq. cm
Medium =>50 sq. cm -<1000 sq. cm
Large = >1000 sq. cm
The number of non-living branches and/or branch stubs in four size classes
(diameter (cm)). Diameter was estimated at the base of each branch.
Small - <5 cm
Medium — >5 cm - < 1 0 cm
Large = > 1 0 cm - <20 cm
Very large = >20 cm
The number of epicormic knobs in three size classes (length at widest
point (cm))
Small =<10 cm
Medium = >10 cm <30 cm
Large = >30 cm
Eight qualitative classes based on crown and stem characteristics (Fig 2.)
was >40 cm dbh (Fig. 4). The mean dbh
for trees sampled in burnt areas was 27.4
cm (>? = 80) and 30.2 cm for trees in
unburnt areas (/? = 79).
The mean crown senescence for all trees
was 2.4 (Whitford 2002). No significant
differences were found for crown senes-
cence (p = 0.32 Kruskal- Wallis rank sum
test) between burnt trees (mean -- 2.3) and
unburnt trees (mean = 2.5). No significant
differences were found between tree
species either {p ~ 0.21 Kruskal-Wallis
rank sum test), w ith the mean crown senes-
cence for E. sideroxylon and E.
macrorhyncha 2.3 and 3.0 respectively,
thus, neither fire nor tree species influ-
enced tree health.
60 cm diameter class (Fig. 4). All hollow-
bearing trees were E. sideroxylon and
occurred in burnt areas (Fig. 4). Compari-
son of the proportion of trees w ith hollows
in burnt and unburnt areas was not signifi-
cant (/? = 0.25 Fishers exact test). All hol-
lows occurred within the crow n of trees and
were at least 10 m from the ground. The
mean crown senescence rating for hollow-
bearing trees was 4.7 (SE = 1 .3) and 2.4 (SE
= 0.1) for non-hollow- bearing trees. This
was not a significant difference (p = 0.06
Kruskal-Wallis rank sum test). The mean
diameter of hollow-bearing trees was signif-
icantly greater than that of non-hol low-bear-
ing trees {p = 0.01 Kruskal-Wallis rank sum
test) (Fig. 4) in burnt areas.
Hollows
Only three trees (2% of all trees ) had hol-
lows, containing a total of five hollows
(0.03 hoi lows/ tree). Four hollow's were
small in size and one large. Two of the
hollow-bearing trees were >60 cm in diam-
eter representing 33% of all trees >60 cm
diameter. The third tree was 46 cm diame-
ter representing 4% of all trees in the 40 -
Scarring
A significantly greater proportion of trees
in burnt areas contained scars in compari-
son with trees in unburnt areas (p = <0.00
Pearson's chi-square test with Yate’s con-
tinuity correction) (Fig.5), Nearly half
(46%) of the stems within burnt areas had
at least one scar while only 10% of
unburnt stems contained scars (Fig. 5). All
50
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Fig. 2. The pictorial scale used to assess Crown Senescence, Taken from Whitford (2002)
Fig. 3. Areas sampled on tree (Base (up to 1 in).
Bole and Crown). Drawing: G Ambrose.
scars within the burnt area were consistent
with injuries caused by fire, while ail scars
recorded in un burnt areas were at the base
of trees and a result of exposed parts of old
stumps not yet included by coppice
regrowth stem. Potential entry points for
decay-causing fungi provided by scars
were therefore greater in trees from burnt
areas.
Within burnt areas scarred trees were sig-
nificantly smaller than unscarred trees
(One-way ANOVA: /; <0.00; SE = 1.13)
(Fig. 6). The mean dbh for scarred trees
was 25.3 (SE - 2.2) cm while unscarred
trees had a mean diameter nearly 10 cm
greater (34.2; SE = 2.5) (Fig. 6), suggest-
ing that smaller trees are more susceptible
to fire damage than larger trees. There
were no significant differences between
scarred and unscarred trees in un burnt
areas (p = 0.06 Kruskai-Wallis rank sum
test) (Fig. 6).
Greater proportions of E. macrorhyncha
stems in burnt areas had scars than E.
sidcroxylon (/? = 0.00 Fisher's exact test)
(Fig. 7) Nearly three times as many E.
macrorhyncha stems had at least one scar
compared to E sidcroxylon which suggest
that E. macrorhyncha is more sensitive to
fire (Fig. 7). No significant differences
were found for unburnt areas (p = 0.15
Fisher's exact test) (Fig. 7).
The majority of scars in trees from burnt
areas occurred in the crown (72%) and
Vol. 122 (1) 2005
51
Contributions
1-20 20-4(1 40-60 60-80
Diameter at hreasl iieighl over bark (cm)
Fig. 4. The diameter class distribution of
Eucalyptus sideroxylon and Eucalyptus
macrorhyncha trees and trees with hollows in
(a) burnt and (b) unburnt areas of the Warby
Range State Park.
over half (56%) were small (Fig. 8).
Overall, the least number of scars occurred
at the base (12.5%), but this contained the
greatest proportion of large scars. No large
scars occurred along the bole while in the
crown large scars accounted for only 10%
of all scars. In trees from unbumt areas all
scars occurred at the base (Fig. 8).
The Influence of Fire and Tree Size on
Dead branches/Branch stubs
Trees from burnt areas had a significantly
greater number of small dead
branches/branch stubs per tree than trees
from unburnt areas (p = 0.02 Kruskal-
Wallis rank sum test) (Table 2). No signifi-
cant differences ( p <0.05 Kruskal-Wallis
rank sum test) were found for medium,
large or very large trees (Table 2) indicat-
ing that smaller branches are more sensi-
tive to fire.
Tree size influenced the amount of dead
branches/branch stubs within a tree with
significant difference found between size
classes for all four branch sizes (/? <0.05
Kruskal -Wallis rank sum test) (Table 2).
As expected, large trees (60-80 cm dbh)
contained the greatest number of small,
Trees with scars
Trees without scars
Fig. 5. The percentage of trees from burnt and
unburnt areas with at least one scar (areas of
exposed dead sapwood) of any size. Means with
the same letters are not significantly different
(lsd p = 0.05).
scarred trees unscarred trees
Fig. 6. The mean diameter at breast height of
scarred and unscarred trees in (a) burnt and (b)
unburnt areas of the Warby Range State Park.
large and very large branches. Very small
trees ( 1-20 cm dbhob) did not contain any
large or very large branches (Table 2).
Fire and Tree Species 1 Association with
Termite Activity
No trees sampled contained active gal-
leries. However, 5% of all trees showed
external evidence of previous termite
activity. The mean diameter of trees with
termite activity wras 19.6 cm (SE = 2.3).
All evidence of previous activity was
found within base scars. There was no sig-
nificant difference in the proportion of
52
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Fig. 7. The proportion of Eucalyptus
macrorhyncha and Eucalyptus sideroxylon
stems with at least one scar from (a) burnt and
(b) unburnt areas of the Warby Range State
Park. Means with the same letters are not signif-
icantly different (lsd p = 0.05)
3 40
Crovra Bole Base
Position within tree
Fig. 8. The frequency distribution of small (1-
50 sq. cm), medium (50- 1000 sq. cm) and large
(> 1000 sq.cm) scars in the crown, along the
bole and at the base of trees in (a) burnt and (b)
unburnt areas of the Warby Range State Park.
trees from burnt areas (8%) with previous
termite activity compared with trees from
unburnt areas (4%) (Fisher’s exact test: p =
0.33 ). However, there were differences
associated with tree species with signifi-
cantly greater proportions of E .
macrorhyncha showing visible signs of
termite activity compared to E. sideroxylon
(p = <0.00 Fisher’s exact test) (Fig. 9).
This difference may be related to the sus-
ceptibility of E. macrorhyncha to fire dam-
age. No significant differences were found
between species in unburnt areas.
Discussion
The lack of hollows observed within this
study area suggests that hollows are lack-
ing within the Killawarra Forest and also
limits any assertions about the importance
of different factors influencing the hollow
formation process. However, for eucalypts
in B1BF, greater proportions of larger trees
are hollow -bearing than smaller trees
(Soderquist 1999). Our results would
appear to support this claim since the only
hollow-bearing trees observed were con-
siderably larger than non-hollow bearing
trees (Fig. 4). Soderquist (1999) has aiso
shown that <1% of very small trees (<20
cm dbh) are likely to contain hollows
while for small trees (20 - 40 cm dbh) only
4% are likely to contain hollows. For this
study most trees were either very small or
small in size (Fig. 4). The absence of large
trees found in this study best explains the
lack of visible hollows.
Fire did not appear to influence the
occurrence of externally visible hollows in
the Warby Range State Park, but this may
be because 14 years was not long enough
for visible differences to become apparent.
The absence of visible hollows in this
study makes determining the influence of
this fire on hollow formation difficult. The
only other study in Australia that has
looked at the influence of fire on hollow
formation was Inions et al (1989) who
showed that a high intensity fire could
increase the rate of hollow formation in
Jarrah E. marginata and Marri Corymbia.
cahphylla . Several studies have shown
that the presence of previous fire damage
in the form of scars is positively associated
with either the presence of hollows or
decay organisms in standing trees and logs
(McCaw 1983; Perry et al. 1985; Taylor
and Haseler 1993; Williams and Faunt
1997; Whitford 2002) indicating that fire
Vol. 122 (1) 2005
53
Contributions
Table 2. The mean number of small, medium, large and very large dead branches/branch stubs in
trees from burnt and unburnt areas and trees from four different diameter size classes. " Significant at
p = 0.05 for Kruskal- Wallis rank sum test. h Diameter size class based on dbh (cm). Both unburnt
and burnt trees were grouped except for small branches where only unbumt trees were analysed.
1 Size was determined by the diameter of dead braneh/branch stub at base.
Attribute
Dead Bi anch/Branch Stub Size'
Small
Medium
Large
Very Large
Burnt
8.3
2.6
0.6
0.1
Unburnt
6.9
2.6
0.3
0.1
p-value
0.0 2a
0.43
0.32
0.73
Diameter classb
1 -20
3.9
0.5
0.0
0.0
20 40
7.4
2.5
0.3
0.1
40 - 60
13.8
6.3
1.1
0.0
60 - 80
15.1
6.2
3.5
1.2
p-value
<0.00 a
<0.00 a
<0.00 a
<0.00
| | so
5 20
too
_ci . £
2.-S 60
I I
'a i _
S macrorkynca E. siderojyion
Fig. 9. The number of Eucalyptus macrorhyn-
cha and Eucalyptus sicieroxyion trees in (a)
burnt and (b) unburnt areas with evidence of
previous termite activity. Means with the same
letters are not significantly different (Isd p =
0.05)
could influence the hollow formation
process since greater numbers of scars
were found in burnt trees. The findings
from this study indicate that termite activi-
ty was only associated with base scars so
fire appears to influence termite activity
only if it creates scarring close to the
ground. It would appear that the greater
susceptibility of E. macro rhynchet to fire
has resulted in an increase in termite activ-
ity through the availability of scars, which
may lead to increased hollow numbers
compared to E. sicieroxyion in the future.
No difference in the number of epicormic
knobs was found between burnt and
unburnt trees, indicating that the intensity
of this particular fire was low. This lack of
intensity may have reduced the influence
of fire on the hollow formation process.
Burnt trees contained a greater number of
scars than unbumt trees and therefore may
allow greater chance of fungal decay occur-
ring within a tree. However, dead branches
and branch stubs also provide a conduit via
which fungi access heartwood (Wilkes
1985). For this study the number of dead
branches was significantly greater than the
number of scars in trees from both burnt
and unbumt areas, suggesting fire’s ability
to influence fungal access may be negligi-
ble since tree size appeared to be a greater
determinant of dead branches/branch stubs
numbers. Fire’s influence on hollow forma-
tion in this study may be further under-
mined since the majority of scars recorded
in burnt trees were small in size (Fig. 8).
Since small scars will take less time to
occlude they are less likely to provide
access for fungi. The successional peak of
some saproxylic fungi in Fennoscadian
forests can take up to eight years (Lindhe,
Asenblad et at. 2004). The surface area
provided by a scar will most likely influ-
ence its potential as an infection conduit
also.
Fire-burnt trees contained a greater num-
ber of small dead branches than unburnt
trees but no differences occurred in the
number of medium, large or very large
branches. Positive correlations between
diameter and bark thickness have been
established by McArthur ( 1968) and Vines
(1968) who also showed that thicker bark
results in greater protection from the heat
effects of fire. Our results are consistent
with their findings. Although fire increased
54
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
the number of small dead branches in
trees, its ability to influence hollow forma-
tion in this case may be minimal since
larger branches are more likely to persist
and penetrate further into the main stem of
trees (Jacobs 1955) providing greater
potential for fungal and termite infection.
Marks (1986) found for E. regnans that the
probability of defects occurring in the
main stem increased rapidly once branch
diameter exceeded 10 mm. The presence
of branch stubs and/or dead branches have
previously been used to measure the hol-
low forming potential of eucalypts
(Wormington and Lamb 1999). They
defined a branch stub or dead branch >5
cm diameter as a pre-disposing hollow for-
mation feature.
Tree size was showrn to be a significant
factor in the number of dead branches in
trees and appears to be more influential in
providing entry sources for fungi. Dead
branches are shed from a tree through the
formation of what Jacobs (1955) describes
as a ‘brittle zone' that forms at the base of
the branch. The brittle zone does not form
in areas of heartwood, so branches contain-
ing heartwood are less likely to break off
cleanly and a branch stub often remains
(Jacobs 1955; Marks el at, 1986). A
branch stub containing heartwood takes
longer to eject than branches containing no
heartwood (Marks el at. 1986).The heart-
wood to sapwood ratio increases with
branch size, therefore larger branches are
less likely to break cleanly and may persist
for considerable time.
Most hollows appear when areas of exca-
vated heartwood are exposed, and most
commonly occurs through branch breakage
caused by wind or when dead branches are
shed from the tree (Mackowski 1984).
Gibbons (2000) found that, with the excep-
tion of hollow openings created by scars or
fissures, the size of a hollow was a reflec-
tion of the size of the previously shed
branch. If we consider the potential maxi-
mum size of hollow openings based on
branch diameter then it is clear from this
study that large trees are more likely to pro-
vide hollow openings of all sizes (Table 2),
A similar result was found by Gibbons
(2000). Even if fire were able to initiate and
accelerate the hollow formation process
there is no potential for large and very large
hollow openings, based on branch diame-
ter, to appear in very small trees and only
slight potential in small trees.
In conclusion, the absence of large trees
within this study site best explains the lack
of visible hollows and raises concerns
about the potential shortage of suitable
habitat for hollow dependent fauna within
this forest. Fourteen years after fire, trees
in burnt areas have not significantly pro-
duced any more visible hollows than trees
in unbumt areas. However, fire has result-
ed in greater scarring within the crown,
w'hich may influence the level of fungal
decay within burnt trees, and ultimately
hollows. Tree size and species influenced
the likelihood of scarring caused by fire.
While termite activity was associated with
base scars, the number of base scars was
not influenced by fire in this study. Fire
has been shown again possibly to influence
the hollow formation process, yet results
from this study are inconclusive. Further
studies in areas of forest exposed to fire of
greater intensity may give a clearer indica-
tion of fire's ability to influence the hollow
formation process.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Gordon Mullen for his
assistance with field-work, and Julie Flack
(Parks Victoria) and Geoff Barrow (Parks
Victoria) for assistance with locating fire sites.
We would also like to acknowledge the financial
support provided by the University of Ballarat.
Department of Sustainability and Environment
(Forestry) and the Ho Is worth Wildlife fund.
Thanks also to Charles Sturt University for pro-
viding a vehicle for use in the field.
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Received 2 September 2004; accepted 26 November 2004
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Relationship between perennial species richness and distance
from water in Belah Casuarina pauper woodland
ME Westbrooke1
Abstract
Two hundred and fifteen Casuarina pauper woodland sites from pastoral leases and conservation
reserves in NSW. SA and Victoria were assessed to determine community structure and floristics.
Perennial species occurring were recorded, together with evidence of grazing, length of grazing his-
tory, time since reservation and distance from water, to investigate factors influencing species within
the community. There was a clear relationship between perennial species richness and distance from
water (r = 0.7378). Total grazing pressure including impact of sheep, rabbits, macropods and goats is
difficult to determine for the present and is at best speculative for the past. Stocking rates, where
available, are at a paddock level and grazing pressure may vary considerably across the paddock.
Available water has a strong influence on grazing pressure. The distance from the nearest permanent
or semi-permanent water was determined as the best surrogate measure of long-term grazing pres-
sure. ( The Victorian Naturalist 122 (1) 2005, 57-62)
Introduction
Belah Casuarina pauper woodland
occurs from south-western Queensland
through inland New South Wales, north-
west Victoria and South Australia to
Western Australia on a wide variety of
soils. Data from stands in Mallee Cliffs
National Park (Morcom and Westbrooke
1990) and the Scotia country (Westbrooke
et al 1998), which have had a history of
low grazing pressure, suggest the commu-
nity may be characterised by a far richer
understorey than currently seen in most
sites (Fig. 1). Because of its low fodder
value C. pauper has been cleared by ring-
barking or chaining over large areas to
promote pasture growth (Cunningham et
al. 1981). Much Belah woodland in south-
ern NSW and the Victorian Mallee has
been cleared for cropping. Most of the
remainder has been grazed by domestic
stock, rabbits and elevated populations of
kangaroos for up to 1 50 years (Fig. 2).
Methods
Two hundred and fifteen quadrats within
C. pauper woodland on pastoral leases
(n=l 83) and conservation reserves (n=32)
in NSW, SA and Victoria were assessed to
determine community structure and floris-
tics. A limitation in comparative studies of
vegetation in the arid zone is that the
herbaceous vegetation responds rapidly to
rainfall and certain species respond to rain-
fall only in particular seasons. The compo-
sition of the annual or short-lived perennial
1 Centre for Environmental Management, University of
Ballarat, P.O. Box 663, Ballarat, Victoria 3353.
species in the ground layer is largely deter-
mined by the amount and seasonal distrib-
ution of rainfall. In drought years this layer
of vegetation may be missing (Fox 1991).
The sampling in this study was carried out
over several seasons during which erratic
rainfall led to high variation in the occur-
rence of ephemeral species. To enable
valid comparisons between sites, only
perennial species were included in most
analyses. Each 50m x 50m (0.25ha)
quadrat was selected as a homogeneous
stand of vegetation, obvious ecotones
being avoided. All perennial species occur-
ring at each site were recorded. Current
stocking level was determined from state
government records and/or estimates of
dung and vegetation damage. Level of
grazing by rabbits was estimated based on
presence/absence of warrens and estimates
of dung and scratchings. These were com-
bined with observations of maeropod scats
to give an estimate of total grazing.
Length of grazing history and time since
reservation were determined. All factors
were assigned ordinal classes or values as
follows:
(1) Current stocking rate from records and
ground assessment
(SHEEP) 0 = unstockcd
1 = light stocking
2 = moderate stocking, fresh dung
3 = high stocking rate, abundant
fresh dung
4 = apparent overgrazing (based on
vegetation damage)
Vol. 122 (1) 2005
57
Contributions
Fig. 1. Belah woodland in good condition: Yarrara Flora and Fauna Reserve.
Fig. 2. Belah woodland with degraded understorey.
58
The Victorian Naturalist
fam
Contributions
(2) Rabbit grazing
(RAB) 0 = nil, no evidence of rabbits
1 = light, limited old dung
2 = moderate, frequent fresh dung
and scratching
3 - heavy, abundant dung and
scratching
4 — very high, adjacent active
warren
(3) Overall grazing level based on visual
evidence of stock, rabbits and macropods
(ALLGRAZ) 0 = nil
1 = light
2 = moderate
3 = high
4 = very high
(4) Period of grazing, based on years from
first lease or licence to cessation or present
(TIME)
TIME = Time - minimum
Range
(5) Time since reservation. Factor based on
years since stock were removed (RES)
RES = Time since res - minimum time since res
Range of reservation period in sample
(6) Distance from water (D1S)
DIS = Distance in km to nearest permanent or
semi-permanent water.
The distance to the nearest permanent or
semi -permanent water source for stock was
determined from on-ground observation,
reference to maps and analysis of a
Landsat TM (23 February 1993) image
obtained following very high rainfall in
1992-93. Following this rainfall event all
ground tanks, whether or not they were
maintained, were holding water.
Species richness of quadrats was related
to land use. perceived past and present
grazing levels and distance from water.
Stepwise multiple regression was used to
give an understanding of the site variables
most important in determining species
richness.
Results
Seventy-five perennial trees, shrubs,
climbers and woody parasites were record-
ed from the 215 study sites. These repre-
sent 22 families, with the highest represen-
tation from the Chenopodiaceae (26),
Myoporaceae (8) and Mimosaceae (8).
The species frequency in all study sites is
given in Table 1 .
Correlation coefficients for the relation-
ship between perennial species richness
and the six habitat variables for all
quadrats, pastoral quadrats and conserva-
tion quadrats are given in Table 2.
Species richness increased with distance
from water (Fig. 3) and time since reserva-
tion but decreased with increased rabbit
grazing. Grouping of sites according to their
distance from water clearly showed this
relationship (Table 3). Comparison of the
species frequency of individual species at
sites close to (n=69) and distant from water
(n=53) indicates those species that decline
under the impact of grazing (Table 4).
Discussion
The impact of grazing on the rangelands
of the study area was noted in the last cen-
tury Dixon (1892), for example, comment-
ed that continuous stocking had destroyed
the bushy vegetation and perennial grasses.
He reported that numerous palatable
chenopods and other species including
Myoporum were disappearing to be
replaced by inedible shrubs. Of the lower
Murray region Dixon (1892: 202) com-
ments:
... it does not appear probable that these
extensive tracts can again be covered with
their original flora which is unequalled in
the world fur abundance and variety of the
very bes t fodder plan ts.
The idea that sites a long distance from
water may be important refuges for plant
species in the rangelands is not new.
Ratcliffe (1938: 213-4) during a study of
the impact of rabbit grazing in South
Australia observed:
Once 1 was shown a little corner a long
way from the nearest water which had
managed to survive in something like its
virgin state. It was a sight for sore eyes,
and a veiy useful indication of the extent of
the changes which had taken place since
the white man settled the land. There was
actually grass about and (he foliage of the
shrubs grew down to the very ground; and
I jaw little bushes here which had practi-
cally vanished from the landscape.
Species richness of quadrats was related
to a number of factors which related to
past grazing pressure. These included:
period of stock grazing, grazing pressure
based on evidence recorded from the site,
stocking rate based on known grazing
records and on ground observation, esti-
mated rabbit grazing, distance from perma-
Vol. 122 (1)2005
59
Contributions
Table 1. Frequency of occurrence of perennial species in all study sites. * denotes exotic species.
'Number of quadrats in which species occurred. ’Percentage occurrence
Species
No.1
%2
Species
No.1
%2
Acacia aneura
2
0.9
Grevillea huegelii
26
1 1.4
Acacia burkittii
16
7.0
Hakea leucoptera
30
13.2
Acacia colletioid.es
84
36.9
Hakea tephrosperma
11
4.8
Acacia loderi
14
6.1
L e i c h hardt i a a us tra I is
21
9.2
Acacia melvillei
8
3.5
Lycium ansi rale
22
9.6
Acacia nyssophvlla
1
0.4
* Lyci urn ferocissimum
1
0.4
Acacia Oswald ii
46
20.6
Lvsiana exocarpi ssp. exocarpi
3
1.3
Acacia sclerophy/la
2
0.9
Maireana appressa
5
2.2
Alectryon oleifoUus ssp. canescens
146
64.0
Maireana brevi folia
21
9.2
Amvema linophyllum ssp. orientate
9
3.9
Maireana georgei
21
9.2
Amyema miracidosutn ssp. boorman
45
19.7
Maireana pentatropis
69
30.3
Amy etna qu an dang var. quandang
1
0.4
Maireana pyramidata
41
18.0
Atrip/ex s tipi rata
50
21.9
Maireana radiata
6
2.6
A triplex vesicaria
47
20.7
Maireana sedifolia
62
27.2
Beyeria opaca
3
1.3
Maireana trichoptera
11
4.8
Callitris glaucophylla
24
10.5
Maireana triptera
15
6.6
Callitris gracilis
9
3.9
Maireana turbinata
6
2.6
Casuarina pauper
113
49.6
Mvoporum platycarpum
152
66.7
C 'henopodium curvispicatum
92
40.4
Nitraria billardierei
22
9.6
C henopodium desertoru m
79
34.6
Olearia mueUeri
47
20.6
Chenopodium mtrariaeeum
2
0.9
Oiearia pimeleoides
78
34.2
Cratystylis conocephala
1
0.4
Pi me lea microcephala .
Dodonaea viscosa
ssp. microcephala
21
9.0
ssp. ang.
89
39.0
Pittospomm ph i 7 / iraeoides
18
7.9
Einadia nutans
31
13.6
Rhagodia spinescens
6
2.6
EnchvJaena tomentosa
165
72.4
Rhagodia ulicina
2
0.9
var. tomentosa
Santalum at uminatum
22
9.6
Eremophila desert i
17
7.0
Scaevo la spinescens
17
7.5
Eremophila glabra
55
24.1
Scl erolaena b i corn is
2
1.0
Eremophila longi folia
17
7.5
Sclerolaena diacantha
34
14.9
Eremophila maculata var. maculata
1
0.4
Sclerolaena divaricata
4
1.8
Eremophila oppositifolia
Sclerolaena obi iquieuspis
13
49.6
ssp. oppositifolia
28
12.3
Sclerolaena patenticuspis
77
33.8
E remap h ila scop aria
12
5.3
Senna artemisioules ssp. coriacea
80
35.0
Eremophila sturtii
77
33.8
Senna artemisioides ssp. filifolia
57
25.0
Eriochiton sclerolaenoides
10
4.4
Senna artemisioides ssp. petiolaris
58
25.4
Eucalyptus gracilis
7
3.1
Templetonia egena
46
20.2
Exocarpos up hy II us
86
37.7
Triodia scariosa
2
1.0
Exocarpos sparteus
1
0.4
Westringia rigida
10
4.4
Geijera parviflora
26
1 1.4
ZygophyHum aurantiacum
22
9.6
nent or semi-permanent water and, if
reserved, time since reservation. The visi-
ble manifestations of stock grazing were
the result of up to 150 years of impact, and
current stocking rates may, therefore, be a
poor indicator of grazing damage. Even if
current grazing pressure is a contributing
factor, it is total grazing pressure which is
most important. Current impacts of rabbits,
macropods and goats are difficult to deter-
mine and past impacts are at best specula-
tive. Stocking rates where available are at
a paddock level but the grazing pressure
may vary considerably across the paddock
(Pickup 1094). Available water is a strong
influence on grazing pressure. Several
workers have discussed the impact of dis-
tance from water on vegetation and its
relationship to grazing pressure (Osborn et
al. 1932: Barker and Lange 1969). In this
study, distance of the quadrat from the
nearest permanent or semi permanent-
water was determined as the best surrogate
measure of long term grazing pressure.
In contrast to the high positive correla-
tion between species richness and distance
from water found in this study, a low cor-
relation was found in a study of eight sites
in arid Australia (Landsberg et al. 1996).
Those assessments, however, were based
on only six points ranging between 0.5 and
9km from water. Friedel (1997) found
60
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Table 2. Correlation coefficients for the relationship between species richness and the six habitat vari-
ables for all quadrats, for pastoral quadrats and for conservation quadrats. *, P = <0.05; **, P = <0.01
Variable
All Quadrats
Pastoral quadrats
Conservation
quadrats
Distance from water (DIS)
0.7378 **
0.7774 **
0.6691 **
Grazing level (ALLGRAZ)
0.6318 **
0.6007 **
0.4871 **
Stocking rate (SHEEP)
0.5792 **
0.6476 **
not relevant
Rabbit abundance (RAB)
0.6928 **
0.6177 **
0.6903 **
Period of grazing (TIME)
0.3233 **
0.1985 *
0.3864 *
Time since reservation (RES)
0.2892 **
not relevant
0.4182 **
Species = 5.3758 + 4.3740 * Distance
Correlation: r = 0.7378
Regression 95%
confidence
Fig. 3. Con-elation between distance from water and perennial species richness, all sites.
fewer species at heavily grazed sites but no
consistent trend of increasing species rich-
ness with distance from water, but her study
differed from the present one in that it was
based on herbaceous species recorded from
small quadrats. The herbaceous layer shows
high seasonal fluctuations and these may
obscure the effects of grazing (Austin et at.
1981; O’Connor and Roux 1 995).
Conclusion
Increased grazing pressure from stock,
rabbits and increased macropod popula-
tions have had a significant impact on
community structure of arid woodlands in
south east Australia. Whilst past and pre-
sent grazing levels are difficult to quantify,
these data indicate that distance from water
is a useful surrogate measure. This also
supports the view that, in conservation
reserves created in areas previously used
for pastoral ism, an essential measure for
vegetation recovery is the closure of water-
ing points.
Table 3. Mean perennial species richness of
quadrats in relation to distance from water.
Distance from
Species richness
water (km)
>2 (n=53)
18.8(10-22)
1-2 (n=93)
11.4(5-18)
<1 (n=69)
6.5 (1-16)
Acknowledge m e n ts
I would like to thank the many pastoralists for
their hospitality, prov ision of access to sites and
sharing of knowledge. Also Richard Bath,
Robert Scriven of the Department of
Conservation and Land Management, NSW;
Joanne Gorman of the National Parks and
Wildlife Service, NSW and Mate Osborne of the
SA National Parks and Wildlife Service for
freely giving advice and assistance. Thanks are
also due to Sue I ladden, Miranda Kerr and John
Miller, Centre for Environmental Management,
University of Ballarat for assistance and com-
panionship during fieldwork and Dr Bob
Parsons for his enthusiasm and support.
Vol. 122 (1)2005
61
Contributions
Table 4. Perennial species frequency for quadrats distant (>2km) and close (<lkm) to water.
Species % >2km % <lkm Species % >2km %<lkm
Acacia hurkittii
15
5
Maireana pentatropis
53
12
Acacia eolletioides
62
20
Maireana pynmudata
15
18
Acacia ossxvaldii
38
14
Maireana radiata
2
6
Acacia sclerophvlla
2
0
Mai re ana sedifo fia
47
5
Atriplex stipitata
42
11
Maireana trichoptera
17
0
Atriplex vesicaria
26
15
Mai ream tripiera
11
2
Beyeria opaca
6
0
Maireana turbinata
8
0
Chenopodium curvispicatum
70
15
Nitravia btllardierii
13
9
Chenopodiitm desertorum
66
11
Olearia muelleri
45
5
C he no pod i urn n i It * ariaceum
2
0
Ol ear i a pimeleoides
64
15
C 'ratvsrvl is conocephala
2
0
Pitnelea mtcrocephala
17
5
Dodonaea viscosa ssp. ang.
64
15
Pittosporum phyUiraeoides
17
3
Einadia nutans
21
5
Rhagodia spirt esc iens
6
5
Ench vlaena to me nr os a
83
56
Rhagodia ulic 'ma
2
0
Eremophila desert i
13
3
Santa l urn acum i natu m
23
5
Eremophila glabra
49
8
Scaevoia spinescens
21
3
Eremophila oppositifolia
21
3
Sclerolaena diacantha
30
10
Eremophila scoparia
13
2
Sclerolaena dti ktricata
6
0
Eremophila sturtii
47
18
Sclerolaena ohliqu icusp is
49
47
Eriochiton sclerolaenoid.es
8
2
Sclerolaena patent icusp is
49
22
Exocar pos aphvllus
64
18
Senna artentisioides ssp. fit.
47
11
Grevif/ea haegelii
25
5
Senna artentisioides ssp. pet.
43
11
Leichhardt ia australis
21
3
Senna artentisioides ssp. x cor.
47
11
Lye turn australe
17
5
Templetoniu egena
47
5
Maireana appressa
4
0
Westringia rigida
9
0
Maireana brevifolia
6
12
Zygoplnllum aurantiacum
23
2
Mctireana georgei
19
3
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Victoria. (Inkata Press: Melbourne)
Westbrooke ME, Miller .ID and Kerr MKC (1998) The
vegetation of the Scotia 1:100 000 map sheet, west-
ern New South Wales. Cunninghamia 5(3), 665-684
Received 30 September 2004; accepted 4 November 2004
62
The Victorian Naturalist
Book Review
Kookaburra: King of the Bush
by Sarah Legge
Publisher: CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Vic, 2004. 1 17 pp, paperback, illus.
ISBN 0643090630. RRP $34. 95
Kookaburras, with their relatively large
size and loud voices, are among the most
easily recognisable Australian birds. They
feature so prominently in our culture that it
would seem reasonable to expect details of
their lives and habits to be well known.
Until recently, however, there have been
many gaps in our knowledge, as well as a
number of misconceptions about kook-
aburras’ appearance and behaviour. Now
this entertaining, informative and very
readable book substantially adds to our
understanding of these remarkable birds.
Most of the book is based on the author's
PhD research on Laughing Kookaburras,
but all four kookaburra species, two of
which live only in New Guinea, are includ-
ed. There are nine chapters: The culture of
kookaburras. Taxonomy and distribution.
Appearance and habits. Social and mating
system. Breeding, The helping system,
Life In the nest. Mortality, and
Conservation and management. References
for each chapter are located at the end of
the book. The text is illustrated with pho-
tographs (black and white and colour),
maps, tables and diagrams, along with the
author's delightful monochrome drawings
of the birds. There is no index.
Each chapter is filled with interesting
information, starting with Aboriginal leg-
ends and popular jingles, and proceeding
to specific details, such as how kookabur-
ras’ eyes focus on prey items and how
their social organisation works. As stated
in the preface, "The end point of these
ever-more [sic] microscopic enquiries is a
thorough description of what happens in
the nest, and it makes for front-page
tabloid material: intense rivalry for
resources, murder of relatives, and
Machiavellian tactics by parents to control
the violent tendencies of their young.1
In some places the text is marred by
clumsy expression, e.g. "Like the shape of
the brain, the olfactory bulbs are similar in
size to the raptors.1 (page 42); c...how each
bird in a cooperative group is related to
each other... ’(page 50); and "...chicks aged
6, 7 and 8 days old’ (page 66). Also, refer-
ences to studies by Bill Buttemer (pages
34, 38), Reyer & Schmidl (page 45), and
Mike Baker (page 45) have been omitted;
Chapter 3 begins by confusing size with
weight; and T (for 'telencephalon’) should
have been included in the caption for
Figure 3.2 (page 41 ),
This book makes a significant contribu-
tion to our knowledge of Laughing
Kookaburras, and provides a fascinating
insight into the complexities of their lives.
It should be useful to amateur and profes-
sional ornithologists, upper secondary
level and undergraduate students, and any-
one interested in natural history. It will
surely inspire further investigation of
kookaburra and other wildlife mysteries
that are still waiting to be solved.
Virgil Hubregtse
6 Saniky Street
Notting Hill, Vic 3 168
Vol. 121 (6) 2005
63
The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Inc.
Reg No A00336I IX ^
Established 1880
In which is incorporated the Microscopical Society of Victoria
Understanding our natural world
Membership is open to any person interested in natural history and includes
beginners as well as experienced naturalists.
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Postal Address: FNCV. Locked Bag 3, PO Blackburn. Victoria 3130. Australia.
Phone/Fax (03) 9877 9860; International Phone/Fax 61 3 9877 9860.
email: lhcv@vicnet.net.au
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Hon. Secretary. Ms Karen George, All 9725 5283
Hon. Treasurer: Ms Barbara Burns, 9846 2608
Subscription-Secretary : FNCV, Locked Bag 3, PO Blackburn 3130. 9877 9860
Editors . The Vic. Nat.: Mrs Anne Morton, 9790 0656, Mr Gary Presland, 9890 9288 and Dr Maria
Gibson, 9723 4772. email: vicnat@vicnet.net.au
Librarian: Mrs Sheii.a Houghton, 5428 4097
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Terrestrial Invertebrate: Dr Alan Yen, as above.
MEMBERSHIP
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es several monthly meetings and excursions Members are welcome to attend all activities. Visitors
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Printed by BPA Print Group, 1 1 Evans Street, Burwood, Victoria 3125.
The
Victorian
Naturalist
Volume 122 (2)
April 2005
Published by The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria since 1884
From the Editors
As promised in our Editorial of the previous issue, this issue of The Victorian Naturalist
contains the results of recent research undertaken in a range of subject areas. Within these
pages is discussion of work on birds, fish, plants, reptiles, and mammals. The geographic
focus of the interesting work reported here is similarly wide - from the western shore of
Port Phillip Bay to the Murray- Sunset National Park in the State's northwest, and includ-
ing a couple of areas more-or-less in between.
The paper by Cowans, C'allister, Westbrooke and Gibson is one of two that look at
aspects of the vegetaion in the Murray-S unset National Park. It is one of the papers deliv-
ered at the Biodiversity Symposium at Ballarat, which was not included in the previous
issue.
This issue also includes the most recent additions to the bibliography on Banksia , com-
piled by Tony Cavanagh. The previous four parts of the bibliography have appeared in
The Victorian Naturalist in 1989, 1994, 1997, and 2000, and this part extends the list to
more than 530 entries. As well as providing an up-to-date list of references on this impor-
tant topic, this bibliography indicates the shifts in area of research on Banksia, that occur
from time to time.
The Editors regularly receive books offered for review in the pages of The Victorian
Naturalist. This issue contains four such reviews of volumes we feel will be of interest to
many readers. It seems that publishing in natural history and related subjects is currently
vibrant and readers can look forward to more reviews of published work in a range of
fields relevant to the purview of the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria..
Thankyou to Ken Bell for the Index to Volume 121, 2004 which is published in this issue.
***
We take this opportunity to remind members of the FNCV, and other readers of The
Victorian Naturalist , of the Club's forthcoming symposium in celebration of its 125th
anniversary. This two-day event will take place at Mueller Flail at the Royal Botanic
Gardens, on the weekend of 28/29 May. Details of the conference and a registration form
have been circulated with recent issues of Field Nats News and can be obtained from the
FNCV office. Those readers who are unable to attend will be pleased to know that many
of the papers delivered at the Symposium will be published in The Victorian Naturalist
later in the year.
Erratum
In the most recent issue of The Victorian Naturalist (vol. 122, no. 1) an unfortunate
mistake was made in the caption for the cover photograph. The illustration showed a
Dainty Swallowtail Papilio anactus, which was erroneously labelled as ‘Orchard
Swallowtail Papilio aegeus aegeuss The Editors regret the mistake, and apologise if any
readers were inadvertantly misled. We also thank Dr Michael Braby for pointing out the
error to us.
Cover: Photograph of Banksia (species not known), by Wendy Clark. See article on p.
102
April
The
Victorian
Naturalist
Volume 122(2) 2005
Editors: Anne Morton, Gary Presland, Maria Gibson
From the Editors
66
Research Reports Distribution of foraging waterbirds throughout the Lake Borrie
ponds at the Western Treatment Plant, Victoria (Australia),
by Andrew / J Hamilton and lain R Taylor. 68
Observations of the nationally threatened freshwater fish,
Murray Hardyhead Craterocephalus fluvialil is McCulloch 1913,
in three Victorian salt lakes, by Jarod Lyon and Tom Ryan 78
Contributions Vegetation condition assessment of the semi-arid woodlands of
Murray-Sunset National Park, Victoria, by Stacey A Cowans,
Kate E Callister, Martin E Westbrooke and Matthew S Gibson 85
A survey of the vertebrate fauna of the Black Range, near
Stawell, by Peter Homan , 94
The biology, ecology and horticultural potential of Banks ia L.f.:
A bibliography of recent literature, by AK Cavanagh 102
Damage by the Feral Goat Capra hircus to Mallee in
Murray-Sunset National Park, by David Cheal 108
Book Reviews Regardfullv yours. Selected Correspondence of Ferdinand von
Mueller, Volume I: 1840-1859, Volume II: 1 860-1875, edited by
RW Home , AM Lucas, Sara Maroske. DM Sinkora and JH Voight,
reviewed by Linden Giilbank 112
Old Land, New Landscapes: a story of farmers, conservation and
the landscape movement, Chris Williams , reviewed by Rob Youl ... 1 15
Guidelines for the Translocation of Threatened Plants in
Australia, by L Vat lee, T Hogbin, L Monks , B Makinson , M Matthes
and M Rossetto, reviewed by Melanie Birtchnell 116
Still glides the stream: the natural history of the Yarra from
Fleidelberg to Yarra Bend, by Geoff Lacey, reviewed
by Don Garden . . 1 18
Naturalist Notes High density hibemacula in Southern Water Skinks Eulamprus
tympanum, by Raymond Hoser , 1 1 9
Drunken Honey Bees, by Melanie Birtchnell, Chris Tyshing
and Maria G ibson . , , 120
Environment Report to the Environment Fund for project supported in 2004 121
Fund
Legislation Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 122
ISSN 0042-5184
Web address: http://www.vicnet.net.au/~fncv/vicnat.htm
Email vicnat(fl) vicnet.net.au
Research Reports
Distribution of foraging waterbirds throughout the Lake
Borrie ponds at the Western Treatment Plant, Victoria
(Australia)
Andrew J Hamilton and Iain R Taylor
Abstract
Lake Borrie at the Western Treatment Plant (WTP) is w idely regarded as an important site for water-
birds, and it forms part of a Ramsar Welland of International Importance. The lake comprises two
independent series of waste-stabilisation ponds. The distribution ©f foraging waterbirds throughout
the two systems w as studied. Overall, Lake Borrie was used by many species of waterbirds w ith dif-
ferent foraging methods. Birds that fed in the water were found in highest densities on the aerobic
ponds, which occur towards the end of each series. Musk Ducks Biziura lobaia w ere in highest den-
sities in the deepest of these aerobic ponds. Some waterbirds, such as ibis species, fed on the dense
grass meadows of the embankments of the anaerobic ponds. Paradise Pond, a shallow wetland to the
north of Lake Borrie that receives overflow from one of the Lake Borrie ponds, supported higher
numbers of w aders than any of the Lake Borne ponds. In 2005, Lake Borrie w ill be supplied with
treated effluent rather than raw sewage, as is currently the case. Such a change has the potential to
affect benthic and planktonic food-webs, which could, in turn, influence foraging waterbird use of
the ponds. The data presented here will provide a useful reference point for detecting any such
changes in the future. ( The Victorian Naturalist 122 (2) 2005, 68-78)
Introduction
The Western Treatment Plant (WTP) is a
large sewage treatment facility that
receives about 52% of the Greater City of
Melbourne’s sewage (about 500 ML day ')
(Melbourne Water el at. 2000). It is listed
as a wetland of international importance in
acknowledgement of the internationally
significant numbers of waterfowl and
shorebirds found there (Ramsar
Convention Bureau 1984). Within the
WTP, a site known as Lake Borne is con-
sidered to be of particular importance to
waterbirds (Elliget 1980; Ramsar
Convention Bureau 1984; Lane and Peake
1990). Lake Borrie is made up of two inde-
pendent series of waste-stabilisation ponds
(WSP). Unlike most scries of WSP at the
WTP, the Lake Borrie ponds vary greatly
in size, are irregular in shape and differ in
depth. One pond. Pond 9, is unique in that
it contains a large stand of dead trees
(mostly Melaleuca lanceolata). The physi-
cal, chemical and biological properties of
ponds in a sewage treatment series are
largely dependent on the position of the
Applied Ornithology Group, Johnstone Centre, School
of Environmental and Information Sciences. Charles
Sturt University, PO Box 789, Albury, NSW 2640
-’Current address for corresponding author: Primary
Industries Research Victoria— Knox Held, Private Bag
15, Ferntree Gully Delivery Centre, Victoria 3156
Email Andrew.Hamilton@dpi.vic.gov.au or
andrewh@dcakin.edu.au
pond in the series. Ponds at the start of a
series tend to be anaerobic, those in the
middle, facultative (i.e. aerobic upper layer
and anaerobic lower layer), and those
toward the end, aerobic. Waterbird use of
WSP has been well documented
(Dornbush and Anderson 1964; Uhler
1964: Dodge and Low 1972; Willson
1975; Swanson 1977; Maxson 1981; Piest
and Sowls 1985), but only few studies
have investigated the distribution of water-
birds throughout ponds representing vari-
ous stages of treatment (Hamilton et al.
2005).
At present, Lake Borrie is supplied with
pre-settled raw sewage. But this will not
always be the case. More stringent dis-
charge standards relating to the quality of
effluent that is discharged from the WTP
into Port Phillip Bay will be enforced. In
order to meet these demands, two new acti-
vated sludge treatment plants (ASP) have
been commissioned. From 2005 onwards.
Lake Borrie will be supplied with the efflu-
ent from one of these plants. This effluent
would be expected to be of greatly different
quality from pre-settled raw sewage. In par-
ticular, the concentration of biologically
available carbon is likely to be much lower
in the ASP effluent, and it is not known
what effect such a change will have on the
food-webs in the Lake Borrie ponds
68
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
(Hamilton et al. 2003). If the food-webs are
altered drastically, then this may affect the
use of the ponds by foraging waterbirds
(Hamilton et at. 2002). It is possible that
the distribution of waterbirds throughout
the ponds will change. The primary objec-
tive of this paper is to provide data that can
be used as a reference point for detecting
such changes. We also briefly describe the
use of a shallow pond. Paradise Pond, adja-
cent to Lake Borrie North.
Materials and methods
Study site
The WTP occupies 10 851 ha and is
located 35 km west of Melbourne on the
shores of Port Phillip Bay (Fig. 1). The
Lake Borrie North and South systems are
two major series of waste-stabilisation
ponds at the WTP (Fig. 2). They are inde-
pendent: there is no exchange of sewage
between them. Both have about the same
total capacity, 48.2% and 51.8% of the
total capacity of Lake Borrie for North and
South respectively. They receive influent
from a common supply carrier and they
usually receive roughly equal levels of
flow. The two systems also cover about the
same total surface area; the North and
South accounting for 49.4% and 50.6% of
Lake Borrie respectively (Elliget 1980).
Fig. 1. Map showing the location of the
Western Treatment Plant.
At the northern-most point of Pond 9
some of the effluent from the pond flows
through a drain to form a pool of shallow
water on the other side of the road. This
pool is colloquially known as Paradise
Pond (Fig. 2). Paradise Pond is not formal-
ly considered to be a part of the Lake
Borrie North lagoon, but it can effectively
be seen as an extension of Pond 9.
The direction of sewage Tow through the
Lake Borrie systems is marked in Fig. 2.
The estimated mean depth of each pond is
presented in Tables 1 and 2. These esti-
mates were calculated from the ratio of
maximum volumetric capacity to surface
area (data obtained from MMBW Map
L-76). The ponds that are considered to be
anaerobic (according to Melbourne Water
map L-76) are also denoted in Tables 1 and
2. Most of the remaining ponds are aerobic,
but Ponds 8 and 23 in the North and South
systems respectively can change in oxy-
genation status from anaerobic, to faculta-
tive, to aerobic (A Dunn pers. comm.).
The boundary of the Paradise Pond area
has been estimated roughly here. It should
be acknowledged that in summer it some-
times receives minor additional input from
overland-flow treated effluent (T Gulovsen
pers. comm.). Similarly, it should be
recognised that in summer Pond 28
receives, at its southern end, a relatively
minor addition of overland-flow treated
effluent, and in the first week of May and
in October some grass-filtered effluent
enters here as well.
Sampling protocol
All 30 of the Lake Borrie Ponds plus
Paradise Pond were surveyed at approxi-
mately monthly intervals from 1 August
1998 to 27 June 1999. It took about two
hours to survey all of the ponds, and sam-
pling was timed so that the mid-point
roughly coincided with mid-afternoon (i.e.
halfway between true midday and sunset).
Different species of waterbirds spend dif-
ferent amounts of time feeding at different
times during the day, and thus it was
impossible to choose a sampling time
when all species were expected to be feed-
ing near peak levels. The mid-afternoon
sampling time was chosen for two reasons.
First, most waterfowl species would be
expected to be spending a relatively high
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
69
Research Reports
Fig. 2. Map of the Lake Borrie North and South
systems.
proportion of their time feeding at this time
of day (Hamilton et at. 2002). Second, the
length of time it took to survey all the
ponds (about two hours) precluded a sam-
pling protocol centred on sunrise or sunset.
Ponds were sampled in the same order on
each date. Due to logistical constraints,
mainly time and track access, it was not
possible to randomise the order of sam-
pling. The ponds at the start of the system
were sampled first, and sampling then pro-
gressed down Lake Borrie, with no distinc-
tion being made between the North and
South systems. Paradise Pond was sampled
immediately after the Lake Borrie surveys
had been completed. Most ponds were sur-
veyed from the car using a Leica® Televid
77 telescope (20-60 x zoom magnifica-
tion) mounted to the window' with a
Bushnell® car window clamp. Because of
both its large size and the presence of the
dead trees. Pond 9 was surveyed using the
approach described by Hepw'orth and
Hamilton (2001), which basically involved
dividing the pond into five sections.
Several ponds (2, 5, 6 and 15-18) could
only be reached by foot, and they were sur-
veyed using binoculars (Carton - 10 x 50).
The total number of individuals of each
species at each pond was recorded. Birds
in flight were not recorded, as they could
not be inferred to be using any particular
pond. For diving species, the fact that
some birds could be under water needed to
be taken into account. Hardheads Aythya
australis and Hoary-headed Grebes
Poliocephalus poliocephalus were sur-
veyed using the methodology described in
Hamilton and Taylor (2004) and Hamilton
et at. (2004), respectively. For Blue-billed
Ducks Oxyuru australis and Musk Ducks,
which have been reported to have maxi-
mum dive times of 30 and 60 seconds
respectively (Frith 1982), each field of
view was maintained for at least this long
so that all birds could be counted.
Feeding and resource use assumptions
Time constraints did not permit a detailed
survey of the birds' activities, as was done
by Hamilton et al (2002) for waterfow l at
Pond 9, and feeding frequency data at one
particular time of day would have been of
little value. However, qualitative observa-
tions were made at each pond to determine
if a species fed at the pond at all. Any
species seen feeding at Lake Borrie was
simply defined as a ‘foraging species' for
the purposes of this study. Furthermore,
there w'ere no ponds w here any of these
foraging species were only seen roosting;
some individuals of each species, at each
pond, were seen feeding. Species that were
never seen feeding at Lake Borrie, i.e.
Australian Pelicans and all cormorant
species, were excluded from the analysis.
Birds using any of the resources were
included in the analysis. Thus, it was
assumed that birds that were seen using a
resource where they were unlikely to feed,
such as Pink-eared Ducks Mafacorhynchus
membranaceus on a log, would have been
resting between feeding bouts at that par-
ticular pond. This assumption is not likely
to be true always, as some individuals may
have roosted at different ponds from those
which they fed on. Bui for the waterfowl
species studied at Pond 9 over the same
period (Hamilton et at. 2002). there was
minimal diurnal variation in abundance
over the day, which implies that there were
not substantial movements to or from this
pond throughout the day.
Data analysis
The distribution of waterbirds on the var-
ious ponds was considered separately for
the North and South systems. Data were
70
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
pooled across all dates, and the density of
birds at each pond was simply reported as
a percentage of the sum of densities from
all ponds in the series. By reporting data as
percentage densities rather than percentage
abundances, implications about the habitat
quality could be made. Some species were
found exclusively on the embankment, and
for these abundance was corrected for the
length of the pond perimeter rather than
surface area (i.e. density for birds using
pond). This was important because large
ponds have a lower perimeter to surface
area ratio than small ponds. Representing
the embankment as a one-dimensional
measure is not ideal, but the area of the
embankment for each pond was not
known. Nevertheless, the width of the
embankment was very similar for all
ponds, as it is effectively a vehicular track.
Thus, perimeter length was probably a rea-
sonable measure of relative availability of
embankment habitat. Species that were
only represented on less than live dates are
denoted (Tables 1 and 2), and the total
number of birds, which was very low for
some species, is reported. These parame-
ters are important when interpreting the
relative abundances across the ponds.
Since Paradise Pond is not formally con-
sidered to be part of the North system — and
because its physical characteristics are dis-
tinctly different from the Lake Borrie
ponds — it was considered separately. The
number of individuals of each species seen
at Paradise Pond on each of the twelve
sampling dates is presented in Table 3. The
surface area of Paradise Pond is unknown,
and hence the data could not be presented
as densities. As with the study of the Lake
Borrie Ponds, species that were not seen
feeding at Paradise pond were not included.
Results
Lake Borrie North
All the aerobic ponds (9-14) supported
substantially higher percentage densities of
total waterbirds than the anaerobic ponds
(1-7) (Table 1). Pond 8, which varies in
oxygenation status, also supported relative-
ly low densities of waterbirds. With the
exception of the Pacific Black Duck Anas
super ciliosa, all species were completely
absent from the water of the anaerobic
ponds throughout the study; all other
species were seen feeding on the embank-
ments. Whilst Pacific Black Ducks were
seen on the water, they were only seen
feeding on the grasses on the embankment.
Thus, no species was seen feeding in the
water on the anaerobic ponds. Black
Swans Cygnns at rams, Australian White
Ibises Threskiornis Molucca, Purple
Swamphens Porphyrio porphyria, and
Masked Lapwings Vanellus miles were
also seen feeding on the embankments of
these ponds (Table 1 ).
Pond 9 appeared to provide the most use-
ful habitat for foraging waterbirds in gen-
eral, supporting the highest relative density
(30% of the North System); most water-
fowl species were found in high percent-
age densities on this pond. The most
notable exception was Musk Duck, which
was reported almost exclusively on Pond
14. Australasian Shoveler Anas rhynchotis ,
Australian Shelduck Tadorna ladomoides ,
Chestnut Teal Anas castanea , and Pink-
eared Duck demonstrated a strong prefer-
ence for Pond 9 (90%, 77%, 72%, and
100% respectively). Black Swans were
found in similar densities across all the aer-
obic ponds, and Hardheads were found in
greatest densities across three of them —
Ponds 9, 1 1, and 13. Hoary-headed Grebes
were observed in greatest densities on
Ponds 13 and 14 (26% and 31%), although
reasonably high percentage densities
(10-19%) were also reported for the other
aerobic ponds. Eurasian Coots Fulica atra
were found in the highest densities at Pond
12 (78%). Neither Hoary-headed Grebes
nor Eurasian Coots were seen on the anaer-
obic ponds on any occasion. Grey Teal
Anas gracilis was the only species that was
observed to use Pond 8 to an appreciable
degree (55%). Purple Sw;amphens were
most frequently seen feeding on the grassy
embankments of the anaerobic ponds (Table
1) . There were insufficient data available to
adequately describe the distribution of the
other waterbird species (Table 1).
Lake Borrie South
Like the Lake Borrie North system, the
anaerobic ponds in the South system were
used substantially less frequently than the
aerobic ponds by most waterbirds (Table
2) , and species were only ever seen feed-
ing on embankments of these ponds, never
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
71
Table 1. The percentage densities of foraging waterbirds on the Lake Borrie North ponds (i.e. percentage of individuals of a species, standardised for the area of
the pond, or, in the case of species that were only seen on the pond embankments or wading at the edge of any pond1, the length of its perimeter). Total waterbird
percentage densities are based on pond area. The number of species observed has not been adjusted for pond area. *Species that were observed on less than 5 of
the 12 sampling dates, 'species never seen feeding on open water of that particular pond, only on embankment, n = total number of birds counted across all dates,
‘anaerobic ponds (according to Melbourne Water map L-76).
Research Reports
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The Victorian Naturalist
Silver Gull* 69.9 30.1 2
All waterbirds 1.2 <0.1 0.8 2.5 <0.1 0.1 0.5 2.0 29.9 9.0 16.3 15.0 22.5 34819
Total no. species 5 1 3 6 1 1 2 10 20 7 6 6 12 22
Research Reports
on the water. But the Australian Shelduck
and Grey Teal, which did not use the
anaerobic ponds in the North system, did
use them in the South system. Both species
were often seen grazing on the dense
meadows of grass around the first few
ponds in the series (Table 2). Australian
Shelduck densities were highest at Pond
24, where these birds fed in the water.
Pacific Black Ducks were seen feeding on
grasses on the embankments of some of
the anaerobic ponds, but they were found
in greatest densities on the aerobic
ponds — particularly Pond 28 — where they
fed in the water. Black Swans, whilst
found in highest densities on the aerobic
ponds, were also seen feeding on the
embankments of the anaerobic ponds
(Table 2). Chestnut Teal were almost
exclusively found on the aerobic ponds,
particularly 25, 26, and 30. Australasian
Shovelers, Blue-billed Ducks, Eurasian
Coots, Hoary-headed Grebes. Musk Ducks
and Pink-eared Ducks were entirely absent
from the anaerobic ponds. The highest
densities of Australasian Shovelers were at
Ponds 10 and 24. Blue-billed Ducks were
reported only on Pond 24, although they
were seen only on three dates. Eurasian
Coots were present on all the aerobic
ponds, but they were found in highest den-
sities on Pond 29. Hoary-headed Grebes
also used all the aerobic ponds. They were
observed in highest densities on Pond 30.
Musk Duck relative densities were sub-
stantially higher on Pond 30 (85% of the
South System) than for any other pond.
Pink-eared Ducks were found almost
exclusively on Pond 24. although they
were seen only on three dates, and any
conclusions about their distribution need to
be treated with caution.
Australian White Ibises were frequently
seen feeding on the embankments of the
anaerobic ponds, particularly Ponds 15 and
22. Similarly, Purple Swamphens were
often seen feeding on the embankments of
the anaerobic ponds, especially Pond 16.
The distribution of all other species can be
seen in Table 2, but their numbers were
generally low, and they were all observed
on less than five dates.
Paradise Pond
The waterbird community at Paradise
Pond was characterised by the presence of
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
many wader species, five of which —
Common Greenshank Tringa nehularia ,
Curlew Sandpiper Calidris ferrugineci,
Double-banded Plover Charadrius hicinc-
tus , Red-capped Plover Charadrius rufi-
c a pi Hus, and Red-necked Stint Calidris
ruficoUis — were not reported at either of
the Lake Borrie systems during the study.
In addition, another two species, the
Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinelltts and Sharp-
tailed Sandpiper Calidris acuminata , were
found in greater numbers over the entire
study at Paradise Pond (20 and 1845
respectively) than at the two Lake Borrie
systems combined (one and two respec-
tively). All these species fed by wading in
the shallow water of Paradise Pond. Also,
since this study, around 40 Banded Stilts
Cladorhynchus leucocephalus were
observed feeding at the site in a mixed
flock with Black-winged Stilts
Himantopos himantopus (AJH pers. obs.
September 2001 ).
Masked Lapwings, Black Swans,
Australian White Ibises, Straw-necked
Ibises, Australian Shelducks and Australian
Wood Ducks all fed on the embankment.
Silver Gulls Lams novaehoUandiae were
seen feeding in the water.
Most duck species were seen feeding at
Paradise Pond (Table 3), the exceptions
being the two diving species — Blue-billed
Duck and Hardhead. Another diving bird,
Hoary-headed Grebe was only rarely sight-
ed at Paradise Pond (three birds over entire
study), and Eurasian Coots were not seen
at all.
Discussion
In general, the distribution of waterbirds
throughout the Lake Borrie ponds in this
study was similar to that observed by
Elliget (1980) over twenty years ago. For
the North and South systems, both studies
found that the anaerobic ponds were rarely
used by any species of waterbirds. The
only feeding habitat these ponds appeared
to offer was the embankment. In both stud-
ies, Purple Swamphens, Pacific Black
Ducks, Australian Shelducks and Black
Swans were seen grazing on the grass sur-
rounding these ponds. These grass mead-
ows were dominated by Paspalum sp.
(Elliget 1980; AJH pers. obs.). In the pre-
sent study White-faced Herons Egretta
novaehoUandiae were observed stalking in
73
Research Reports
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the grass, and both ibis
species were seen feeding in
this soft ground. In contrast,
the embankments of the aero-
bic ponds were generally
much steeper, thus less
moist, and more compacted
by vehicular traffic, and they
did not support lush growth
of grass as did the anaerobic
ponds. These characteristics
probably explain why birds
were rarely seen feeding on
these embankments.
Even though the embank-
ments of the aerobic ponds
were not well used, the ponds
themselves were clearly the
most utilised ponds in the
North and South systems in
both the present study and
that of Elliget (1980)’. It is
likely that the aerobic ponds
supported a higher abun-
dance food, but samples were
not taken to confirm this. A
study on several other series
of ponds at the WTP found
that populations of plankton-
ic and benthic invertebrates
were more abundant in aero-
bic ponds than anaerobic
ponds (Hamilton et al. 2005).
It could be argued that
waterbirds chose ponds based
on their size. But this seems
unlikely for most species,
since in both the North and
South systems several rela-
tively small ponds (e.g. 10,
12, 13 and 26) supported
substantially higher densities
of total waterbirds, and of
most species, than much larg-
er ponds within the respec-
tive systems (e.g. 8, 1 1 and
23). Pond 10 is one of the
smallest ponds in the South
system, yet it supported the
highest density of total
1 Elligei (1980) presented data as
abundance, but we have recalculated
her data as percentage density. These
recalculated data will be referred to
henceforth.
74
The Victorian Naturalist
Table 3. Numbers of waterbirds seen at Paradise Pond on twelve dates.
Research Reports
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Vol. 122 (2) 2005
75
Total waterbirds 193 230 2362 409 629 159 671 983 857 657 429 289 7868
No. species 8 12 10 5 12 8 10 10 8 14 10 9 25
Research Reports
waterbirds. Nevertheless, Pink-eared
Ducks were observed exclusively on the
two largest ponds in Lake Borrie, Ponds 9
and 24 (mainly Pond 9), and Australian
Shelducks were also found in highest den-
sities on these two ponds. Elliget (1980)
found similar distributions for both of
these species.
Australian Shelducks did not form dis-
tinct feeding or resting flocks as did Pink-
eared Ducks. Ponds 9 and 24, with respec-
tive mean depths of only 85 cm and 98 cm,
are much shallower than all the other aero-
bic ponds (Tables l and 2), and this may
partially explain why Australian
Shelducks, at least, used these two ponds
almost exclusively. Based on measure-
ments provided by Frith (1982), an aver-
age-sized Shelduck would probably be
able to reach down to about 60 cm by up-
ending. Even though the depth data repre-
sent only an estimated average depth, this
tends to suggest that the other aerobic
ponds were too deep for this species to
reach the bottom. Personal observation
(AJEI) of Pond 9 from a boat suggests that
whilst parts of this large pond would also
be too deep for this species to reach the
bottom, other parts were only around
30-40 cm deep. Even if Australian
Shelducks were able to reach the bottom of
many parts of some of the other ponds,
they may have been able to do so only by
up-ending but not dipping (i.e. submerging
head simply by bending at neck, keeping
body horizontal with the water's surface).
Dipping accounted for 37% of the foraging
in Pond 9 (Hamilton el al. 2002), and it is
likely that it is a more energetically effi-
cient means of feeding than up-ending, and
as such it would be the preferred method.
The diet of Australian Shelducks at Lake
Borrie is not known. This species is gener-
ally considered to be able to feed on both
animal and vegetable matter (Frith 1982).
Filamentous benthic algae may form a
major component of its diet. If so, it is pos-
sible that the shallower depths of Ponds 9
and 24, where this species was found in
high densities, favoured the development
of benthic algal communities. But Black
Swans, which have been seen feeding on
filamentous algae at Pond 9 (Hamilton et
al. 2002), and which are generally consid-
ered to be entirely herbivorous (Frith
1982), were found in highest densities in
several of the deeper ponds. Therefore, it
may be that the accessibility to the bottom
is a more likely explanation of the
Australian Shelduck’s preference for the
shallowest ponds. Selection of the most
suitable pond for foraging may be of par-
ticular importance to Australian Shelducks,
as these birds were moulting and thus
flightless during much of their stay at Lake
Borrie (Hamilton and Taylor 2002).
The availability of trees for roosting may
have increased the attractiveness of Pond 9
to Chestnut Teal, and possibly to other
species (e.g. Australian Shelduck,
Australasian Shoveler and Pink-eared
Duck). Chestnut Teal would not have been
able to reach the bottom of many parts of
Pond 9, although they were commonly
seen up-ending and dipping around the
dead trees where sediment may have accu-
mulated, leading to shallower water.
In both the present study and that of
Elliget (1980) Pacific Black Ducks did not
demonstrate a preference for the shallow-
est aerobic ponds. Several aerobic ponds of
various depths and sizes supported the
majority of the birds in both systems.
However, unlike the other large up-end-
ing/dipping duck, Australian Shelduck,
Pacific Black Ducks were most frequently
seen feeding at the edge of the ponds,
where the water was presumably shallow-
er. Another up-ending/dipping species.
Grey Teal, was sighted in greatest densities
on Ponds 8 and 9. The percentage of total
density was slightly higher for Pond 8 than
for Pond 9 (Table 1). But this probably
does not reflect the preferred feeding habi-
tat of the species, as the abundance for
Pond 8 was inflated by a large flock pre-
sent there on one date only. Most of the
birds in this flock were not feeding.
Unlike the up-ending species that might
have been unable to feed in the deeper
ponds, some diving species may have pre-
ferred deeper water. In both this study and
that of Elliget (1980), Musk Ducks were
found almost exclusively in the deepest
two ponds of the North (Pond 14) and
South (Pond 30) systems. These two ponds
are substantially deeper than any of the
other Lake Borrie ponds (Tables 1 and 2).
The remaining birds were roughly evenly
distributed amongst the next few deepest
76
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
ponds in each system. Frith (1982)
believed that the preferred habitat of this
species was deep, permanent water,
although he did not say how deep.
Factors other than water depth may
explain pond choice by Musk Ducks. The
fact that densities were highest in the last
pond of each system may mean that they
preferred to forage in ‘clearer’ water.
Being at the end of a series, these ponds
would be expected to have less suspended
sediment, although there are no data avail-
able to support this, and it is not known if
Musk Ducks locate their prey and navigate
by sight or touch (Frith 1982). It is possi-
ble that the benefits of decreased turbidity
may have been negated by increased depth,
which would also reduce visibility. The
possibility that there were higher concen-
trations of invertebrate prey items in these
ponds should also not be discounted as a
possible factor explaining the higher densi-
ties of Musk Ducks in these ponds.
Even though Hoary-headed Grebe densi-
ties were highest in Ponds 14 and 30, the
preference for these ponds was not as
marked as that for the Musk Duck, and
Hoary-headed Grebes were found in rela-
tively high densities in all the aerobic
ponds. The reason for this pattern is not
clear. It is possible that the deeper ponds
were the preferred foraging habitat for
Hoary-headed Grebes, but that intra-spe-
cific competition in this very abundant
species forced some birds to forage on the
less profitable ponds. In contrast to the
findings of this study, Elliget (1980) found
that several of the smaller aerobic ponds
supported the highest densities of this
species, and that there was no preference
for the deeper ponds.
For the species discussed above, the dis-
tribution of those for which the choice of
pond is likely to be largely dependent on
food resources, rather than physical char-
acteristics such as depth, may change after
the two systems receive treated effluent in
2005. Studies on the potential food
resources would need to be conducted to
address this.
Paradise Pond was identified as an
important site for several wader species.
The shallow water made wading possible,
unlike the Lake Borrie Ponds where even
the edges were usually unsuitable for wad-
ing. Conversely, Paradise Pond was pre-
sumably too shallow for diving waterbirds.
It is important to acknowledge that
Paradise Pond receives most of its water
from Pond 9. Therefore, it is effectively
part of the Lake Bon ie system, and conse-
quently susceptible to impacts resulting
from changes to Lake Borrie influent qual-
ity. The area is also one of the few shallow
freshwater sites available to wading birds
in the WTP. Large numbers of several
wader species have been reported to feed
along the shoreline of the WTP (Lane and
Peake 1990), and it may be that Paradise
Pond offers a useful alternative feeding
area for these species. Paradise Pond is
well used by waders and thus needs to be
managed with prudence.
Acknowledgements
Pam Rogers was field-scribe for all sampling
dates, and we thank her for her assistance. Pam
also drafted the maps for Figs 1 and 2. We wish
to thank Wayne Robinson for his comments on
a draft of the manuscript. We also acknowledge
financial support of the Johnstone Centre,
Charles Sturt University.
References
Boyall J (1995) The role of protozoa in the shallow
lagoon sewage treatment system at the Western
Treatment Plant. Werribee. (Unpublished BSc Hons
thesis. La Trobe University. Melbourne)
Dodge DE and Low JB ( 1972) Logan lagoons good for
ducks. Utah Science 33, 55 57.
Dornbush JN and Anderson JR (1964) Ducks on the
wastewater pond. Water and Sewage Works 3,
271-276.
Elliget M (1980) A study of Lake Borrie. Werribee
Sewerage Farm as a waterfowl (Anatidae) refuge
area. (Unpublished BSc Hons thesis, La Trobe
University. Melbourne).
Frith H.l (1982) Waterfowl in Australia 2 ed. (Angus
and Robertson: Sydney)
Hamilton A.I and Taylor 1R (2004) Seasonal patterns in
abundance of waterfowl ( Anatidae) at a waste-stabil-
isation pond. Core// a 28, 6 1 -67.
Hamilton A.I, Robinson W, Taylor 1R and Wilson BP
(2005) The ecology of sewage treatment gradients in
relation to their use by waterbirds. Hvdrobiologia
534,91-108.
Hamilton AJ. Taylor IR and Hepwurth G (2002)
Activity budgets of waterfowl (Anatidae) on a waste
Stabilisation pond at the Western Treatment Plant,
Victoria. Emu 102, 171 179.
Hamilton AJ. Taylor IR and Rogers PM (2004)
Seasonal and diurnal patterns of waterbird abundance
al a waste stabilisation pond, Victoria (Australia).
Core/ (a 28, 43-54.
Hamilton A.I, laylor IR and Wilson BP (2003)
Potential impact of future sewage treatment changes
on waterbird use of the Lake Borrie ponds at the
Western Treatment Plant: a theoretical discussion.
Water 30, 54 57.
Ilepworth G and Hamilton AJ (2001) Scan sampling
and waterfowl activity budget studies: design and
analysis considerations. Behaviour 138, 1391 1405.
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Lane B and Peake P (1990) Nature conservation at the
Werribee Treatment Complex. Melbourne and
Metropolitan Board of Works, 91/008, Melbourne.
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sewage lagoon. The Prairie Naturalist 13, 1-12.
Melbourne Water, Department of Natural Resources
and Environment and Parks Victoria (2000) Western
Treatment Plant and The Spit Nature Conservation
Reserve conservation management action plan.
Pearson, K. (1920) Notes on The history of correlation.
Biometrika 13,25-45.
Piest LA and Sowls LK (1985) Breeding duck use of a
sewage marsh in Arizona. Journal of Wildlife
Management 49, 580-585.
Ramsar Convention Bureau (1984 ) Proceedings of the
Second Conference of the Parties; Groningen,
Netherlands . 7 to 12 May 19S4 . Convention on wet-
lands of international importance especially as water-
fowl habitat; International Union for Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources: Gland, Switzerland.
Swanson GA (1977) Diel food selection by Anatidae
on a waste-stabilization system. Journal of Wildlife
Management 4 1 , 226- 23 1 .
Uhler FM (1964) Bonus from waste places. In
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Received 5 August 2004; accepted 3 March 2005
Observations of the nationally threatened freshwater fish,
Murray Hardyhead Craterocephalus fluviatilis McCulloch
1913, in three Victorian salt lakes
Jarod Lyon1 and Tom Ryan
Abstract
Five self-sustaining populations of the nationally threatened fish Murray Hardyhead
Craterocephalus fluviatilis are know n to exist in Victoria, all of which are located in saline lakes in
the north-central and north-west of tine state. A survey w as undertaken in February 2002 to deter-
mine the status of three of these populations, found in Lake Elizabeth, Round Lake and Woorinen
North Lake. In Lake Elizabeth and Woorinen North Lake an abundance of fish encompassing a
broad range of size classes w ere collected, indicating that these populations were in good health. A
high percentage of the fish from these two lakes were also found to be in spawning condition. The
population of < C. fluviatilis from Round Lake was found to be in poor health, being both less abun-
dant and displaying a restricted size class. This appears to be primarily due to deteriorating water
quality', declining water level and subsequent reduction of aquatic vegetation which C. fluviatilis use
as habitat. { The Victorian Naturalist 122 (2) 2005, 78-84).
Introduction
Increases in salinity levels are a major
threat to freshwater biodiversity through-
out Australia (Hart el al. 1991; Clunie et
al. 2002). As the most regulated system in
Australia, the Murray-Darling Basin
(MDB) has been particularly impacted,
with land clearing and flow regulation con-
tributing to increases in salinity across vast
areas ( Hart el al. 1991; Clunie el al. 2002 ).
Murray Hardyhead Craterocephalus flu-
viatilis McCulloch 1913. is one fish species
inhabiting the MDB which is potentially
threatened by increasing salinity. The
Murray Hardyhead is a mobile schooling
species that is usually associated with shal-
low sand or silt flats, but can also be found
1 Freshwater Ecology Section, Arthur Rylah Institute
for Environmental Research. Department of
Sustainability and Environment, Victoria 3125.
Email: jarod.lyon@dse.vic.gov.au
within deep and well-vegetated habitat
(Ebner et al. 2003). Some observations of
the species have been made in riverine
environments; however, more conspicuous,
large, self-sustaining populations persist
primarily in ephemeral saline depressions
(Ebner et ai 2003 ). Murray Hardyhead are
often found amongst submerged aquatic
vegetation, upon which adhesive eggs are
laid (Llewellyn 1979, Ivantsoff and
Crowley 1996). This vegetation is of great
importance as it provides cover from
predators, and can act as a foraging ground
for prey items (Lyon et al. 2002).
Although historically believed to be com-
mon throughout South Australia, southern
New South Wales and northern Victoria,
the range of Murray Hardyhead has
declined drastically (Morris et al. 2000;
78
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
Ebner et al. 2003). At present, the only
known populations in Victoria are located
in isolated floodplain lakes associated with
the Murray River in north-central and
north-western Victoria (Ebner et al. 2003).
Recent surveys have confirmed Murray
Hardyhead present in the following
Victorian waterbodies: Round Lake, Golf
Course Lake (now extinct due to low water
and high salinity levels). Lake Elizabeth,
Woorinen North Lake, Cardross Lakes and
Lake Hawthorn (McGuckin 1999; Raadik
and Fairbrother 1999; Hardie 2000). Apart
from increases in salinity, other reasons for
the decline in range of Murray Hardyhead
could include altered flow regimes* farm-
ing practices, the effects of introduced
predatory fish (in particular Gambusia
Gambusia holbrooki ), river regulation and
loss of connectivity of rivers to floodplain
lakes (Ebner et al. 2003, Lyon et al. 2002).
Over the past 50 years there has been
some confusion over the identification of
Craterocephalus species (Crowley and
Ivantsoff 1990). Murray Hardyhead have
often been confused with three other
species of the same genus: Lake Eyre
Hardyhead C eyres ii Steindacher 1883;
the recently described Darling River
Hardyhead C. amniculus (Crowley &
Ivanstoff 1990), and the Unspecked
Hardyhead C stercusmuscarum fulvus
(Ivanstoff et al. 1987) which was previous-
ly considered to be C. fluviatilis due to
similarities in their morphology. The Lake
Eyre Hardyhead is restricted to the Lake
Eyre Drainage Basin (Allen et al. 2002).
The Darling River Hardyhead appears to
be found only in the upper tributaries of
the Darling River system, and is most easi-
ly distinguished from other hardyheads by
a relatively large number of transverse
scales (up to 17). The Unspecked
Hardyhead is ubiquitous, being found
throughout a large portion of the MDB,
extending into Queensland, and many
early Murray Hardyhead records may have
been attributed to this species. The feature
which most easily distinguishes the
Unspecked Hardyhead from the Murray
Hardyhead is the number of transverse
scales (7-8 scales on unspecked hardyhead,
10-12 scales on Murray Hardyhead) (T
Raadik pers. comm.).
Craterocephalus fluviatilis has recently
been listed as Vulnerable under the
Environment Protection and Biodiversity
Act 1999 and Endangered under the
International Union for the Conservation
of Nature (IUCN) Red List 2004 (Wager
1996). The limited distribution and abun-
dance of C. fluviatilis in Victoria, and
Australia, means that the known remnant
populations are of great significance in
terms of the survival of the species.
The aim of this study was to investigate
the abundance and size distribution of the
three populations of C. fluviatilis found in
the Kerang Lakes complex (of the five
known Victorian populations) to obtain an
indication of population status.
Methods
The three lakes were sampled between
25 and 27 February 2002, with 9 seine
pulls undertaken within each lake. Seine
netting was undertaken using a 26 m long,
1.5 m deep fine mesh (8 mm) seine net.
Seine shots did not overlap with each other
within any site. A minimum of 50 random-
ly chosen Murray Hardyhead sampled
from each lake were weighed (to the near-
est 0.1 g) and measured (fork length in
mm). The remaining individuals were
counted and a total weight taken to ensure
the representativeness of the sub-sample.
Spawning condition was measured by
lightly pressing on the underside of those
fish that were weighed and measured. If
eggs or milt were excreted by light touch,
the fish was deemed to be ripe (i.e. in
spawning condition).
Water temperature (°C), electrical con-
ductivity (electrical conductivity units,
measured as ps/cm at 25'C , and abbreviat-
ed as EC), dissolved oxygen (mg/L) and
pH were all recorded using a TPS 90FL
Microprocessor Field Analyser. Turbidity
was measured using a Hach 21 OOP
Turbidimeter,
Study Area
All sampling sites are within the Murray-
Darling Basin. The three lakes chosen for
this study (Fig. 1) are located in the
Kerang Lakes district. The Kerang Lakes
are located in north-central Victoria, and
consist of over 170 wetlands, of which 50
are considered major waterbodies (Lugg et
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
79
Research Reports
S'
Woorinen North Lake
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5>
>
H Kerang '
1
A
Loddon River
Rivers/Wetlands
# Towns
N
A
W 't— 6
T
—
f y|p s&
Fig. 1. Location of Study Sites (Kerang/Swan Hill Area: +143° 43 ' 00", -35 0 30' 00" )
at, 1989). More than half of the 35 native
fish species found within the MDB have
been recorded in the Kerang Lakes area
(Anderson 1991).
Although the Kerang area is recognised
for its high conservation values, up to 72 %
of the region is affected by high salt levels
(McGuckin 1991), and no natural wetlands
in the area are considered as pristine
(Anderson 1991). The Kerang Lakes have
naturally high salinity levels, and these
have been exacerbated by intensive agricul-
ture. Lugg et at, (1989) described how an
increase in salinity is often accompanied by
a decrease in diversity of aquatic inverte-
brates. This is also true for fish species, as
most adult MDB fish (apart from Murray
Hardyhead) cannot tolerate salinities above
15 000 EC for long periods of time
(Anderson 1991; Clunie el ah 2002).
Elizabeth and Round lakes were sur-
veyed as part of an ongoing monitoring
regime undertaken by the Department of
Sustainability and Environment. Woorinen
North Lake was surveyed as part of a pro-
ject commissioned by Goulburn Murray
Water (GMW). Lake Elizabeth (53 000
EC) is a 94 ha saline lake with a maximum
depth of 4.0 m and an average depth of 3.0
m, and Round Lake (44 000 EC) is a 40 ha
saline lake with a maximum depth of 2.5 m
and an average depth of 1.8 m. Woorinen
North Lake (28 000 EC) is a 57 ha saline
lake with a maximum depth of 3.0 m and
an average depth of 1 .5 m. All three lakes
contain beds of the aquatic macrophyte
Ruppia spp.
Results
Lake Elizabeth
A total of 509 Murray Hardyhead was
captured from Lake Elizabeth (average of
57 individuals per seine shot). Of these, 83
were weighed (average weight ± 1 standard
deviation (S.D.): 1.2 g ± 1.7 g) and mea-
sured (average length ± 1 S.D: 34.0 mm
±19.8 mm) independently, and another 426
fish were weighed together (average weight
2.2 g). The size range of these fish showed
a bimodal distribution, indicating two dis-
tinct year classes (Figure 2a). Of the 37 fish
measured that were over 35 mm (the size
under which few fish were in spawning
condition) 73% contained eggs or milt (i.e.
were ripe). The smallest ripe male was 28
mm and the smallest ripe female measured
43 mm. Table 1 shows water quality data
from Lake Elizabeth. One Gambusia was
also captured from the lake.
Round Lake
A total of 106 fish was sampled from
Round Lake (average of 12 individuals per
seine shot), of which 53 fish were weighed
(average weight ± 1 SD: 1.7 g ± 0.9 g) and
80
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
Length (mm)
Fig. 2. Size range of Crater ocephalus fluviatilis captured from (a) Lake Elizabeth, (b) Round Lake
and (c) Woorinen North Lake
measured (average length ± 1 SD: 51.9
mm ± 10.3 mm) independently, and anoth-
er 53 fish were weighed together (average
weight 1.8 g). Two year classes were
observed, however these were not as dis-
tinct as those found in Lake Elizabeth. The
size range of these fish is shown in Figure
2b. Of the 49 fish measured that were over
35 mm, 71% were ripe. The smallest ripe
male was 37 mm and the smallest ripe
female was 52 mm. Table 1 shows water
quality data from Round Lake.
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
81
Research Reports
Table 1. Water quality parameters and number of C. fluviatilis sampled from each Lake.
Parameter
Elizabeth
Round
Woorinen North
Temperature (°C)
26.3
25.9
24.4
Turbidity (NTU)
33.4
62.2
8.1
Conductivity (pS/cm)
53200
43833
28033
PH
8.71
8.58
9.04
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)
7.11
4.60
8.24
Number of individuals
509
106
373
Woorinen North Lake
A total of 373 Murray Hardyhead was
captured from Woorinen North Lake (aver-
age of 41 individuals per seine shot), of
which 57 were weighed (average weight ±
1 SD: 1.1 g i 0.6 g) and measured (aver-
age length ± 1 SD: 44.2 mm ± 9.8 mm)
independently and the other 316 weighed
together (average weight 1 .0 g). The size
range of these fish is shown in Figure 2c,
and indicates one strong year class of fish
between 40 and 50 mm. No other strong
year classes were noted. Of the 52 fish
measured that were over 35 mm, 88%
were ripe. The smallest recorded ripe male
was 34 mm and the smallest recorded ripe
female was 41 mm. Table 1 shows water
quality data from Woorinen North Lake.
Discussion
Each of the populations of Murray
Hardyhead surveyed has a unique set of
values and threats that need to be consid-
ered in their management. One threat that
is common among all three lakes is that of
decrease of water caused primarily by
increased water-use efficiency.
Historically, lakes in this area have
received a relatively constant water supply
from irrigation run-off (Lugg et a/. 1989).
Increased water-use efficiency threatens
this important source of water. In areas
prone to salinisation, lower lake levels can
impact on fish species in twro distinct
ways. Firstly, as water levels drop, the cor-
responding concentration of salt increases.
Secondly, lowering water levels can
expose areas of important aquatic vegeta-
tion to drying, subsequently making this
habitat unavailable to fishes. Murray
Hardyhead use this aquatic vegetation, pri-
marily Ruppia spp.. (or Poiamogeton spp.)
as habitat and foraging areas.
Although this source of water was not
available prior to European settlement,
connectivity between the lakes during
times of flood would have ensured that
populations could be re-seeded even if
lakes dried during summer months.
Therefore, in recent times with reduced
connectivity, the lakes with relatively good
quality macrophyte populations are very
important for the long-term survival of the
fish populations.
Lake Elizabeth
Abundant beds of the aquatic macrophyte
Ruppia spp. provided habitat for a variety
of size classes of C. fluviatilis found in
Lake Elizabeth. Fish captured in this lake
were of a larger size range than those cap-
tured in the other two lakes (Figure. 2). The
reasons for this are unclear, however
Hardie (2000). who also noted this phe-
nomenon, suggested that there may be
genetic differences between the three pop-
ulations due to their isolation from each
other.
Lake Elizabeth receives the majority of
its water from irrigation run-off. A major
threat to the Murray Hardyhead in Lake
Elizabeth is an interaction between the
lake and its underlying groundwater. As
the lake level falls, pressure on a saline
aquifer under the lake is decreased
(MacCumber 2002). This allows the saline
water from the aquifer to enter lake. A
lower lake level also means that the salt
already present within the lake becomes
more concentrated. The highest recorded
salinity level at which Murray Hardyhead
have been found is 67 500 EC (McGuckin
1999). It is important that any management
regimes formulated for this lake take into
account it’s already high levels of salinity
(approximately 50 000 EC). These levels
are likely to be close to the upper tolerance
level of C. fluviatilis and further increases
in salinity may be detrimental to this popu-
lation. particularly as little is known of the
impacts on spawning and tolerances of
eggs and larvae.
82
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
Round Lake
Round Lake contained the least fish
abundances within the most restricted size
classes. At the time of survey, the water
level of Round Lake was low, and much of
the fringing aquatic vegetation was either
dead or dying, leaving large mats of
decomposing material around the edge of
the lake. Many thousands of waterbirds
inhabiting the lake also provided a poten-
tially large source of nutrient input. No
fish under 25 mm were found in this lake,
indicating that successful recruitment may
not have taken place for at least one year.
However, the two year classes which were
present indicate that conditions required
for successful recruitment were available
for at least two years previous.
Woorinen North Luke
Woorinen North Lake has a thick and
healthy layer of a submerged macrophyte
Ruppia spp. , which provides cover and for-
aging habitat for Murray Hardyhead. Prior
to 2003, the lake received water via irriga-
tion run-off from the Torrumbarry channel
system. However, a pipeline project (part
of a water-saving program by Goulburn
Murray Water) has rendered the channel
system obsolete, with the lake now relying
on inputs directly from piped water. Lyon
et at. (2002) proposed a series of control
measures to protect the Murray Hardyhead
population, including implementing a min-
imum lake water level and a maximum
salinity level. Salinity in Woorinen North
Lake increased from an average of approx-
imately 20 000 EC in early 2001, to 30 000
EC in late 2001 (Lyon el at. 2002). It is
likely that this sharp increase in salinity is
responsible for the disappearance of bony
bream ( Nematalosa eribi ) and flat-head
gudgeon ( Philypnodon grandiceps) from
the lake (both species were found in a sur-
vey by Hardie (2000), but not by Lyon et
at. (2002)), and is most likely responsible
for the lack of young age cohorts recorded
in this survey. Further work is required to
determine the effects of increases in salini-
ty to eggs and larvae on the different popu-
lations of C. fluviatilis.
A similar scenario to that of Woorinen
North Lake has developed in the Lake
Cardross system where irrigation efficien-
cy improvements have resulted in less
water movement through these lakes that
have been traditionally operated as a dis-
posal basin. These lakes support a large
population of Murray Hardyhead and have
therefore required an allocation of environ-
mental water from the Murray River to
maintain levels of both water and salinity
(Ryan et at. 2003).
Individuals of C. fluviatilis within the
three lakes were generally captured in or
around aquatic habitat. The availability of
this habitat is strongly associated with lake
levels. The Round Lake population, which
had the lowest abundance and most restrict-
ed size class of fish, also had the least
available habitat due to low water levels.
Further research is needed to determine the
actual interactions between Ruppia spp.
and C. fluviatilis, as observations made
during this study suggest that this habitat is
important. It should also be noted that
increases in salinity levels, which are also
strongly correlated with lake level, can also
have a substantial effect on C. fluviatilis
populations in these lakes. For example,
Hardie (2000) did not record Murray
Hardyhead in Golf Course Lake in April
2000, which previously contained a popula-
tion in April 1 999 (McGuckin 1999).
Hardie (2000) attributed this to high salini-
ty levels (88 650 EC).
Given the continual decline of Murray
Hardyhead over the last two decades
(Lugg et al. 1989; McGuckin 1999; Ryan
et al, 2003, Hardie 2000; Lyon et al.
2002), the remaining known populations
are of great significance. With threats from
increased water use efficiency, introduced
species, rising salinity and loss of connec-
tivity, it is important that the few remain-
ing populations of C. fluviatilis are man-
aged to ensure the long-term survival of
the species.
Note
Further surveys of the three lakes
described in this study were undertaken
just prior to this article going to print.
Murray Hardyhead w'ere collected from
both Round Lake and Woorinen North
Lake, however no fish were detected in
Lake Elizabeth. More surveys will be
undertaken over the next 12 months to
confirm the status of this population. An
investigation into possible causes of the
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
83
Research Reports
decline of C. fluviatilis in Lake Elizabeth
is currently being undertaken.
Acknowledgements
Tarmo Raadik, Ivor Stuart and Justin O'Connor
made comments critical to the completion of
this paper. Thanks also to Paul Saunders
(GMW) and Rob O'Brien (DSE) for the helpful
discussions held before, during, and after the
surveys. Two anonymous reviewers also provid-
ed valuable comments on the manuscript.
References
Allen GR. Midgley SH and Allen M (2002) Field guide
to the freshwater fishes of Australia. (Western
Australian Museum: Perth)
Anderson JR (1091) The implications of salinity, and
salinity management initiatives, on fish and fish habi-
tat in the Kerang Lakes Management Area. KI RS
and AR1.ER, DCE, Victoria. Technical Report Series
No. 103. DCFL, Shepparton.
Clunie P, Ryan T, James K and Cant B (2002)
Implications for Rivers from Salinity Hazards
Scoping Study: A report to Murray-Darling Basin
Commission.
Crowley LELM and Ivantosff W (1990) A review of
species previously known as Craterocephalus eyres ii
(Pisces: Artherimdae). Proceedings of the Linnean
Society- ’ of New South Wales 1 12 (2); 87-103.
Ebner B, Raadik T and IvanstolTW (2003) Threatened
fishes of the world: Cratemeephalus fluviatilis
McCulloch. 1913 (Atherinidae). environmental
Biology’ of Fishes 68: 390-390.
Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Act (1999)
Australian Department of Environment and Heritage.
Canberra
Hardie SA (2000) Examination of Fish and
Invertebrate Fauna in Seven Lakes in the Swan Hill
Kerang Region. Northern Victoria. DNRF. Report,
June 2000.
Hart BT, Bailey P, Edwards R, Hortle K, James K,
McMahon A, Meredith C and Swadling K (1991) A
review of the salt sensitivity of the Australian fresh-
water biota. Hvdrohiologia , 210:1 05- 144.
IvanstolTW, Crowley LELM and Allen GA (1987)
Description of three new species and one sub-species
of freshwater hardyhead (Pisces: Atherinidae:
Craterocephalus) from Australia. Records of the
Western Australian Museum 13(2): 171-188.
Ivantsoff W and Crowley LELM (1996) Silversides or
Hardyheads Family Atherinidae in Freshwater
Fishes of South-Eastern Australia. (Ed.) R
McDowall (A.H. & A.W. Reed Pty Ltd: Sydney)
Llewellyn LC (1979) Some observations on the spawn-
ing and development of Mitchellian Freshwater
I lardyhead Craterocephalus fluviatilis McCulloch
from inland waters in New South Wales. Australian
Zoologist 20: 269-88.
Lugg A, Heron S, Fleming G and O'Donnell T (1989)
Conservation value of the wetlands in the Kerang
Lakes Area. Report to Kerang I .akes Area Working
Group. Report prepared by: Department of
Conservation f orests & Lands. Kerang Lakes
Assessment Group.
Lyon JP, Ryan T, Papas P, Tonkinson D, O'Brien T
and Lennie R (2002) Aquatic fauna of the Woorinen
Lakes: Survey and Recommendations for
Management. Report for Goulburn Murray Water.
Arthur Rylah Institute, Melbourne,
MacCumber PG (2002) A review of the hydrology of
Lake Elizabeth and lake-groundwater interactions.
Report created for Department of Natural Resources
and Environment. Kerang. November 2002.
McGuckin .1 (1991) Further considerations of the
Environmental Effects of Salinity on waterbodies in
the Kerang Lakes Management Area. Arthur Rylah
Institute for Environmental Research. Technical
Report Series No. 1 1 7.
McGuckin .1 (1999) The Fish Fauna of Round, Golf
Course, North and South Woorinen Lakes, April
1999. Streamline Research. Melbourne.
Morris SA. Pollard DA, Gchrke PC and Pogonoski JJ
(2000) Threatened Freshwater Fishes of Coastal
NSW and the Murray-Darling Basin. Report to
WWF.NSW f isheries.
Raadik TA and Fairbrother PS (1999) Cardross Lakes
aquatic fauna monitoring November 1998.
Freshwater Ecology Parks, Flora and Fauna. Arthur
Rylah Institute for Environmental Research.
Ryan T, Cant B. Raadik T. Lennie R and Lyon J (2003)
Management options for Cardross Lakes: a scoping
study. Report produced for the Mallee CMA.
Freshwater Ecology, Department of Sustainability
and Environment.
Wager R (1996) Craterocephalus fluviatilis. In IUCN
2004. 2004 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
<www.rcdlist.org>. Downloaded on 29 November
2004.
Received l July 2004; accepted 3 February 2005
One Hundred and Twenty Five Years Ago
FIELD NATURALISTS’ CLUB OF VICTORIA
On the 17th of May, at an adjourned meeting held at the Melbourne Athenaeum, was inaugurat-
ed the above society, the success of which, we are pleased to note, as a gratifying fact. The fol-
lowing genetlemcn were elected office-bearers for the current year: President, Professor
McCoy; Vice-Presidents, Dr. Lucas and the Rev. J. J. Halley; Treasurer, E. Ilowitt; Secretary, D.
Best; Committee, J. G. Luehmann, C. French, J. R. V. Goldstein, J. Wing, W. T. Kendall, and F.
A. Leith.
The fortnightly field-days of the Club have been of an enjoyable character, many members hav-
ing been very successful in their captures and collections. The monthly meetings have been well
attended, and a large amount of interest has been evinced in the proceedings, the general conver-
saziones at the close of each meeting having enlisted marked enthusiasm. The members' list is
being augmented each month, and the Club is becoming a very strong and influential one.
From Southern Science Record 1, p. 11-12, December 1880
84
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Vegetation condition assessment of the semi-arid woodlands
of Murray-Sunset National Park, Victoria
Stacey A Gowans1, Kate E Callister1, Martin E Westbrooke1
and Matthew S Gibson1
Abstract
The semi-arid woodlands in Victoria’s north-west have been modified by the removal of overstorey
species and long-term elevated grazing pressure. Despite a reduction in grazing pressure in the
Murray-Sunset National Park since it was proclaimed in 1991 , there has been concern regarding lim-
ited perennial species regeneration. To provide a foundation for future monitoring of vegetation con-
dition change within these woodlands, floristic and structural data were recorded from 1 15 quadrats
across the Park within the Belah and Pine-Buloke woodlands in 2000. For each quadrat, six parame-
ters were scored relative to benchmark values and a condition index was calculated for each quadrat
and community. A condition map was generated from the quadrat condition indices using an interpo-
lation technique. The overall condition indices for both Belah and Pine-Buloke woodland were con-
sistently lower in the Park (0.37 and 0.41 respectively) than for the reference sites (0.75 and 0.79
respectively). Woodlands in the Park were typified by low native perennial species richness and low
cover and regeneration of native shrubs. Trees were generally healthy although the number of tree
age classes present was typically low. This study provides a snapshot assessment of vegetation con-
dition within the Park, and will assist in examining changes in vegetation condition over time. (The
Victorian Naturalist 122 (2), 2005, 85-93).
Introduction
Murray-Sunset National Park is the
largest continuous expanse of public land
in Victoria's north-west, encompassing an
area of 633 000 hectares (NRE 1996)
(Fig. T). The Park was proclaimed in 1991
following recommendations from the Land
Conservation Council (LCC 1989) and
incorporated Pink Lakes State Park (50
700 hectares) which was first reserved in
1979 (NRE 1996).
The Park protects semi-arid vegetation
growing on dunefields, plains and flood-
plains (NRE 1996). Mallee vegetation
dominated by eucalypts occupy large areas
of the Park on dunes while patches of
Belah Casuarina pauper F Mucll ex LAS.
Johnson, Slender Cypress Pine Callitris
gracilis subsp. mu nay ensis (J Garden) KD
Hill and Buloke Allocusuarina fuehmannii
(RT Baker) LAS Johnson woodlands arc
scattered throughout (LCC 1987; NRE
1996). Salt-tolerant shrubs and grasses
grow on the low-lying dry lakebed areas
around the Raak Plain and Pink Lakes
(NRE 1996). On Lindsay Island, where the
Park extends to the Murray River, the
floodplain supports woodlands of River
' Centre for Environmental Management. School of
Science and Engineering, University of Ballarat, PO
Box 663, Ballarat, Victoria 3353.
Email: s.gowans@ballarat.edu.au
Red Gum Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Dehnh and Black Box Eucalyptus largiflo-
rens F Muell (LCC 1987; NRE 1996)."
The semi-arid woodlands in Murray-
Sunset National Park have been modified
by the activities of the early pastoral set-
tlers (LCC 1987). Prior to the proclamation
of the Park, it was 'uncommitted' public
land and large areas were subject to
licensed stock grazing (LCC 1987). Along
with grasslands, the Belah and Pine-
Buloke woodlands were particularly seen
to be favourable for agriculture as they
tend to grow on soils of relatively high fer-
tility (LCC 1987; NRE 1996). Timber har-
vesting, clearing, thinning and grazing are
some of the practices that have led to the
modification of these woodlands (LCC
1987; NRE 1996). The development of
earth tanks and troughs throughout
Victoria's north-west by the early pastoral-
ists not only provided stock with water but
also rabbits and kangaroos, therefore
exposing the semi-arid vegetation to artifi-
cially high grazing pressures (LCC 1987).
In areas which have been subjected to
stock grazing, the woodlands have suffered
most with a dramatic decline in their struc-
ture, cover and floristic diversity
(Westbrooke et at. 1988; LCC 1989; Cheal
1993; NRE 1996; Westbrooke 1998). By
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
85
Contributions
Fig. 1. Location of Murray-Sunset National
Park in Victoria.
1996, after further recommendations from
the Land Conservation Council, licensed
stock grazing had ceased within the Park
(Sandell et al. 2002).
Many burial grounds, middens and scar
trees provide evidence of a long history of
aboriginal occupation in the Murray-
Sunset National Park (Ross 1981) howev-
er, little is known of aboriginal impact on
the vegetation of the area (Morris 1942;
Massola 1966; Tindale 1974).
Some of the threats to the long-term sur-
vival of these woodlands are that only
small remnant stands remain, the over-
storey trees are senescent, and there has
been limited regeneration of native peren-
nial species since the removal of stock
grazing (Westbrooke et at. 1988; LCC
1989; NRE 1996; Westbrooke 1998;
Sandell et al. 2002). Threatening processes
affecting the recovery of semi-arid wood-
lands currently include grazing by both
native (kangaroos) and introduced (rabbits
and feral goats) herbivores, and competi-
tion from weeds (Cheal et al. 1992; NRE
1996). In addition, even though prolonged
periods of low rainfall are natural features
of Victoria's north-west, and most vegeta-
tion is well adapted to such conditions,
recovery of these woodlands can be pre-
vented by the combined affects of insuffi-
cient water and artificially high grazing
pressure (LCC 1987). Chesterfield and
Parsons (1985) expressed concern for the
future of Casuarina pauper given wide-
spread regeneration failure following an
exceptionally high rainfall period in the
mid 1970s. Westbrooke et al. (1988) found
that localised regeneration of Sugarwood
Myoporum platycarpum RBr occurred fol-
lowing this rainfall period in areas where
rabbit populations and stocking levels were
low. Sandell (2002) investigated the impli-
cations of the rabbit haemorrhagic disease
(RHD) for the short-term recovery of
semi-arid woodlands in the Murray-Sunset
National Park and found that the removal
of stock grazing was more important for
the persistence of regrowth of A. luehman-
nii than the subsequent reduction in rabbit
abundance. It is anticipated that a reduc-
tion in total grazing pressure, combined
with adequate rainfall, may lead to the
recovery in the condition of these wood-
lands (Sandell et al. 2002). Another threat
to the long-term conservation of the wood-
lands is fire. Although the woodlands typi-
cally do not support sufficient fuel to carry
a tire, under extreme conditions, fire may
damage or destroy mature trees and elimi-
nate seedlings (LCC 1987).
The phasing out of stock grazing, man-
agement of kangaroo and feral goat popu-
lations, and the reduction in rabbit abun-
dance as a result of RHD together with the
progressive closure of artificial waters
throughout Murray-Sunset National Park
provides an opportunity to maintain graz-
ing pressure at low levels (Sandell et al.
2002; Sandell 2002). This study was
undertaken to provide an understanding of
the condition of the semi-arid woodlands
occurring on the dunefields and plains
within Murray-Sunset National Park. As
this study is envisaged as the foundation
for long-term monitoring, it was important
to adopt an approach that will detect
changes in condition for these woodlands.
This study was based on a vegetation con-
dition assessment conducted at Wyperfeld
National Park by Miller et al. (1998).
Methods
The methods used in this study are based
on the vegetation condition assessment
described in Parks Victoria ( 1 998), and the
methods applied at Wyperfeld National
Park (Miller et at. 1998) and are detailed
below.
Study area
The study area was the Murray-Sunset
National Park in north-west Victoria
(141°30'S, -34°44,E) (Fig. 1). The median
annual rainfall in the study area ranges
86
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
from 344 mm at Ouyen in the south-east,
to 257 mm at Lindsay Point in the north-
west (Clewett et at. 2003).
Sampling strategy
The semi-arid woodlands occurring on
the dunefields and plains within Murray-
Sunset National Park were assessed in
November and December 2000. Areas
extending from the Murray River support-
ing woodlands associated with the flood-
plain (e.g. Eucalyptus carnal chi lens is and
E. largiflorens) were not included in this
study. The semi-arid woodlands assessed
cover some 63 862 hectares (10%) of the
Park and comprise five vegetation commu-
nities ( LCC 1987; NRF 1999) (Table 1).
The vegetation communities originate
from floristic vegetation mapping of public
land as part of the Mallee Area Review
coordinated by the Land Conservation
Council (LCC 1987; NRE 1999).
The broad scale (1: 100 000) mapping
(LCC 1987; NRE 1999) on which this
study is based fails to clearly distinguish
some of the semi-arid vegetation commu-
nities and places much of the woodland in
either the mosaic unit or in units which
may well be anthropogenic grasslands
(LCC 1987; Westbrooke 1998). Areas
mapped as Belah Woodland and Pine-
Buloke Woodland were those that have
largely retained a high density of the domi-
nant overstorey tree species (NRE 1999).
The mosaic of Savannah Woodland,
Savannah Mallee and Grassland contains
scattered remnants of the overstorey
species of Belah or Pine-Buloke Woodland
and is likely to be a variant of these two
communities (LCC 1987; Westbrooke
1998). The original composition and struc-
ture of Gypseous Plain Grassland and
Sandplain Grassland can only be inferred
and may represent modified examples of
either Belah Woodland or Pine-Buloke
Woodland (LCC 1987). Notwithstanding
this, all quadrats were in patches support-
ing overstorey trees of Belah or Pine-
Buloke woodland. It is difficult to provide
a detailed comparison of the condition of
Gypseous Plain Grassland and Sandplain
Grassland as they are assumed to be highly
modified examples of either Belah or Pine-
Buloke Woodland (LCC 1987; Westbrooke
1998). In this study, these vegetation com-
munities along with the mosaic community
have been regarded as highly modified
examples of either Belah Woodland or
Table 1. Semi-arid woodlands within Murray-Sunset National Park. ^Description and conservation
status information derived from LCC (1987).
Vegetation community and Description*
Area of
Park (ha)
Conservation status*
Belah Woodland - Dominated by Belah Casuarina
pauper. Diverse small and tall shrub layer and a
ground layer consisting of herbs, sub-shrubs and
perennial grasses.
1 274
Substantially threatened due to
small size of the remnant
stands.
Pine-Buloke Woodland - Dominated by Buloke
Allocasuarina luehmannii and/or Slender Cypress
Pine CaUitris gracilis subsp. murrayemis. Understorey
typically dominated by perennial grasses and herbs.
4 006
Most threatened vegetation
community in the Mallee
Gypseous Plain Grassland - Overstorey of
scattered Sugarwood Myoporum platycarpum.
Understorey of native and introduced annuals.
5 438
Original community is extinct
in the State although modified
remnants occur in limited
localities.
Sandplain Grassland - Occasional scattered
woodland trees. Dominated by perennial grasses
and native annual herbs.
2414
One of the most threatened
communities due to suitability
for stock grazing.
Savannah Woodland / Savannah Mallee /
Grassland Mosaic - Dominated by Slender Cypress
Pine Callitris gracilis subsp. murrayensis, Cattle Bush
Alectiyon oleifolius subsp. canescens ST Reynolds.
Grey Mallee Eucalyptus social is F. Muell ex Miq.
or Yorrell Eucalyptus gracilis F Muell.
50 730
Remnants of other communities.
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
87
Contributions
Pine-Buloke Woodland. All quadrats were
described as either Belah Woodland or
Pine-Buloke Woodland based on their
location in the landscape and/or dominant
overstorey species present. The Belah
Woodland is predominantly located in the
north-west area of the Park whilst Pine-
Buloke Woodland is mainly located in the
south-east.
A total of 1 15, 1 000 nT quadrats (50 m
x 20 m) were sampled in Belah Woodland
and Pine-Buloke Woodland across
Murray- Sunset National Park (Table 2).
Quadrat size was based on recommenda-
tions from NRE (1995) and Parks Victoria
(1998). Quadrats within the Park were
located using a stratified random proce-
dure, with stratification according to vege-
tation community. Six quadrats were also
subjectively located in neighbouring
reserves, considered representative of
either Belah or Pine-Buloke woodland
with minimal historical disturbances and
low grazing pressure and sampled as refer-
ence sites. These sites included Mallanbool
Flora and Fauna Reserve, bushland around
Walpeup Research Station, bushland along
the Walpeup - Patchewollock road,
Patchewollock Racecourse Flora Reserve,
and a Railway Reserve near Dattuck.
Data recorded
Some of the data recorded were used
specifically for the assessment of vegeta-
tion condition while other data provided a
basis for long-term monitoring. All woody
perennial vascular flora present in the
quadrat were recorded, identified to
species with nomenclature following
Walsh and Entwisle (1994; 1996; 1999),
categorised according to life forms as iden-
tified in the Flora Information System
(NRE 2000), and given a cover/abundance
value (i.e. modified form of Braun-
Blanquet scale as cited in Kershaw and
Looney (1985). Only dominant native and
introduced herbaceous species in the
ground layer were recorded, as unpre-
dictable fluctuations following rainfall are
problematic for comparative studies in
semi-arid areas (Pickup 1996). A visual
estimate of the typical height and projected
foliage cover of both native and introduced
species in each stratum was recorded. The
presence of seedlings and/or juveniles for
all shrub species was recorded. The stem
diameter over bark (recorded from 1.3 m
above the ground) was measured for each
individual tree within the quadrat and used
to judge the number of different age class-
es (cohorts) present in the tree layer. The
number of cohorts present is assumed to
reflect eposodic regeneration events. A
visual assessment of tree health was
recorded for each individual tree present
on a five-point scale (0 = dead; 1 = less
than 25% of tree mass alive; 2 - Irregular
crown, many dead branches projecting
from the canopy; 3 = Well formed crown
but dead branches projecting from the
canopy; and 4 = Healthy, well formed
crown, no dead branches within the
canopy) and visual estimates of the total
percentage cover of litter, bare ground,
cryptogams and logs were also recorded.
To assist future re-location of quadrats,
each comer tree was marked with an alu-
minium tag. The orientation of the quadrat
and the bearing of the marked comer of the
quadrat were recorded. A photograph was
taken from ten metres outside the quadrat
on the long axis at each site to provide a
record of the appearance of the site
(Photographs were taken to provide a record
of the appearance of the site and were not
intended to provide permanent monitoring
points). The date, recorders names, a unique
quadrat identification number, Australian
Map Grid (AMG) co-ordinates, description
of site location and observed vegetation
community were recorded.
Vegetation condition parameters and con-
dition indices
From the data recorded, six parameters
were used to assess vegetation condition
across the Park:
1. Native perennial species richness - total
number of native perennial plant
species recorded from the quadrat.
2. Native shrub cover - projected foliage
cover of native species in the shrub lay-
ers (combined tall and small shrub lay-
ers) recorded from the quadrat.
3. Regeneration of native shrub species -
proportion of shrub species present in
the quadrat showing regeneration (i.e.
any number of seedlings or juveniles
88
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
eration).
4. Tree age classes - the stem diameter
was assessed for each individual tree
within the quadrat and the number of
different cohorts present in the tree
layer determined.
5. Tree condition - assessed for each indi-
vidual tree within the quadrat and
assigned a score from zero to four,
6. Strata intactness - Intactness was mea-
sured on a presence or absence basis
based independently on cover and
species richness of perennial native
species under the following guidelines
derived from reference quadrats;
• Tree strata intact if two or more individ-
ual trees present (number of species not
relevant), condition greater than two
and a stem diameter greater than 10 cm.
• Tall shrub layer intact if cover is greater
than 5% and species richness greater
than two.
• Small shrub layer intact if cover is
greater than 10% and species richness
greater than five.
• Ground layer intact if annual native
species cover greater than 1 0%.
For each quadrat, each parameter value
was compared to benchmark values of
either Belah or Pine-Buloke woodland
sourced from either the reference sites or
expert opinion. Each parameter value with-
in each quadrat was divided by the bench-
mark value resulting in a score from zero
to one. For example, if a quadrat located
within Belah Woodland supported 10
native perennial plant species, and the
benchmark value for that community was
20 species, the score for native perennial
species richness would be 0.5. If a parame-
ter value was greater than the benchmark
value, the parameter received a score of
one. For example, if a quadrat located
within Belah Woodland supported 22
native perennial plant species, and the
benchmark value for that community was
20 species, the score for native perennial
species richness would be 1.1 but truncated
to a maximum score of 1 .0.
A condition index for each quadrat was
calculated using all the parameter scores,
where all parameters were weighted equal-
ly in the calculation. The parameter scores
within each quadrat were summed, then
divided by the total number of parameters
assessed (i.e. six), resulting in a score from
zero to one.
A condition index for each woodland
community was calculated using all the
quadrat condition indices for the communi-
ty. The quadrat condition indices for each
community was summed then divided by
the total number of quadrats assessed for
that community resulting in a score from
zero to one. For example, the summed
quadrat condition indices were divided by
77 for Belah Woodland and 38 for Pine-
Buloke Woodland.
Vegetation condition mapping
In order to produce a map showing the
variation in vegetation condition within all
Belah and Pine-Buloke woodland across
the Park a condition surface was calculated
from the 115 quadrat condition indices.
The condition surface was created using
the inverse distance weighted interpolation
algorithm of the INTERPOL module with-
in the Idrisi32 raster geographic informa-
tion system (GIS) program. The inverse
distance weighted algorithm is one of the
most commonly used techniques for inter-
polation of scatter points (Johnston 1998).
The method is based on the assumption
that the surface should be influenced most
by nearby points and less by more distant
points. The resulting surface is a weighted
average of the condition indices from the
sampled quadrats, and the weight assigned
to each quadrat condition index diminishes
as the distance from the interpolation point
to the quadrat increases. The inverse dis-
tance weighted algorithm predicted the
condition index for every 20 m x 20 m
pixel throughout the semi-arid woodlands.
Table 2. Sampling effort
in each vegetation
community within Murray-Sunset National Park.
Vegetation community
Area of Park
Area of Park
Quadrats
Quadrats
(ha)
(ha)
(%)
(%)
Belah woodland
- 56 547
89
77
67
Pine-Buloke woodland
-7315
11
38
33
Total
63 862
100
115
100
present regardless of the level of regen-
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
89
Contributions
Results
Vegetation communities sampled
Overall, 90% of quadrats sampled for the
Gypseous Plain Grassland, Sandplain
Grassland and Savannah Woodland !
Savannah Mallee / Grassland Mosaic vege-
tation communities supported one or more
overstorey species (dominant or associat-
ed) typical of either Belah or Pine-Buloke
woodland (i.e. C. pauper , Callitris gracilis
subsp. mur ray crisis, A . leuhmannii or
Umbrella Wattle Acacia oswaldii F Muell.,
Cattle Bush Alectryon oleifolius subsp.
canescens , Berrigan Eremophila longifolia
(RBr) F Muell., Needlewood Hakea
species and Sugarwood Myoporum platy-
carpum).
Vegetation condition parameter scores
and condition indices
The mean vegetation condition parameter
scores obtained for Belah and Pine-Buloke
woodland are shown in Figs. 2 and 3.
These indicate how each of the parameters
influenced the vegetation community con-
dition indices. All parameters measured in
the Park for both Belah and Pine-Buloke
woodland were consistently lower than
those measured in the reference sites. For
both Belah and Pine-Buloke woodland,
native perennial species richness, native
shrub cover, regeneration of native shrub
species and strata intactness had mean
scores less than 0.5 (Figs. 3 and 4). Tree
age classes and tree condition for both
■ Murray-Sunset National Park □ Reference sites
Vegetation parameter
Fig. 2. Mean (± SF) vegetation parameter
scores for Belah woodland within Murray-
Sunset National Park and reference sites. 1.
native perennial species richness, 2. native
shrub cover, 3. regeneration of native shrub
species, 4. tree age classes, 5. tree condition, 6.
strata intactness.
Belah and Pine-Buloke woodland had
mean scores greater than 0.5.
Fig. 4 shows the vegetation community
condition indices derived for Belah and
Pine-Buloke woodland within the Park and
for the reference sites. The condition
indices for both the Belah and Pine-Buloke
woodland within the Park were lower than
those for the reference sites. Similar vege-
tation community condition indices were
obtained for Belah (0.37) and Pine-Buloke
(0.41) woodland within the Park. The
indices indicate on a scale of zero to one
where the vegetation condition of each
community sits relative to one comprising
all the benchmark values for each of the
parameters assessed (i.e. potential ‘expect-
ed* condition in terms of those particular
parameters). The parameters that influ-
enced the low condition indices for Belah
woodland are shown in Fig. 2 and in Fig. 3
for Pine-Buloke woodland, these were
■ Murray-Sunsct National Park □ Reference sites
Fig. 3. Mean (± SB) vegetation parameter
scores for Pine-Buloke woodland within
Murray-Sunset National Park and reference
sites. I. native perennial species richness, 2.
native shrub cover, 3. regeneration of native
shrub species, 4. tree age classes, 5. tree condi-
tion, 6. strata intactness.
■ Murray-Sunset National Park □ Reference sites
Fig. 4. Mean (± SE) vegetation community con-
dition indices for Belah and Pine-Buloke wood-
land.
90
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
native perennial species richness, native
shrub cover, regeneration of native shrub
species and strata intactness.
Vegetation condition mapping
A condition surface was interpolated for
the Belah and Pine-Buloke woodlands
using the condition indices calculated from
the 1 1 5 quadrat across the Park. A copy of
the resultant map can be obtained by
request from the primary author. The con-
dition surface shows that vegetation condi-
tion across the Park is mostly ranged
between 0.14 and 0.40 with scattered
patches ranging between 0.50 and 0.69.
Only one area in the north-central part of
the Park shows vegetation condition in the
higher range, between 0.70 and 1 .00.
Discussion
Vegetation condition parameters and con-
dition indices
All vegetation parameters measured con-
tributed equally to the scoring. No attempt
was made to weight particular parameters
to reflect either their importance to vegeta-
tion condition or their sensitivity to graz-
ing pressure. Both the Belah and Pine-
Buloke woodlands in the Park were typi-
fied by low perennial species richness, and
low cover and regeneration of shrub
species. Tree condition was generally
healthy in both vegetation communities
although the number of tree age classes
present was typically low.
The vegetation community condition
indices derived for both the Belah and
Pine-Buloke woodlands in Murray-S unset
National Park are low compared to the ref-
erence sites. This outcome may be attrib-
uted to a number of factors. The effects of
pastoral influences prior to the proclama-
tion of the Park such as timber harvesting,
clearing, thinning and grazing have been
well documented (LCC 1987; Westbrooke
1988; Westbrooke 1998; NRE 1996). Also,
since the proclamation of Murray-Sunset
National Park, there has been little oppor-
tunity for recovery to occur due to insuffi-
cient rainfall events to provide suitable
conditions for recruitment of perennial
species. In addition, whilst grazing pres-
sure has been reduced in the Park, this
remains a threat to regeneration of wood-
land species (NRE 1996; Westbrooke
1998; Sandell et a\. 2002; Sandell 2002).
Vegetation condition mapping
The condition map shows broad trends in
vegetation condition in Belah and Pine-
Buloke woodland across the Park. The
map was influenced by individual quadrat
condition indices and predicted condition
of areas between the quadrats sampled
using an interpolation technique. Further
analysis is required to determine the accu-
racy of the condition map, although it is
likely that areas closer to quadrat sites give
the most accurate representation of the
vegetation condition. The vegetation in the
north-w estern area of the Park had condi-
tion indices mostly below 0.50 while vege-
tation in the north-central area had condi-
tion indices mostly above 0.70. Vegetation
in other areas of the Park had (condition
indices mostly less than 0.7. The area in
the north-west of the Park, extending from
the Murray River, was a licensed grazing
area which has a long history of utilisation
by early pastoralists (LCC 1987).
Historical maps produced by the LCC
(1987) show that the area in the north-cen-
tral part of the Park where quadrats exhib-
ited condition close to that of the reference
sites, was also under a grazing licence
prior to proclamation of the Park.
However, this area may have escaped pres-
sures associated with this land use as most
of the northern extent of this patch had
been cleared for agriculture and is mostly
surrounded by Mallee vegetation.
Alternatively, this patch may have been
located at a distance from the nearest per-
manent watering point (i.e. earth tank or
trough) that discouraged grazing animals
to venture into this area. The area of the
Park that has been reserved since 1979
(forming Pink Lakes State Park) supported
vegetation with condition indices mostly in
the mid range between 0.50 to 0.70. The
extent of change since reservation is
unknown, as no baseline data is available,
however, this is one of the larger patches
supporting vegetation w ith these mid range
condition indices across the Park. The
majority of woodland vegetation that was
grazed until 1991 was found to have rela-
tively low condition indices. It is difficult
to speculate whether this is due to recovery
of woodlands in the former Pink Lakes
State Park, or other differences in past
management. This does however suggest
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
91
Contributions
that vegetation recovery will be a relative-
ly slow process.
Benchmarks
Determination of vegetation condition is
commonly reliant on a benchmark or refer-
ence site against which to compare sites
and define long-term goals. Where bench-
marks involve on-ground sites, there are a
number of potential problems. Natural dis-
turbance such as fire may affect the validi-
ty of the reference site, however, exclusion
of disturbances may equally affect the site.
Regardless of management, ecosystems
will continue to change over time leading
to a change in both the reference and the
compared site (Landres 1990).
To help overcome these problems, a
combination of expert opinion and refer-
ence site values were used in this study.
The presence of examples of Belah wood-
land within the north-central area of the
Park showing condition indices similar to
the reference sites indicates that some
areas in the park are still capable of sup-
porting higher condition vegetation as
defined by the reference sites and expert
opinion.
Potential for vegetation condition
improvement
Sandell et at. (2002) found that there has
been limited recovery of vegetation since
the establishment of the Park in 1991. The
most prolific overstorey recovery found in
both the Sandell et ai (2002) study and
this study is that of A. oleifolius subsp.
canescens , although this is all of sucker
origin and is limited in distribution. It is
suggested by Sandell et at. (2002) that
much of this regrowth is a result of
reduced grazing pressure. Regeneration of
C. pauper and Needlewood Hakea species
has been more limited within the Park . For
M. platycavpum and C. gracilis subsp.
murrayensis , both obligate seed regenera-
tors, there is some evidence of recent
regeneration in scattered localities in the
Park. Minor improvements in vegetation
condition in these localities can possibly
be attributed to the progressive closure of
artificial waters throughout the Park, the
removal of stock by 1 996, management of
feral goat and kangaroo populations and
the reduction in rabbit abundance as a
result of rabbit haemorrhagic disease
(RHD). Sandell (2002) found that the
removal of stock grazing from the Park
was important for the persistence of
regrowth of A. luehmatmii . Sandell et al.
(2002) also detected an increase in the
shrub component of the understorey of
these woodland communities with some
chenopod species that were only recorded
at 10% of sites at the beginning of the
study in 1991 increasing to 50% of sites in
1997.
Limitations
As one of the objectives of this study was
to provide for long-term monitoring in
which major changes can be identified, the
floristic assessment was based on woody
perennial species only. A limitation to
comparative studies of vegetation in semi-
arid areas is that the herbaceous vegetation
responds rapidly to rainfall and certain
species respond to rainfall in particular
seasons (Pickup 1996). The amount and
seasonal distribution of rainfall largely
determines the composition of the annual
or herbaceous perennial species in the
ground layer. In drought years this layer of
vegetation may be missing (Fox 1991).
Future monitoring
In the review of Vegetation Monitoring
in the Mallee Parks of Victoria,
Hodgkinson and Baker (2000) endorsed
the methods used for a vegetation condi-
tion assessment by Miller et at. (1998) at
Wyperfeld National Park subject to
improved repeatability. As it was an objec-
tive of this study to adopt an approach that
provides for a sound basis for future
assessments so that changes in condition
can be detected, it is believed that the data
recorded, coupled with the permanent
marking (GPS coordinates and aluminium
tagging) and photographing of all quadrat
locations will ensure that future assess-
ments will give reliable information on
change in vegetation condition.
Hodgkinson and Baker (2000) found that
the vegetation parameters assessed will be
suitable for tracking change.
Acknowledgements
This study was conducted under the Parks
Victoria Research Partnership agreement with
the Centre for Environmental Management
(CEM), University of Ballarat. The CEM staff
would like to thank Sally Troy, Fiona Coates,
92
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Phil Pegler, Ian Walker, John Wright and Marie
Keatley of Parks Victoria who provided overall
management and support for this project and
Russell Manning and Jack Kelly also of Parks
Victoria for providing support during the field
survey. The project team would also like to
thank other members of the CEM for their assis-
tance and advice provided throughout the dura-
tion of the project, particularly Janet Leversha
for editorial advice.
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Cheal D (1993) Effects of stock grazing on the plants
of semi-arid woodlands and grasslands. Proceedings
of the Royal Society of Victoria 105. 57-65.
Chesterfield C and Parsons R (1985) Regeneration of
three tree species in arid south-eastern Australia,
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Fox M (1991) The natural vegetation of the Ana
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Wales). Cunninghumia 2, 443-465.
Ilodgkinson K. and Baker B. (2000). Dratt Review of
Vegetation Monitoring in the Mallec Parks, Victoria.
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Johnston C' (2001) Geographic Information Systems in
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Kershaw K. and Looney J. (1985). Quantitative and
Dynamic Plant Ecology. Edward Arnold. Caulfield
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Council, Melbourne, Victoria.
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267-274
Miller J, Gibson M, Westbrooke M, Wilcoek P, and
Brown G (1998) Condition of Vegetation in the
Riverine Woodlands of Wyperfeld National Park.
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and Mallec The Victorian Naturalist . 59, 167-170.
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East Melbourne, Victoria.
NRE. (1999) Ecological Vegetation Classes mapped at
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Kasi Melbourne. Victoria.
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Sandell P, Balientine M and Horner G (2002)
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Received 16 September 2004; accepted 3 February 2005
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
93
Fauna Survey Group Contribution no. 24
A survey of the vertebrate fauna of the
Black Range, near Stawell
Peter Homan'
Abstract
A survey of the vertebrate fauna on seven private properties in and adjacent to the Black Range,
south of the township of Stawell in western Victoria, was carried out over a tw o year period between
April, 2000 and March, 2002. A total of one hundred and fifty-three vertebrate species were record-
ed during the survey. These included twenty-eight mammals, one hundred and four birds, fifteen
reptiles and six amphibians. A number of notable woodland species were recorded suggesting that
the habitat contained in these areas of the Black Range may be important wildlife refuges in western
Victoria. ( The Victorian Naturalist 122 (2) 2005. 94-102)
Introduction
The Black Range is located approximate-
ly five kilometres south of the township of
Stawell in western Victoria and covers an
area of approximately 40 square kilome-
tres. Much of the range is privately owned
and has been subjected to over-grazing,
weed and rabbit infestation, erosion and
other adverse activities.
The survey was carried out on a volun-
tary basis by members of the Fauna Survey
Group (FSG) of the Field Naturalists Club
of Victoria, for the Black Range Landcare
Group. Data collected during the survey
were to aid formulation of a management
plan for the range. The work was carried
out at nine sites on seven private proper-
ties, all of which have been subjected to
extensive revegetation, weed removal, rab-
bit eradication and habitat enhancement
works. None of the private properties
adjoin each other. The areas surveyed rep-
resent approximately ten percent of the
Black Range. Two areas of Crown Land in
the range are managed by Parks Victoria,
however, difficulty of access meant that
intensive fauna survey work was not
undertaken in these areas.
Topography and Vegetation
The Black Range is made up of ancient
decomposed granite outcrops, with shallow
loams on the ridges and deep granite sands
in the valleys. There are numerous under-
ground springs, which develop dark peaty
soils at the surface. The range features
massive granite tors and numerous
exposed slabs and boulders. The topogra-
phy is hilly, with steep ridges, deep valleys
1 409 Cardigan Street, Carlton, Victoria 3053
and the highest point above sea level is
approximately 480 metres.
The Black Range contains seven vegeta-
tion communities:
Granite Hills Woodland , dominated by
Scent-bark Eucalyptus aromaphtoia , occa-
sional Yellow Box Eucalyptus melliodora ,
with a mid-storey of Black Wattle Acacia
mearnsii , and a ground cover of various
species of Wallaby Grasses Austrodanth-
onia spp., Spear Grasses Austrostipa spp.,
and Kangaroo Grass The me da triandra.
Granite Hills Herb-rich Woodland , a
community similar to Granite Hills
Woodland, but with a more diverse ground
flora containing numerous herbaceous
species, notably Common Raspwort
Gonocarpus te/ragynus , Tall Raspwort
Gonoccirpus clams , Blue Pincushion
Brunonia australis and Inland Creamy
Candles S tack hous ia sp.
Granite Outcrop Complex , dominated by
Scent-bark, with occasional Yellow Box
and Long- leaf Box Eucalyptus gortiocalyx
and a mid-storey dominated by Black
Wattle, Lightwood Acacia implexa , Silver
Banksia Banksia marginata and Sweet
Bursaria Burs aria spinosa. Ground cover
included Soft Spear-grass Austrostipa mol-
lis, Rough Spear- grass Austrostipa scabra ,
Weeping Grass Microlaena stipoides ,
Wallaby Grasses Austrodanthonia spp.,
and large patches of Austral Bracken
Pteridium esculentum .
Valley Grassy Forest , which occurs in nar-
row strips along the various creeks running
out of the range, is dominated by River
94
The Victorian Naturalist
FSG Contribution
Red Gum Eucalyptus camaldulensis ,
Scent-bark, Yellow Box, with occasional
Blackwood Acacia melanoxylon and Black
Wattle in the mid-storey. Ground cover is
dominated by Wallaby Grasses, Weeping
Grass, Austral Bracken and Hedge Wattle
Acacia paradoxa.
Wimmera Grassy Woodland , dominated
by River Red Gum with virtually no mid-
storey. There are occasional thickets of
Prickly Tea-tree Leptospermwn continen-
tale with a diverse ground flora of native
grasses, herbs and orchids. Winter-wet
swamps occur in several low areas, with a
rich ground flora dominated by
A u s t r o da n t h on i a se m i annular is ,
Pentapogon quadrifidus , Villarsia reni-
formis , Triglochin striata and Goodenia
humilis.
Heathy Woodland , dominated by Yellow
Gum Eucalyptus leucoxylon , Yellow Box
and Scent-bark, with occasional Slaty
Sheoke Allocasuarina muelleriana ,
Beaked Hakca Hake a rostrata and Black
Wattle. The ground flora is dominated by a
large variety of heathy shrubs including
Heath Tea-tree Leptospermwn myrs'm-
oides , Upright Guinea Flower Hibbertia
riparia , Cranberry Heath Astruloma humi-
fusum , Common Flat-pea Platylobium
obtusangulum , Horny Cone-bush Isopogon
cerutophyllus and Black Rapier Sedge
Lepidosperma carphoides .
Red Stringybark Grassy (Heathy)
Woodland , dominated by Red Stringybark
Eucalyptus macrorhyncha , with occasional
Messmate Eucalyptus obliqua , Red Box
Eucalyptus polyanthemos subsp. vestita
and Yellow Box. There is a very sparse
mid-storey and a ground flora dominated
by numerous heathy shrubs, herbs, orchids
and native grasses.
Methods
Survey methods included Elliott trapping
(Type A), cage trapping (Wiretainers
Standard Bandicoot Traps), pitfall trapping
(lines of 10, 20 litre plastic buckets, with
30cm high drift fence over 60 metres), bat
trapping (Faunatech harp traps), stag-
watching (watching arboreal mammals
emerge from hollow trees), spotlighting,
frog survey by triangulation (a method of
locating calling male frogs), rock, log and
tin turning, bird spotting, owl pellet analy-
sis, artificial nest-boxes and general obser-
vation. A tape of frog calls ( Littlejohn
1987) wfas used to assist in the identifica-
tion of calling frogs.
The area was visited on ten occasions
during the two year period and 2849 trap-
nights were completed. These consisted of
1487 Elliott, 641 cage, 687 pitfall and 34
harp trap- nights. Sixty spotlight hours
were completed and stagwatching involved
twelve stags. Triangulation for frog loca-
tion was carried out for approximately ten
hours. Five artificial nest-boxes were
erected on one of the properties (Table 1).
Results
One hundred and fifty-three vertebrate
species were recorded during the survey.
These included twenty-eight species of
mammals (Table 2), of which sixteen were
placentais, eleven marsupials and one
monotreme. Twenty -one of the mammal
species were native and seven w^ere intro-
duced. The Brush-tailed Phascogale
Phascogale tapoatafa, which is classified
as lower risk (near threatened) in Victoria,
was recorded on one occasion only in
Wimmera Grassy Woodland. Several
species that were rare in this part of west-
ern Victoria (Atlas of Victorian Wildlife,
Department of Sustainability and
Environment) were also recorded. These
included the Southern Brown Bandicoot
Isoodon obesulus , Feathertail Glider
Acrobates pygmaeus and the Eastern False
Pipistrelle Falsistrellus tasmaniensis. Most
captures of the Southern Brown Bandicoot
took place in an area of Wimmera Grassy
Woodland infested with Gorse Ulex
europaeus , on the south-eastern slopes of
the range. The Feathertail Glider was
recorded from Granite Hills Woodland,
where one specimen only was found alive
on the ground. The Eastern False
Pipistrelle was recorded in an area of
Wimmera Grassy Woodland, where one
specimen only was captured.
The Swamp Rat Rattus lutreolus was
recorded from one site only, in a gully
amongst a large patch of Prickly Tea-tree
in Wimmera Grassy Woodland on the
south-eastern slopes of the range. The
Yellow-footed Antechinus Antechinus
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
95
FSG Contribution
Table 1. Survey methods and effort completed for each vegetation community. E -
nights; C = cage trap-nights; P - pit-nights; B = bat trap-nights; N = nest-boxes; Sp
hours; St = number of stags watched; T = triangulation, number of hours.
Elliott trap-
= spotlight
Vegetation Community
E
C
P
B
N
Sp
St
T
Granite Hills Woodland
661
307
182
8
5
24
8
Granite Hills Herb-rich
Woodland
173
116
Granite Outcrop Complex
334
38
140
Valley Grassy Forest
96
18
50
11
20
4
6
Wimmera Grassy Woodland
223
162
265
15
4
Heathy Woodland
50
Red Stringybark Grassy
(Heathy) Woodland
16
Total effort
1487
641
687
34
5
60
12
10
Table 2. List of mammals and total number recorded during survey. E
introduced species.
= estimated number; * =
Common Name
Scientific Name
Number
Short-beaked Echidna
Tachyglossus acu/eatus
9
Brush-tailed Phascogale
Phascogale tapoatafa
1
Yellow-footed Antechinus
Antechinus flavipes
39
Fat-tailed Dunnart
Sm in thops is crass i can dot a
1
Southern Brown Bandicoot
Isoodon obesu/us
16
Common Brushtail Possum
Trichosurus vulpecula
55
Fcathertail Glider
Acrobat es pygmaeits
1
Sugar Glider
Petaurus breviceps
10
Common Ringtail Possum
Pseudocheirus peregrimts
3
Eastern Grey Kangaroo
Macropus giganteus
180E
Red-necked Wallaby
Macropus t 'ufbgi iseus
3
Black Wallaby
Wallabia bicolor
21
White-striped Freetail Bat
Tadarida australis
1
Gould’s Wattled Bat
Chalinolobus gouldii
1
Chocolate Wattled Bat
Chalinololms mono
5
Large Forest Bat
Vespadelus darlingtoni
4
Southern Forest Bat
Vespadelus regirltts
1
Little Forest Bat
Vespadelus vuUut nus
41
Eastern False Pipistrelle
Falsistrelfus las man tens is
1
Lesser long-eared Bat
Nyctoph i lus geoffro yi
28
House Mouse*
Mus musculus
15
Swamp Rat
Rattus lutreolus
5
Black Rat *
Rattus rattus
6
Red Fox*
Vulpes vulpes
2
House Cat (Feral)*
Felis catus
1
European Rabbit*
Oiyctolagus cuniculus
7
Brown Hare*
Lepus capensis
4
Goat (Feral)*
Capra hircus
10E
flavipes, (Fig. 1 ) was recorded from Granite
Hills Woodland, Granite Outcrop Complex
and Granite Hills herb-rich Woodland. The
Fat-tailed Dunnart Sminthopsis crassicau-
data was recorded in Wimmera Grassy
Woodland, where one specimen only was
found under a small section of log. The
Sugar Glider Petaurus b rev i ceps was
recorded in small numbers from Granite
Hills Woodland, Granite Outcrop Complex
and Valley Grassy Forest. The Black
Wallaby Wallabia bicolor and Eastern
Grey Kangaroo Macropus giganteus were
recorded from all parts of the range, how-
ever, the Red-necked Wallaby Macropus
rufogriseus was seen on only three occa-
sions in Granite Hills Woodland.
Fifteen reptiles were recorded (Table 3),
which included two species of gecko, one
monitor, two dragons, seven skinks and
three elapid snakes. The Sand Goanna
Varan us gouldii, (Fig. 2) was found in
Granite Hills Woodland only, where the
deep sandy soils of this vegetation commu-
96
The Victorian Naturalist
FSG Contribution
(Cogger 2000), was found on two occa-
sions only, both in Wimmera Grassy
Woodland. The Garden Skink Lampro-
pholis guichenoti , Stumpy-tail Lizard
Tiliqua rugoso . Bougainville’s Skink
Leris la bougainvillii , Boulenger’s Skink
Morethia boulengeri , Marbled Gecko
Christ inns marmoratus and Thick-tailed
Gecko Underwoodisaurus milii , were all
found in all parts of the range. The Little
Whip Snake Parasuta flagellum was found
under rocks and discarded tin in Granite
Hills Woodland and Granite Outcrop
Complex. The Tree Dragon Amphibolurus
muricatns and Eastern Bearded Dragon
Pogona barbata were recorded in Granite
Hills Woodland.
Six species of amphibians were recorded
(Table 4). including one species of tree frog
and five southern frogs. The Common
Froglet Crinia signifera, Southern Bullfrog
Table 3. List of reptiles and total number recorded during survey.
Common Name
Scientific Name
Number
Marbled Gecko
Christ inns marmoratus
40
Thick-tailed Gecko
U nderwoodisaums m Hi i
6
Tree Dragon
Amphibolurus muricatus
4
Eastern Bearded Dragon
Pogona barbata
3
Sand Goanna
Varahus gouldii
2
Eastern Three-lined Skink
Bassiana dupetrevi
2
Large Striped Skink
Cienotus robustus
29
Garden Skink
Lampropholis guichenoti
57
Bougainville’s Skink
Leris ta bouga in vi llii
10
Boulenger’s Skink
Morethia boulengeri
11
Common Blue-tongued Lizard
Tiliqua scincoides
3
Stumpy-tail Lizard
Tiliqua rugosa
38
Little Whip Snake
Parasuta flagellum
9
Red-bellied Black Snake
Pseudechis porphyriacus
5
Eastern Brown Snake
Pseudonaja text His
6
Fig. 1. Y el low- fooled A ntech inus A ntechinus
flavipes. Photo: Mary rose Morgan.
nity may best suit the construction of bur-
rows. The Large Striped Skink Cienotus
robustus , (Fig. 3) was found in Granite
Hills Woodland, Granite Outcrop Complex
and Heathy Woodland. The Eastern Three-
lined Skink Bassiana duperreyi , a common
skink throughout much of Victoria
Fig. 2. Sand Goanna Varanu gouldii. Photo: Sally Bewsher.
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
97
FSG Contribution
Fig. 3. Large Striped Skink Ctenotus robustus. Photo: Sally Bewsher.
Limnodynastes dumerilii and Southern
Brown Tree Frog Litoria ewingii were
found on numerous occasions in all parts of
the range. However, the Plains Froglet
Ranidella parinsignifera was found only in
Wimmera Grassy Woodland and the
Common Spadefoot Toad Ncobatra chits
sudelli was detected only in Granite Hills
Woodland. Bibron’s Toad let Pseudophryne
bibronii was detected in Granite Hills
Woodland and Valley Grassy Forest.
One hundred and four bird species were
recorded (Table 5), of which one hundred
and one were native species and three were
introduced. Ten species were recorded as
breeding in the area during the survey.
Amongst the birds was the Powerful Owl
Ninox strenua, which is classified as
endangered in Victoria. This species was
recorded at four sites within the range,
including one site where an adult bird was
found roosting in a small plantation of
Finns radiata. All the ow ls regurgitate pel-
lets containing indigestible remains
(Simpson and Day 1989) and nine such
pellets were collected from this roost site.
Analysis showed them to contain the bones
of several juvenile Common Brushtail
Possums and one bird, possibly a species
of Currawong Strepera sp. Several wood-
land birds, w hose range and/or populations
have decreased over recent years (Barrett et
at. 2003) were also recorded. These includ-
ed the Speckled Warbler Sericornis sagittu-
tus , Hooded Robin Melanodryas cucullatci,
Red-capped Robin Petroica goodenovii.
White-winged Triller Lalage tricolor ,
Crested Shrike-tit Falcunculus frontatus.
Scarlet Robin Petroica multicolour , Jacky
Winter Microeca leucophaea , White-front-
ed Chat Ephthianura albifrons and Brown
Treecreeper Climacteris picumnus .
Common and scientific names are those
currently recognised by the Atlas of
Victorian Wildlife, Department of
Sustainability and Environment.
Discussion
This survey significantly increased the
number of vertebrate species known to
inhabit the Black Range. Prior to the sur-
vey, records for only ten species of birds,
eighteen mammals, eleven reptiles and two
amphibians were available for this area
(Atlas of Victorian Wildlife, Department
of Sustainability and Environment).
Records for the presence of the Koala
Phascolarctos cinereus , in 1990 exist
( Atlas of Victorian Wildlife), however, the
only evidence found during this survey
w'as skeletal remains, estimated to be about
two years old. The last sighting of this
species in the Black Range by members of
the Landcare Group was in December
1998 (N Marriott, pers. comm. ).
The Southern Brown Bandicoot has been
encountered in low numbers by members
of the Landcare Group at various times
98
The Victorian Naturalist
FSG Contribution
Table 4. List of amphibians and total number recorded during survey. E = ■
estimated number.
Common Names
Scientific Names
Number
Southern Bullfrog
L i mnodynaates dinner i l ii
35E
Common Spadefoot Toad
Neobatrachus, sudelii
5
Bibron's Toadlet
Pseudophtyne bibronii
9
Plains Froglet
Ranidello par ins ign if era
10
Common Froglet
Crinia sign if era
23 OE
Southern Brown Tree Frog
Litoria ewingii
11
Table 5. List of birds and total numbers recorded during survey. E = estimated number; B = breed-
ing confirmed; * = introduced species.
Common Name
Scientific Name
Number
Hoary-headed Grebe, B
Poliocephalus poliocephalus
5
Australasian Grebe
Tachybaptns novaehoilandiae
6
Little Pied Cormorant
Phalacrocorax metanolencos
1
Pacific (White-neckcd) Heron
Ardea paciftca
1
White-faced Heron
Ardea novaehoilandiae
2
Australasian Shelduck, B
Tadorna tadornoides
35
Pacific Black Duck
Anas super ci/iosa
30E
Grey Teal
Anas gibberifrons
4
Maned (Wood) Duck
Chenoneila jubatta
50E
Whistling Kite
Milvus sphenurus
2
Brown Goshawk
Accipiter fasciatus
2
Wedge-tailed Eagle
Aquila audax
5
Little Eagle
Hieraaetus morphnoides
2
Australian Hobby
Falco longipennis
1
Brown Falcon
Falco berigora
8
Painted Button-quail
Turnix varia
2
Masked Lapwing
Vanellus miles
15
Black-fronted Plover
Elseyornis melanops
2
Peaceful Dove
Geopelia placida
40E
Common Bronzewing
Phaps chalcoptera
16
Crested Pigeon
Geophaps lophotes
4
Yellow -tailed Black Cockatoo
Calyptorhynchus funereus
100E
Gal ah
Cacatua roseicapilla
16
Long-billed Corolla
Cacatua tenuirostris
60E
Sulphur-crested Cockatoo
Cacatua galerita
12
Rainbow Lorikeet
Trichoglossus haematodus
2
Musk Lorikeet
Glossopsitta concinna
4
Purple-crowned Lorikeet, B
Glossopsitta porphyrocephala
20E
Little Lorikeet
Glossopsitta pusilla
2
Crimson Rose 11a
Platycercus elegans
30E
Eastern Rosella
Platvcercus eximius
12
Red-rumped Parrot
Psephotus haematonotus
30E
Pallid Cuckoo
Cuculus pallidus
2
Fan-tailed Cuckoo
Cuculus flabelliformis
4
Black-eared Cuckoo
Chrysococcvx osculans
2
Horsfield’s Bronze-Cuckoo
Chrysococcyx basalts
2
Powerful Owl
Ninox strenuci
4
Southern Boobook
Ninox novaeseelandiae
3
Tawny Frogmouth
Podargus sfrigoides
2
Australian Owlet-nightjar
Aegotheles cristatus
4
Laughing Kookaburra
Dacelo novaeguineae
20E
Sacred Kingfisher
Halcyon sancta
2
Rainbow Bee-eater
Merops ornatus
6
Welcome Swallow
Hirundo rustica
32
Tree Martin
Hirundo nigricans
6
Richard’s Pipit
An thus novaeseelandiae
4
Black-faced Cuckoo-shrike
Coracina novaehoilandiae
5
White-bellied Cuckoo-shrike
Coracina papuensis
5
White-winged Triller
Lalage tricolor
3
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
99
FSG Contribution
Table 5. cont’d.
Common Name Scientific Name Number
White’s (Bassian) Thrush
Zoothera dauma
1
Blackbird*
Turdus mend a
1
Scarlet Robin
Petroica multicolour
10
Red-cappcd Robin
Petroica goodenovii
2
Hooded Robin
Melanodtyas cucullate
3
Eastern Yellow Robin
Eopsaltria australis
3
Jacky Winter
Microeca leucophaea
9
Crested Shrike-tit
Falcunculus fi'ontatus
3
Golden Whistler
Pack} 'cephala pectoral is
3
Rufous Whistler
Pachycephala rufiventris
14
Grey Shrike-thrush
Colluricincla harmonica
7
Restless Flycatcher
Myiagra inquieta
4
Grey Fan tail
Rhipidura fuliginosa
1
Willie Wagtail
Rhipidura leucophrys
30E
White-browed Babbler
Pomatostomus superciliosus
40E
Rufous Songlark
Cincforhamphus mathewsi
14
Superb Fairywren
Main r us cyaneus
50E
Speckled Warbler
Sericornis sagittatus
10
Brown Thombill
Acanthiza pus ilia
10
Buff-ramped Thombill
A canthiza regut aides
6
Ycllow-rumped Thombill
A canth iza ch rysorrhou
36
Southern White face
A phelocephala leucopsis
4
Varied Silella
Daphoenosittu duysoptera
2
White-throated Treecreeper
Cormobates leucophaea
8
Brown Treecreeper
Climacteris picunmus
7
Red Wattlebird
Ant hot haera canmculate
18
Little Wattlebird
A nthochaera lunulata
2
Noisy Miner
Manorina mekmocephala
1
Yellow-laced Honeyeater
Lichenostomus chrysops
5
Yellow'-tufted Honeyeater, B
Lichenostomus metanops
16
Fuscous Honeyeater
L ich enostom us fits cus
4
Wh i te- p 1 umed H oney eater
L ic he nos tom us pen icil latus
50E
Black-chinned Honeyeater
Mel i threptus gularis
1
Brown-headed Honeyeater
Mel ith rep/ us brevi ros tris
3
White-naped Honeyeater
Mel i threptus lima t us
12
New Holland Honeyeater
Phyl idom ris no vaehollandiae
30E
Eastern Spinebil!
A canthorhynchus ten u i ros tris
15
White- fronted Chat
Ephthianura alb from
6
Mistletoebird, B
Dicaeum hirundi naceum
5
Spotted Pardalote, B
Pardalotus punetatus
7
Striated Pardalote, B
Pardalotus striatus
8
Silvereye
Zoster ops lateralis
6
European Goldfinch*
Car duel is carduelis
6
House Sparrow'*
Passer domes ticus
12
Red-browed Firetail, B
Neochmia temporal is
100E
Diamond Firetail
Stagonopleura guttata
4
Olive-backed Oriele
Oriolus sag it talus
3
White-winged Chough, B
Corcorax melanorhamphos
20
Australian Magpie-lark
Grallina cyanoleuca
2
Dusky Woodswallow
A rtanms cyanopterus
9
Australian Magpie, B
Gym norh ina t ibtcen
50E
Pied Currawong
Strepera gr acid ina
1
Grey Currawong
Strepera versicolor
6
Australian Raven
Corvus coronoides
17
Little Raven
Corvus mellori
2
100
The Victorian Naturalist
FSG Contribution
over the last twenty years in various parts
of the range (A Davis et al pers.comm.).
Despite this, very little evidence of the
presence of the species was found over
most of the range during this survey.
However, grassy areas around the largest
patch of Gorse in Wimmera Grassy
Woodland on the south-eastern edge of the
range, contained large numbers of the typi-
cal conical feed holes produced by the
Southern Brown Bandicoot. Capture rates
for this species are normally low
(Menkhorst 1995), however, the trapping
rate around the largest patch of Gorse was
particularly high (14 captures out of 162
cage trap-nights). Whilst Gorse is a major
environmental weed in various parts of
southern Australia, it never the less has the
ability to provide thick, prickly cover
down to ground level. In the Black Range
Southern Brown Bandicoots use areas
infested with Gorse to seek protection
from predators such as the Red Fox.
Anecdotal evidence from local landholders
suggests that the species also uses rabbit
burrows, thick garden beds near houses
and fallen hollow logs for shelter from
predators.
The capture of the Eastern False
Pipistrelle during this survey in an area of
River Red Gums in Wimmera Grassy
Woodland was unexpected. This species is
normally found in wetter, tall forests
(Menkhorst 2001). The species has since
been recorded in larger numbers in similar
habitat on the basalt plains near Buangor in
western Victoria (Homan 2004).
Records for the Feathertail Glider are low
in woodland areas of western Victoria
(Atlas of Victorian Wildlife). The very
small size of the species makes it difficult
to detect using spotlights and previous sur-
veys by the FSG in woodland areas have
found only very small numbers of the
species (Myers and Dashper 1999).
Records for the endangered Powerful
Owl are also low in woodland areas of
western Victoria (Atlas of Victorian
Wildlife). Over much of the range of this
species in Victoria the Common Ringtail
Possum is an important item of prey
(Menkhorst 1995). However, this possum
species was only recorded from one site
during this survey within the Black Range,
whilst the Common Brushtail Possum was
found to be common and widespread
throughout the range and surrounding
areas. The results of analysis of Powerful
Owl pellets collected during this survey
indicate that juvenile Common Brushtail
Possums and roosting birds are a major
item of prey for this species in this area.
Habitat enhancement works on the prop-
erties on which the FSG worked have been
beneficial to several species. The protec-
tion of old-grow th eucalypts, w ith numer-
ous hollows close to the ground and the
practice of leaving hollowr limbs where
they fall, has produced ideal habitat for the
Yellow'-footed Antechinus. The toss of this
soil of habitat throughout woodland areas
of Victoria is of particular concern for the
long-term survival of this species
(Menkhorst 1995). Properties on the south-
western and south-eastern slopes of the
Black Range may contain some of the best
privately owned habitat for this species in
Victoria.
The retention of fallen logs and limbs has
also provided enhanced habitat for the
Brown Treecreeper and the cessation of
grazing, along with revegetation works has
benefited other woodland birds. Most
sightings of the Speckled Warbler took
place in areas of Austral Bracken within
Granite Outcrop Complex, which had been
previously grazed. Whilst improved habitat
may be beneficial to woodland birds, all
the woodland species detected during the
survey were recorded in low numbers.
Local bird enthusiasts have reported a
steady decline in the population of small
woodland birds over the last fifty years in
this area (J Pickford pers.comm.).
The use of nest-boxes during this survey
made up only a small part of the survey
effort. Despite this, five nest-boxes placed
in an area of Granite Hills Woodland,
which was devoid of natural hollows, pro-
duced one record of the Sugar Glider,
within three months of the boxes being
erected. Spotlighting in this area had failed
to detect the species. Myers and Dashper
(1999) found that Sugar Gliders often used
nest-boxes in areas that are almost totally
devoid of hollow'-bearing trees.
Prior to the formation of the Black Range
Landcare Group in 1986, the Black Range
was severely infested with rabbits and
introduced weeds and many parts of the
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
101
Contributions
range were suffering from severe erosion.
Since then extensive rehabilitation works
have been carried out by members of the
Landcare Group. The results of this fauna
survey show that these efforts have been
extremely beneficial to native vertebrate
fauna in the Black Range, by producing a
range of enhanced habitats which support
an interesting variety of species.
Acknowledgements
The Fauna Survey Group would like to thank
the property owners in the Black Range, espe-
cially Peter and Carroll Braziei\ Barb and
Graeme Walker, Elwyn Dennis and Anne Davis,
and Neil and Jane Marriott, who very kindly
allowed access to their wonderful properties.
Neil Marriott, in particular, provided extensive
information on vegetation communities and sur-
vey sites within the range and also provided
information for the topography and vegetation
section of this article. Mr Jim Pickford of
Stawell provided interesting historical informa-
tion on local bird records The MA Ingram Trust
provided financial support for the survey. The
work was carried out under Research Permit
no. 10002 1 47 issued by the Department of
Sustainability and Environment. The FSG wish-
es to thank the members and friends of the
FNCV who participated in the survey.
References:
Atlas of Victorian Wildlife (2000) database.
Department of Sustainability and Environment,
Victoria.
Cogger H (2000) Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia,
6 ed. (Reed Books; Chalswood. NSW)
Homan P (2004) A fauna survey of Challicum, a Land
for Wildlife property near Buangor , Land for
Wildlife News, Vol. 5 No. 7, August/September,
2004. (Department of Sustainability and
Environment)
Littlejohn M (19X7) Calls of Victorian Frogs (tape).
(Department of Zoology: University of Melbourne)
Menkhorsl PW (ed) (1995) Mammals of Victoria:
Distribution, Ecology’ and Conservation. (Oxford
University Press: South Melbourne)
Menkhorst PW (2001 ) A Field Guide to the- Mammals
of Australia. (Oxford University Press: South
Melbourne)
Myers SD and Dashper SG (1999) A Survey of the
Vertebrate Fauna of the Rush worth State Forest .
(The Victorian Naturalist, I 16(4). 1999, 131-141)
Simpson K and Day N (1989) Field Guide to the Birds
of Australia. (Penguin Books Australia Ltd:
Ringwood)
Received 13 May 2004; accepted 11 November 2004
The biology, ecology and horticultural potential
of Banksia L.f.:
A bibliography of recent literature
AK Cavanagh1
Abstract
In this fifth bibliography of recent literature on Banksia , a further 94 items are added to the list.
There appears to have been a wane in interest in general pollination studies but an increase in
research on chemical control of Phytophthora. A new section has been added to the bibliography, to
include papers on this subject. (The Victorian Naturalist 122 (2)2005, 102-107)
This is the fifth bibliography of Banksia I
have prepared since 1989 (Cavanagh 1989,
1994, 1997, 2000) and brings the number
of references on this important topic to
more than 530. The bibliography mainly
lists papers published in journals between
1999 and 2003, although books, theses and
special reports also are included. Because
of its importance to the taxonomy of
Banksia , the bibliography also includes
reference to the revision of Banksia by
Alex George in 1999 (George 1999).
Interest in general pollination studies
appears to have waned since 2000
'16 Woodlands Drive, Ocean Grove, Victoria 3226
although the role of animal pollinators and
the feeding and foraging behaviour of
birds and animals still attract considerable
attention. Ecological studies remain one of
the major areas of interest with the role of
fire and the continuing devastating effect
of Phytophthora cirnamomi (dieback)
being the subject of ongoing research. The
latter was the subject of an international
conference in Albany in 2001. One conse-
quence of this research is increasing inter-
est in chemical control of Phytophthora ,
especially by the use of the fungicide
phosphite. Papers on this are included in a
separate section. Studies of the utilisation
of water and nutrients are also included
102
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
separately this year. Some work continues
on the rare and endangered species but this
still tends to focus on the better-known
species; translocation of endangered
species is suggested in some publications
as one possibility of improving their sur-
vival. There were relatively few papers on
applied horticulture, despite the ongoing
interest in banksias as cut flowers,
although several studies on seed storage
have direct relevance to the horticultural
industry.
The bibliography is arranged alphabeti-
cally by author under the following cate-
gories:-
Books on Banksia, Systematics and
Paleobotany, Reproductive Biology:
Pollination - General, Pollination
Birds and Mammals, Floral Damage and
Flower/Seed Consumption, Seed
Development and Canopy Storage.
Ecology: General Studies , Nutrient and
Water Studies, Role of Fire, Role of
Phytophthora and other Diseases and
Pests - Broad Studies, Role of
Phytophthora and other Diseases and
Pests - Chemical Control of
Phytophthora, Rare and Endangered.
Horticulture: General Studies,
Propagation, Cultivation and Chemical
Studies.
Numbering begins at 434 and follows on
from the 2000 survey (Cavanagh 2000).
The listing of species in Appendix 1 fol-
lows the Australian Plant Name Index
(APNI) which is largely based on the work
of George (1996a, 1996b and 1999) and
Thiele and Ladiges (1996) and the accep-
tance of names by various Herbaria, but it
is recognised that other interpretations are
possible. Each taxon is indexed to relevant
papers in the bibliography.
References
Cavanagh AK (1989) The biology and ecology of
Banksia L.l. : a bibliography of recent literature. The
Victorian Naturalist 106. 140-147.
Cavanagh AK (1994) The biology, ecology and horti-
cultural potential of Banksia L.f. : a bibliography of
recent literature. The Victor tan Naturalist III. 25-30.
Cavanagh AK (1997) The biology, ecology and horti-
cultural potential of Banksia L.F. : a bibliography of
recent literature. The Victorian Naturalist 1 14, 77-82.
Cavanagh AK (2000) The biology, ecology and horti-
cultural potential at Banksia L.F. a bibliography of
recent literature. The Victorian Naturalist 1 17. 31-35.
George AS (1996a) Notes on Banksia L.f. (Proteaeeae).
Nuytsia II, 21-24.
George AS ( 1 996b) The banksia book 3 ed. (Kangaroo
Press in association with the Society for Growing
Australian Plants : Sydney).
George AS (1999) Banksia, Flora of Australia 17B.
175-251.
Thiele K and Ladiges PT (1996) A cladistic analysis of
Banksia (Proteaeeae). Australian Systematic Botany
9. 661-733.
What \ its name ? A concise database of plant names &
name changes for Australia.
http://vvwvv.anbg.gov.au/win.index.html (accessed
21/7/2004).
Bibliography
Books on Banksia
434 Rosser CE and George AS (2000). The Banksias.
vol. 3 (London: Academic Press).
Systematics and Paleobotany
435 Evans KM (2001 ) Genetic variation in two species
of Banksia, B. saxicola and B. integrifolia.
(Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Melbourne)
436 Evans KM, Ladiges PY, Newbigin E and Ades PK
(2001) Genetic variation in Banksia saxicola
(Proteaeeae), a rare Australian plant with a markedly
disjunct distribution. Plant Systematics & Evolution
227, 105-1 15.
437 Evans KM, Newbigin E and Ladiges PY (2002)
An investigation of genetic variation in Banksia inte-
grifolia (Proteaeeae) by the use of AFLP technique.
Australian Systematic Botany 1 5, 9- 1 7,
437a George AS (1999) Banksia. Flora of Australia
I7B, 175-251
438 Greenwood DR, Haines PW and Stacrt D C (2001 )
New species in Banks i eaeform is and a Banksia
"cone" (Proteaeeae) from the Tertiary of central
Australia. Australian Systematic Botany 14, 871-890.
439 Itzstein-Davey F (2003) The representation of
Proteaeeae in modem pollen rain in species-rich veg-
etation communities in south-western Australia.
Australian Journal of Botany 51, 135-149.
440 Maguire l L < 1997) Genetic diversity and interspe-
cific relationships in Banksia L.f. (Proteaeeae).
(unpublished PhD Thesis University of Adelaide)
441 Mast AR and Givnjsh TJ (2002) Historical bio-
geography and the origin of slomaial distributions in
Banksia and Dryandra (Proteaeeae) based on their
cpDNA phytogeny. American Journal of Botany 89,
1311-1323.
Reproductive Biology
Pollination - General
442 Matthews ML, Gardner J and Sedgley M (1999)
The Proteaceous pistil: morphological and anatomi-
cal aspects of the pollen presenter and style of eight
species across five genera. Annals of Botany
(London) 83. .385-399.
Pollination - Birds and Mammals
443 Bowen M and Goldingay R (2000) Distribution
and status of the eastern pygmy possum ( Cercartetus
nanus) in New South Wales. Australian Mammalogy
21. 153-164.
444 Bradshaw SD and Bradshaw F.l ( 1999) Field ener-
getics and the estimation of pollen and nectar intake
in the marsupial honey possum Tarsi pes restratus , in
heath I and habitats of south-western Australia.
Journal of Comparative Physiology - B.
Biochemical. Systemic, & Environmental Physiology
169, 569-580.
445 Dalgleish E (1999) Effectiveness of invertebrate
and vertebrate pollinators and the influence of pollen
limitation and inflorescence position on follicle pro-
duction of Banksia aemula (Family Proteaeeae).
Australian Journal of Botany 47, 553-562.
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
103
Contributions
446 Evans KM and Bunce A (2000) A comparison of
the foraging behaviour of the eastern pygmy-possum
( Cere arte tus nanus ) and nectarivorou.s birds in a
Banks in integrifolia woodland. Australian
Mamma log\' 22, 8 1 -86.
447 Goldinguy RL (2000) Small dasyurid marsupials:
are they effective pollinators? (Review). Australian
.Journal of Zoology- 48. 507*606.
448 Hackett DJ and Goldingay RL (2001) Pollination
Of Bcmksia spp. by non- dying mammals in north-
eastern New South Wales. Australian Journal of
Botany 49, 637-644.
449 Lloyd S, Ayre m and Whelan RJ (2002) A rapid
and accurate visual assessment of nectar production
can reveal patterns of temporal variation in Banksia
eric i folia (Proteaceae). Australian Journal of Botany
50, 595-600.
450 McFarland DC (2002) Non-breeding territoriality
in the New Holland honeyeater, Pliylidonyris novae -
hollandiae, in an unpredictable environment - short-
term energy costs for possible Iona-term reproductive
benefits. Emu 102, 315-321.
451 Wooller RD, Richardson KC and Bradley GO
(1999) Dietary constraints upon reproduction in an
obligate pollen- and nectar- (ceding marsupial, the
honey possum {Tars i fie s rostra tus). Journal of
Zoology (London) 246. 279-287
452 Wooller S.l and Wooller RD (2001 ) Seed set in two
sympatric banksias, Banksia attenuate! and B. has-
ten'. Australian Journal of Botany 49, 597-602.
453 Wooller SJ and Wooller RD (2002) Mixed mating
in Banksia media Australian Journal of Botany 50.
627-63 1 .
454 Wooller RD and Wooller SJ (2003) The role of
non-flying animals in the pollination of Banksia
nutans. Australian Journal of Botany 51. 503-507.
Floral Damage and Flower/Seed
Consumption
455 Cooper CE, Withers PC. Mawson PR. Bradshaw
SD, Prince ,1 and Robertson H (2002) Metabolic ecol-
ogy of cockatoos in the south-west of Western
Australia. Australian Journal of Zoology 50, 67-76.
Seed Development and Canopy Storage
456 Henery ML and Westoby M (2001) Seed mass and
seed nutrient content as predictors of seed output,
variation between species. Oikos 92, 479-490.
Ecology
General Studies
457 Bell GR (1995) Mapping changes in Banksia erici-
folia L.f. var. macruntha distribution in northern
NSW National Parks, utilising aerial photographic
techniques. (B. App. Sc. (Hons) Thesis Southern
Cross University).
458 Burgman MA, Possmgham HP, Lynch A. Jasmyn
.1, Keith DA. McCarthy MA, Hopper SD, Drury WL,
Passioura JA and Devries RJ (2001) A method for
setting the si/e of plant conservation areas.
Conservation Biology 15. 603-616.
459 Coates DJ (2000) Defining conservation units in a
rich and fragmented flora: implications for the man-
agement of genetic resources and evolutionary
processes in south-west Australian plants. Australian
Journal of Botany 48, 329-339.
460 Gurner R (1998) The distribution and long-term
change in Banksia Hicifolia communities on the
Gnangara mound. (BSc (Hons.) Thesis, Edith Cowan
University)
461 Lament BB (2003) Structure, ecology and physiol-
ogy of root clusters - a review. Plant and Soil 248, 1-
19.
462 Lamont BB, He T, Enright NJ, Krauss SL and
Miller BP (2003) Anthropogenic disturbance pro-
motes hybridization between Banksia species by
altering their biology. Journal of Evolutionary
Biology 16, 551-557.
463 Morris EC (2003) Increased death of new' leaves of
coastal Banksia ( Banksia integrifolia L.f.) around
ocean sewage outlall sites. Austral Ecology 28, 75-8 1
464 Pignatti E, Pignalti S and Ladd PG (2002)
Comparison of ecosystems in the Mediterranean
Basin and Western Australia. Plant Ecology 163,
177-186.
465 Price JN and Morgan JW (2003) Mechanisms con-
trolling the establishment of non-bradysporous
Banksia integrifolia (('oast Banksia) in an unburnt
coastal woodland. Austral Ecology 28. 82-92.
466 Read J, Edwards C, Sanson <JD and Aranwela N
(2000) Relationships between sclerophvlly, leaf bio-
mechanical properties and leaf anatomy in some
Australian heath and forest species. Plant Bum-stems
134,261-277.
467 Rokich D (2000) Banksia woodland restoration,
(unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Western
Australia)
468 Rokich DP. Dixon KW, Sivasithamparam K and
Meney KA (2000) Topsoil handling and storage
effects on woodland restoration in Western Australia.
Restoration Ecology 8, 196-208.
469 Rokich DP. Meney KA. Dixon KW and
Sivasithamparam K (2001) The impact of soil distur-
bance on root development in woodland communities
in Western Australia. Australian Journal of Botany
49, 169-183.
470 Rokich DP, Dixon KW, Sivasithamparam K and
Meney KA (2002) Smoke, mulch and seed broad-
casting effects on woodland restoration in Western
Australia. Restoration Ecology 10. 185-194.
Nutrient and H ater Studies
471 Barrick KA (2003) Comparison of the nutrient
ecology of coastal Banksia grandis elfinw'ood
(windswept shrub-like form) and low trees. Cape
Leeuvvin-Naturaliste National Park, Western
Australia. Austral Ecology 28. 252-262.
472 Burgess SSO, Pate JS. Adams MA and Dawson
TE (2000) Seasonal water acquisition and redistribu-
tion in the Australian woody phreatophyte. Banksia
pnonotes Annals of Botany (London) 85, 215-224.
472a Grierson PF and Adams MA (2000) Plant species
affect acid phosphatase, ergosterol ami microbial P in
a Jarrah ( Eucalyptus marginata Donil ex Sm.) forest
in south-western Australia. Soil Biology
Biochemistry 32, 1817-1827-
473 Parks SC (2000) Proteaceae nutrition and the phos-
phorus requirements of lianksta ericifolia L.f.
(unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Western
Sydney)
474 Parks SE. Haigh AM and Crcsswell GC (2000)
Stem tissue phosphorus as an index of the phospho-
rus status of Banksia ericifolia L.f. Plant and Soil
227, 59-65.
475 Pate JS and Dawson TE (1999) Assessing the per-
formance of woody plants in uptake and utilisation of
carbon, water and nutrients: implications for design-
ing agricultural mimic systems. Agroforcstn Systems
45, 245-275.
476 Pate JS and Bell TL (1999) Application of the
ecosystem mimic concept to the species-rich Banksia
woodlands of Western Australia. Agroforestry
Systems 45, 303-34 1 .
477 Roelofs RFR, Rengel 7, Cawlhray GR, Dixon KW
and Lumbers H (2001) Exudation of carboxylates in
Australian Proteaceae: chemical composition. Plant,
Cell & Environment 24. 891-903.
104
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
478 Taranto MT, Adams MA and Polglase PJ (2000)
Sequential fractionation and characterisation (P-3 1 -
NMR) of phosphorus-amended soils in Banksia intc-
gr (folia (L.f.) woodland and adjacent pasture. Soil
Biology & Biochemistry 32. 169-177.
479 Vaughton O and Ramsey M (2001 ) Relationships
between seed mass, seed nutrients, and seedling
growth in Banks ia Cunningham ii (Protcaceae).
International Journal of Plant Sciences 162, 599-606.
480 Ward PR, Tillery IRP, Maharaj EA and Dunin FX
(2003) Walter budgets and nutrients in a native
Banksia woodland and adjacent Medicago sativa pas-
ture. Plant and Soil 257, 305-319.
481 Zencich SJ, Froend RH. Turner JV and Gailitis V
(2002) Influence of groundwater depth on the season-
al sources of water accessed by Banksia tree species
on a shallow, sandy coastal aquifer. Oecologia 131,
8-18.
Role of Fire
482 Bell DT (2001) Ecological response syndromes in
the Bora of southwestern Western Australia: fire
resprouters versus reseeders (Review). Botanical
Reviews 67.417-440.
483 Green eve! d J, Enright NJ, Lament BB and Wissel
C (2002) A spatial model of coexistence among three
Banksia species along a topographic gradient in fire-
prone shrubUmds. Journal of Ecology' 90. 762-774.
484 Lamont BB, Groom PK, Richards MB and
Witowski ETF (1999) Recovery of Banksia and
Hakeu communities after fire in mediterranean
Australia - the role of species identity and functional
attributes. Diversity and Distributions 5, 15-26.
485 Lamont BB and Wiens D (2003 ) Are seed set and
speciation rates always low among species that
resprout after lire, and why? Evolutionary Ecology
17.277-292.
486 Lewis J (2003) Plant regeneration following fire in
Bungendore Park. Bedfordale, Western Australia,
Western Australian Naturalist 24, 37-72.
487 McCarthy MA. Possingham UP and Gill AM
(2001) Using stochastic dynamic programming to
determine optimal fire management for Banksia
ornuta. Journal of Applied Ecology 38, 585-592.
488 Tozer MG and Bradstoek RA (2003) Fire-mediat-
ed effects of overstory on plant species diversity and
abundance in an eastern Australian heath. Plant
Ecology 164, 213-223.
489 Whight S and Bradstoek R (2000) Indices of fire
characteristics in sandstone heath near Sydney,
Australia. International Journal of Wildland Fire 9.
145-153.
490 Wills TJ (2003) Using Banksia (Proteaceae) node
counts to estimate time since fire. Australian Journal
of Botany 51 , 239-242.
491 Wooller SJ, Wooler RD and Brown KL (2002)
Regeneration of three species of Banksia on the south
coast of Western Australia in relation to fire interval.
Australian Journal of Botany 50. 3 1 1 -3 1 7.
Role of Phy (ophthora and Other Diseases
and Pests - Broad Studies
492 Adams R and Geyer H ( 1 999) Banksia integrifolia
Linnaeus fil. infestation by xyloryetid moth larvae.
Cape Schanck. Victoria. Proceedings of the Royal
Society of Victoria 1 1 1. 93- 1 02.
493 Bathgate JA (1999) Infection of Banksia eoecima
by canker pathogen Cryptodiaporthe melanucraspe-
da and the epidemiology of the disease it causes,
(unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Western
Australia)
494 Denman S, Crous PW, Groenwald JZ, Slippers B,
Wingfield BD and Wingfield MJ (2003)
Circumscription of Botryosphaeria species associat-
ed with Proteaceae based on morphology and DNA
sequence data. Mvco/ogia 95. 294-307.
495 Huberli D, I ommerup 1C. Dobrowolski MP,
Calver MC and Hardy GES (2001) Phenotype varia-
lion in a clonal lineage of two Phvtophthora cin-
namomi populations from Western Australia.
Mycological Research 105, 1053-1064
496 McDougall KL, llardv GES and Hobbs R.l (2002)
Distribution of Phvtophthora cinnamomi in the
northern jarrali ( Eucalyptus marginal a) forest of
Western Australia in relation to dieback age and
topography. Australian Journal of Botany 50, 107-
1 14.
497 McDougall KL, Hobbs RJ and Hardy GES (2002)
Vegetation of Phvtophthora cinnamomiA n fested and
adjacent uniulesied sites in a northern jarrah
(Eucalyptus marginata) forest of Western Australia.
Australian Journal of Botany 50, 277-288.
498 Nicoski SJ (1996) Phenolic and lignin concentra-
tion as an indicator of resistance to Phvtophthora chi-
na mom i in Banksia species. (BSc (lions) Thesis .
Edith Cowan University)
499 Pearce CA, ReddeJI P and llydc KD (2001)
Revision of the PhyllaChoraceae (Ascomycota) on
hosts in the arigiospcrm family, Proteaceae.
Australian Systematic Botany 14, 283-328.
500 Second International IUFRO Meeting on
Phvtophthora in Forests and Natural Ecosystems
(2001 ). Albany, 30 September- 5 October.
Relevant papers and posters presented at the meeting -
500a Collins S. Shcaicr B, MeComb J, Colquhoun 1
and Hardy GE (2001) Long Lei m survival of
Phvtophthora cinnamomi in mature Banksia grandis
trees in remnant jai rah forest (paper).
500b D’Sou/a NK, Colquhoun IJ. Shearer BL and
Hardy GE (2001 ) Biological control o {Phytophthora
cinnamomi : the potential of 5 Western Australian
native Acacia species to protect Banksia grandis
(poster).
500c Shearer BL and Crane CE (2001) Influence of
soil from a topographic gradient in the Filzgerald
River National Park on mortality of Banksia baxteri
following infection by Phvtophthora cinnamomi
(poster).
501 Tynan KM (1994) Evaluation of Banksia species
for response to Phy tophthora infection. (Unpublished
PhD Thesis. University of Adelaide)
502 Weste G (1998) Dieback at Wilsons Promontory.
Is the battle won? The Victorian Naturalist 1 15, 331-
336.
Role of Phytophthora and Other
Diseases and Pests - Chemical Control of
Phytophthora
503 Aberlon MJ. Wilson BA and Cahill DM (1999)
The use of potassium phosphonaic to control
Phytophthora cinnamomi in native vegetation at
Anglesea, Victoria. Australasian Plant Pathology 28
225-234.
504 Ali Z, Smith 1 and Guest D (2000) Combinations
of potassium phosphonate and Bion (acibenzolar-S-
mcthyl) reduce root infection and dieback of P inns
radiata, Banksia integrifolia and Isopogon cuneatus
caused by Phv tophi horn cinnamomi Australasian
Plant Pathology 29, 59-63.
505 Aryantha IP, Cross R and Guest D (2000)
Suppression of Phytophthora cinnamomi in potting
mixes amended with uncomposted and composted
animal manures. Phytopathology 90, 775-782.
506 Barrett SR. Shearer BE and Hardy GES (2002)
Root and shoot development in Corymbia calophylla
and Banksia brownii after the application of the
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
105
Contributions
fungicide phosphite. Australian Journal of Botany
50, 155-161.
507 Barrett SR, Shearer BL and Hardy CiES (2002)
The efficacy of phosphite applied after inoculation on
the colonisation of Banksia brownii stems by
Phytophthoro cinnunutmi . Australasian Plant
Pathology 32, 1-7.
508 Second International IUFRO Meeting on
Phytophlhora in Forests and Natural Ecosystems
(2001). Albany. 30 September- 5 October. Relevant
papers and posters presented at the meeting -
508a Shearer BL. Crane C L and Fairman RG (2001)
Phosphite reduces the rate of spread pf Phytophthoro
cinnamonu in Banksia woodland even after fire
(poster).
508b Shearer BL and Fairman RG (2001 ) Foliar appli-
cation of phosphite delays and reduces the rate of
mortality of three Banksia species in communities
infested with Phytophlhora cinnamomi (poster).
508c Shearer BL and Fairman RG (2001) Phosphite
inhibits lesion development of Phytophthoro cin-
namomi for at least four years following trunk injec-
tion of Banksia species and Eucalyptus marginata
(poster).
509 Wilkinson C l. Holmes .IM. Tynan KM, Colquhouil
1.1. McC'omb JA. Hardy GLS and Dell B (2001)
Ability of phosphite applied in a glasshouse trial to
control Phytophthoni cinnamomi in five plant species
native to Western Australia. Australasian Plant
Pathology 30. 343-351 .
510 Wilkinson CJ, Holmes ,IM. Dell B. Tynan KM,
McComb JA, Shearer BL and Colquhoun 1.1 (2001)
Effect of phosphite on in-planta zoospore production
of Phytophthoni cinnamomi. Plant Pathology
(Oxford) 50, 587-593.
511 Williams M, Senaratna f. Dixon K and
Sivasithamparam K (2003) licn/oic acid induces tol-
erance to biotic stress caused by Phytophthoro cin-
namomi in Banksia attenuate 1. Plant Growth
Regulation 41, 89-91 .
Rare and Endangered
512 Bell SA.1 (2001) Notes on the distribution and con-
servation status of some restricted plant species from
sandstone environments of the upper Hunter Valley.
New South Wales. Cunninghamiana 7, 77-88.
513 Dreschler M. Lam Out BIT Burg man MA.
Akcakaya HR, Wilovvski 1TF. Supriyadi (1999)
Modelling the persistence of an apparently immortal
Banksia species after fire and land clearing.
Biological Conservation 88, 249-259.
514 Monks L and Coates D (1999) Restoring diversity,
restoring hope [translocating Western Australia's
critically endangered plants to improve their survival
prospects] . Landscape 15 17-21.
515 Supriyadi (1994) Stochastic structured models for
Banksia goodii and Anas rhynchotis rhynchotis popu-
lations. (Unpublished MForSc Thesis, University of
Melbourne)
Horticulture
Genera / Studies
516 CALM (1998) "Management program for the com-
mercial utilization of Banksia hookeriana (Meissner)
in Western Australia”. (Western Australian
Department of Conservation and Land Management:
Bentley).
517 Lamont BB, Marsula R, Enright NJ and Witowski
ETF (2001 ) Conservation requirements of an exploit-
ed wildflower: modelling the effects of plant age,
growing conditions and harvesting intensity.
Biological Conservation 99, 157-168.
518 Mibus R and Sedgley M (2000) Early lignotuber
formation in Banksia investigations into the anato-
my of the cotyledonary node of two Banksia
(Proteaceae) species. Annals of Botany 86, 575-587.
519 Riegei MA (1997) Horticultural management and
population biology of several Banksia species.
(Unpublished PhD Thesis. University of Adelaide)
520 Tronson DA (2001) Volatile compounds of some
eastern Australian Banksia flowers. (Unpublished
PhD Thesis, University of Western Sydney )
Propagation , Cultivation and Chemical
Studies
521 Ascnstorfcr RE. Morgan AL, Hayasaka Y, Sedgley
M and Jones GP (2003) Purification of anlhocyanins
from species of Banksia and Acacia using high-volt-
age paper electrophoresis. Phvtochemical Analysis
14, 150-154.
522 Bocrsma JG and Cooke DEL. Sivasithamparam K
(2000) A survey of wildflower farms in the south-
west of western Australia for Phytophthoro spp.
associated with root rots. Australian Journal of
Experimental Agriculture 40. 101 1-1019.
523 Collins C (2001?) Anthocyanin variations in
Banksia menziesii. (Unpublished PhD Thesis,
University of Adelaide)
524 Lam hers H, Juniper D. Cawthray GR, Veneklaas
E.l and Marti nez-Ferri E (2002) The pattern of car-
boxy late exudation in Banksia grandis (Proteaceae)
is affected by the form of phosphate added to the soil.
Plant & Soil 238, I I 1-122.
525 Merritt DJ. Touchell DH. Dixon KW, Plummer JA
and Turner DW (2000) Moisture content influences
survival of ervostored seed of Banksia ashhvi
(Proteaceae). Australian Journal of Botany 48, 581 -
587.
526 Merritt DJ. Senaratna T. Touchell DH, Dixon KW
and Sivasithamparam K (2003) Seed ageing of four
Western Australian species in relation to storage
environment and seed antioxidant activity. Seed
Science Research 13, 155-165.
527 Merritt DJ, Touchell DH. Senaratna T, Dixon KW
and Sivasithamparam K (2003) Water sorption char-
acteristics of seeds of four Western Australian
species. Australian Journal of Botany 51 , 85-92.
528 Reynoso GA, Morukuma M, Miura Y, Hasegawa
A and Goi M (2000) Characterization of carbon
assimilation rate, stomatal conductance and transpira-
tion rate for eight Proteaceae species. Journal of the
Japanese Society for Horticultural Science 69, 576-
583.
Banksia spinulosa. Photo by Wendy Clark.
106
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Appendix
Listing of all Banks id species as given in the Australian Plant Names Index (APNI) which is largely based on the
work of George (1996a, 1996b and 1999) and Thiele and Ladiges (1996), as well as names accepted by Australian
Herbaria. Species are indexed tc relevant papers.
Banks! a aculeata A.S. George
Banksht aemuh R. Br. 445
Banksia aqitilonia (A.S. George) A.S. George 437
Bantcsia ashbvi E.G. Baker 525. 526, 527
Banksia attenuQtu R. Br. 452, 455, 481, 483, 5 1 1
Banksia audax C. Gardner
Banksia baueri R. Br. 491
Banksia baxteri R. Br. 452, 491, 500c
Banksia henfhamtana C. Gardner
Banksia h/echni folia F. Muell.
Banksia brevidentata (A.S. George) K. Thiele
Banksia brownii Baxter ex R. Br. 507, 508
Banksia burdettii E.G. Baker
Banksia cateyi R.Br.
Banksia candalleana Meissner
Banksia called J.H. Willis
Banksia chamaephyton A.S. George
Banksia coccinea R. Br. 442. 493, 5 19, 521
Banksia conferta A.S. George subsp. conferta
Banksia vumata A.S. George 458, 459, 514
Banksia dentata L.f.
Banksia dolichosty/a ( A.S. George ) K.Thicle
Banksia dryandroides Baxter ex Sweet
Banksia elder iana F. Muell. & Tate
Banksia elegans Meissner
Banksia epiea A.S. George
Banksia erici folia L.f, subsp. erici folia G 442, 448,
456, 473, 474, 489, 528
Banksia ericifolia L.f. subsp. maerantha* A.S. George
457
Banksia gardneri A.S. George var .gardneri
Banksia goodii R.Br. 513, 515
Banksia grandis Willd. 471. 472a, 477, 486, 496, 497,
500a, 500b, 509, 510. 524
Banksia grossa A.S. George
Banksia hiemalis (A.S. George) K. Thiele
Banksia huokeriana Meissner 462, 483, 509, 516, 517,
519
Banksia ilicifo/ia R. Br. 460, 48 1
Banksia incana A.S. George
Banksia integrifolia L.f. subsp, compur (R. Br.) K.
Thiele 437
Banksia integrifolia L.f subsp. integrifolia 435, 437.
446. 448, 463, 465, 478, 492, 504
Banksia integrifolia L.f. subsp. monticola K. Thiele
437
Banksia laevigata Meissner subsp. fuscolutea A.S.
George
Banksia laevigata Meissner subsp. laevigata
Banksia lanata A.S. George
Banksia laricina C. Gardner
Banksia lemanniana Meissner
Banksia leptophylla A.S. George var. leptophylla
Banksia leptophylla A.S. George var. melletica A.S.
George
Banksia lindleyana Meissner
Banksia littoralis R. Br.
Banksia lullfifeii C. Gardner
Banksia nunginata Cav. 456, 466, 490, 503
Banksia media R. Br. 453
Banksia meisneri Lehm. subsp. ascendens A.S. George
Banksia meisneri Lclnn, subsp. meisneri
Banksia menzivsii R.Br. 5 18, 5 19, 521 , 523
Banksia mi cram ha A.S. George
Banksia nutans R.Br. var, cemuella A.S. George
banksia nutans R.Bi. var. nutans 454, 491
Banksia uhlongifolia C'av. 456, 489
Banksia occidental is R.Br, 477
Banksia ollgantha A.S. George
Banksia oreaphila A.S. George
Banksia orncita F. Muell. ex Meissner 487
Banksia paludosa R.Br. subsp. pa/udosa
Banksia paludosa R.Br, subsp. astrolux A.S. George
Banksia panic llhUa ( A.S. George) K. Thiele 512
Banksia petiofard f . Muell.
Banksia p Hasty I is C . Gardner
Banksia plagiocarpa A.S. George
Banksia praemorsa Andrews
Banksia pnonotes Lindley 462, 472, 475, 476, 477,
480, 483
Banksia pulcftdf/a R.Br.
Banksia quercifnlin R.Br.
Banksia repens Labi II.
Banksia rohtir C'a\ .
Banksia saxicola A.S. George 435, 436
Banksia scahrella A.S. George
Banksia sceptrum Meissner
Banksia seminuda (A.S. George) B.Rye
Banksia s errata L.f. 518
Banksia soiundri R.Br.
Banksia speciosa R.Br. 499, 529
Banksia sphaerocarpa R.Br. var. caesia A.S. George
Banksia sphaerncarpa R.Br. var. sphaerocarpa
Banksia spinulosa Smith var. collina (R.Br.) A.S.
George
Banksia spinulosa Smith var. cunmnghamii** (Sieber
ex Reiehenbach) A.S. George 479
Banksia spinulosa Smith var. ncoangliea A.S. George
Banksia spinulosa Smith var. spinulosa 456
Banksia tc/mciliaea A.S. George
Banksia tricuspis Meissner
Banksia verticil lata R.Br.
Banksia victoriae Meissner
Banksia violaceae C . Gardner
* = Not listed in APNI
** = Considered by some to be a separate species, B. cunninghamii Sieber ex Rehb
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
107
Contributions
Damage by the Feral Goat Capra hircus to Mallee in
Murray-Sunset National Park
David Cheal1
Abstract
This paper describes the apparent browsing damage caused by the Ferai Goat Capra hircus in
Loamy Sands Mallee along the dune crest and upper slopes of Mt Crozier. Data are from a single,
representative quadrat, but provide an indication of the quantitative impact of browsing in mallee.
Broom Baeckea Babingtonia behrii has been almost eliminated from mallee shrublands at Mt
Crozier and Scrub Pine Calliths verrucosa is threatened with local extinction. ( The Victorian Naturalist
122 (2), 2005, 108-111)
Introduction
Feral goats are widespread in the Mallee
parks of north-western Victoria
(Anonymous 1996). In spite of the lack of
documented evidence of their impacts in
national parks and other reserves in the
region, they are recognised elsewhere as a
major threat to the maintenance of func-
tioning vegetation communities
(Chesterfield and Parsons 1985; Coates et
al. 2002; Lange and Purdie 1976; Pickard
1976; Wilson et al. 1976). The
Management Plan for the (Victorian)
Mallee Parks (Anonymous 1996) declares
that ' Goats appear to prefer grasses and
herbage to woody shrubs' , although other
authors have highlighted their preference
for shrub browse (Chesterfield and Parsons
1985; Graetz and Wilson 1979; Wilson et
al. 1976). Whatever their diet, they are
considered a major threat to the integrity of
the Mallee parks, and management strate-
gies have been devised and recommended
for their control (Anonymous 1996;
Anonymous 1999).
Due to the local landscape variability, Mt
Crozier was selected as a field study site
for the Mallee Ecology Course (a training
course managed by the Mallee Catchment
Management Authority) where one of the
issues investigated was the apparent
browsing damage in Loamy Sands Mallee
along the dune crest and upper slopes.
Mt Crozier is a prominent, deep siliceous
sand dune in the central east of Murray
Sunset National Park (at 54H WG637378,
on the Sunset 1:100 000 mapsheet No.
7228). It is stabilized by Loamy Sands
'Arthur Rylah Institute lor Environmental Research,
123 Brown Street, Heidelberg, Victoria 3084.
Email: david.cheal@dse.vic.gov.au
Mallee, sensu White et al. (2003) dominat-
ed by Yellow Mallee Eucalyptus
incrassata , Narrow-leaf Mallee Eucalyptus
leptophylla and Grey Mallee Eucalyptus
socialis. There is an open shrub layer
including Scrub Pine Callitris verrucosa ,
Small Cooba Acacia ligulata , Pale
Turpentine Bush Beveria lechenaultii and
Broom Baeckea Babingtonia behrii above
a rich flora of perennial and annual herbs
typical of deep siliceous sands. Surroun-
ding vegetation communities include
Woorinen Sands Mallee on the dune slack
and Woorinen Mallee Woodland and
degraded Semi-arid Parilla Woodland on
nearby landscapes lacking an aeolian sand
overlay.
Fig. 1. Broom Baeckea Babingtonia behrii at
Mt Crozier. Foliage below 175 cm is heavily
browsed, above 1 75 cm is unbrowsed.
108
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Methods
A quadrat (0.15 ha, i.e. 30 m x 50 m,
with the quadrat's long axis parallel with
the dune crest) was laid out immediately
north of the dune crest. The quadrat
boundaries were selected so as to include a
representative sample of Loamy Sands
Mallee. The data were collected on 12
November 2003.
The most common shrubs growing in the
quadrat were identified, counted, measured
(height, minimum height to unbrowsed
foliage) and browsing impact assessed on a
3-point scale (i.e. ‘dead’, “browsed’ and
‘no evidence of browsing').
Vascular plant nomenclature follows
Walsh and Entwisle (1994; 1996; 1999).
Results
A browse-line was obvious and unam-
biguous for Broom Baeckea and Scrub
Pine (Figs. 1-3). It was less obvious for
Small Cooba (Fig. 4) where the measured
‘browse line’ was an indication of the low-
est extent of the canopy (i.e. the foliage
closest to the ground). Eighty-nine per cent
of the ‘browsed' individuals of A. ligulata
had unbrowsed foliage extending above
the ‘browse line' for that shrub (i.e. 89%
were tall enough to have some foliage
beyond reach of the browsers). The maxi-
mum browse line observed for A. ligulata
Fig. 2. Scrub Pine Callitris verrucosa at Mt
Crozier. Foliage below 180 cm is heavily
browsed, above 180 cm is unbrowsed.
was at 2.5 m, mean 1 1 1 cm (standard error
- 128 cm).
For Scrub Pine, 4.5% of the browsed
individuals had unbrowsed foliage extend-
ing above the browse line. The maximum
browse line for Scrub Pine was at 2.0 m,
mean 187 cm (standard error - 44 cm).
Individuals of palatable species that had
not lignified before being browsed (i.e. had
no woody stems) may have been complete-
ly removed by browsing, leaving no evi-
dence. Hence, data for palatable species
(notably Broom Baeckea and Scrub Pine)
are likely to be an under-estimate of origi-
nal density and proportions browsed or
dead. The data for shrub densities and
grazing impact are presented in fable 1 .
Of the seven species measured at Mt
Crozier, four were not obviously affected
by goat browsing, viz. Pale Turpentine
Bush, Yellow Mallee. Narrow-leaf Mallee
and Grey Mallee. There was no evidence
that foliage from any of these species had
been taken (Table 1), even though it may
have been readily accessible (e.g. maxi-
mum height for Pale Turpentine Bush was
1 .0 m).
The impact on Broom Baeckea was dev-
astating - 98% death (Table I). This was
attributed to browsing as plants that die
from other causes, such as drought, are not
usually clipped at 2-3 mm diameter stems.
The impact on Scrub Pine was similarly
severe, but with only 10% death to date
(Table 1). Nevertheless, all accessible
foliage of Scrub Pine had been browsed
(removed).
Fig, 3. Heavily browsed Scrub Pine Callitris
verrucosa at Mt Crozier.
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
109
Contributions
Table 1. Browsing damage in Mallee. d = dead, b =
browsed.
Species
Density
(ha-')
Mean Height
(cm)
(std. error)
Max.
Height
(m)
% dead
% live,
browsed
% live,
no browse
line
Acacia ligulata
Small Cooba
187
230 (428)
4.0
4
89
7
Babiuglonia behrii
Broom Baeckea
287
107(24)
1.8
98
2
0
Beyeria lechenaultii
Pale Turpentine Bush
47
59 (79)
1.0
0
0
100
Callitris verrucosa
Scrub Pine
760
120 (727)-d
88 (1 17)-b
7.0
10
89
1
Eucalyptus incrassata
Yellow Mallee
60
580
9.0
0
0
100
Eucalyptus leptophylla
Narrow- leaf Mallee
13
600
7.0
0
0
100
Eucalyptus socialis
Grey Mallee
7
800
8.0
0
0
100
Discussion
There are three species of large mam-
malian browsers in Murray Sunset
National Park - Red Kangaroo Macropus
rufus , Western Grey Kangaroo Macropus
fuliginosm and Feral Goat Capra hircus.
Red Kangaroos are rare in the Park and are
largely restricted to the open plains, the
nearest of which is some 8 km or more dis-
tant from Mt Crozier. They arc very rarely
seen in dense mallee.
Western Grey Kangaroos and Feral
Goats are common in the Park and scats
and footprints from both species occurred
in the mallee at Mt Crozier. The browsing
impact here described is attributed largely
to Feral Goats on the following grounds:
1 . Goats are frequently seen in the sur-
rounding mallee and disturbed wood-
land. Kangaroos are apparently less
common.
2. The scats observed within the quadrat,
and along the Mt Crozier dune, were
strongly dominated by goat scats (>82%
of all scat deposits). Footprints of goats
were common. Kangaroo footprints
were rare.
3. Physical damage to individual plants
indicated goat damage. For example, a
few large horizontal branches of veteran
Scrub Pines had been climbed to access
the foliage, leaving broken and dis-
lodged bark strips, consistent with a
hard-footed animal with some climbing
ability (viz. goats), rather than a soft-
footed animal with scant ability to climb
(viz. kangaroos).
4. There were very few (and no current)
scrapes dug in sheltered situations along
the Mt Crozier dune (as would be
expected if kangaroos were common).
Kangaroos excavate shallow scrapes for
shelter in the heat of the day. Goats do
not dig such scrapes.
Browsing impact was most evident on
Broom Baeckea and Scrub Pine. Such
impact will rapidly eliminate Broom
Baeckea, otherwise common in and char-
acteristic of the community (White et at.
2003). Scrub Pine also will disappear grad-
Fig. 4. Small Cooba Acacia ligulata amongst
Yellow Mallee Eucalyptus incrassata at Mt
Crozier. The browse line is difficult to distin-
guish.
110
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
ually from the community, as there is scant
regeneration in the absence of fire. Scrub
Pine is by far the most common woody
plant at this site, which could otherwise be
expected to gradually mature to Scrub-pine
Woodland, a threatened vegetation com-
munity. With continued browsing this sce-
nario is now impossible.
Small Cooba is palatable to browsers and
is suspected to have been browsed, but
with subsequent rapid canopy recovery to
obscure any former browsing impacts.
The year preceding the data collection
was unusually dry. Annual rainfall from
nearby Walpeup Post Office was 176 mm
in 2002 cf. 305 mm mean annual rainfall
for the 6 years from 1998 to 2003 inclusive
(Bureau of Meteorology, data extracted
February 2004). Droughts force browsers
to utilise, and rely on, forage of otherwise
non-preferred species. The recent extended
drought may have led to greater browsing
impact on the perennial shrubs here dis-
cussed. There is some evidence that Small
Cooba had been browsed, but that brows-
ing pressure had recently relaxed. The
heavily-browsed Scrub Pine showed some
regrowth. Nevertheless, these mallee com-
munities are subject to seasonal drought
every year and significant browsing pres-
sure can be expected as annual forage dis-
appears. Browsing impact is also a func-
tion of the density of the browsing mam-
mals. High densities of browsers can
mimic the impacts of severe droughts.
These data are from a single (representa-
tive) quadrat, but provide an indication of
the quantitative impact of browsing in
mallee. Broom Raeckea has been almost
eliminated from mallee shrublands at Mt
Crozier and, presumably, elsewhere in
Murray-Sunset National Park. Scrub Pine
also is threatened with local extinction. It
is reasonable to expect that other palatable
shrubs and perennials are being locally
threatened by Feral Goats as well. This
impact is insidious, as it does not produce
large areas of obviously-eroding, bare
landscapes. However, Feral Goats are
causing severe and effectively permanent
ecological degradation.
Acknowledgements
The participants in the Mallee Ecology Course
who assisted in data collection included Barrie
MacMillan, Brendon Thomas, Bronwyn Merritt,
Cameron Bennett, Claire Wilkinson, Damian
Wells, Denise Whyte, Donna Tidey, Glen
Smith, Glennis McKee, Greg Ogle, Helen
Fran i a, Jennifer Alexander, Joanne Robinson,
Kate Maddy, Kath Biesaga, Michelle Dickson,
Noreen Jones, Rebecca Curren, Rebecca White,
Shelley Rozario and Tim Britton.
References
Anonymous (1960) Mallee Parks management plan
(National Parks service. Department of Natural
Resources and Environment, East Melbourne)
Anonymous ( 1999) Threat abatement plan for competi-
tion and land degradation by feral goats
(Biodiversity Group, Environment Australia,
Canberra)
Chesterfield CJ and Parsons R1 ( 1 9X5 ) Regeneration of
three tree species in arid South-eastern Australia.
Australian Journal of Rot am 33, 715-732.
Coales EC, Walsh NG and James LA (2002) Threats to
the survival of the Grampians pincushion lily (Borya
mlrabiJis. Liliaceac) - a short-range endemic from
western Victoria. Australian Systematic Botany 15,
477-483.
Grad/ RD and Wilson AD (1979) An Assessment of
Herbivore Diels in I he Chenopod Shrublands. In
Studies of the Australian arid zone IV. Chenopod
Shruhhmds. pp. 144-159. Eds. RD Graetz and KMW
Howes (CS1RO division of Land Resources
Management, Canberra)
Lange K and Purdic R (1976) Western Myall ( Acacia
sowdenii ), its survival prospects and management
needs. Australian Rangeland Journal 1, 64-69.
Pickard .1 (1976) The effect of feral goats ( Capra hir-
cus 1,1 on the vegetation of Lord Howe Island.
Australian Journal of Ecology 1, 103-1 14.
Walsh NG and Enlvvisle T.I (1994) flora of Victoria
Vol. 7. Inkata Press. Port Melbourne
Walsh NG and Entwisle TJ (1996) flora of Victoria
Vol. 3. Inkala Press, Port Melbourne
Walsh NG and En(wisle TJ (1999) Flora of Victoria
Vol. 4. Inkata Press, Port Melbourne
While M. Gales A. Brown J, Barlow T, McMahon A,
Roseugren N, (’heal D, Sutler G, Sinclair S,
Chesterfield E. Frood D and Pelikan M (2003)
Vegetation Mapping North-west Victoria (Arthur
Rylah Institute for Environmental Research, Spatial
Vision, Ecology Australia. Last Melbourne)
Wilson AD, Mulham WE and Leigh JE (1976) A note
of the effects of browsing by feral goats on a Belah
( Casitarina cristata) - Rosewood (Heterodendrum
oleifolium) woodland. Australian Rangeland Journal
1,7-12.
Received 24 March 2004; accepted 12 January 2005
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
111
Book Reviews
Regardfully Yours. Selected Correspondence of Ferdinand von
Mueller, Volume I: 1840-1859, Volume II: 1860-1875
edited by RW Home, AM Lucas, Sara Maroske, DM Sinkora
and JH Voight
Publisher: Peter Lang, Bern, 1998, 2002. 842 pp, 865 pp, h & w illustrations
and colour frontispieces. RRP $ 140 each (hardback).
Ferdinand Mueller, or ‘the Baron’, as he
was usually known, looms large in the col-
lective memory and records of the FNCV.
When the Club was established in 1880
Baron Ferdinand von Mueller was member
number 36 - one of the 56 ‘original mem-
bers’ - and in 1886 he became the Club’s
first patron. He was a prestigious patron,
with scientific status and Field experience.
As Victoria’s first Government Botanist,
from 1853 until his death in 1806, Dr
Ferdinand Mueller developed a substantial
reputation as botanist and field naturalist.
He trekked across thousands of kilometres
of often undocumented landscapes within
and beyond the Colony of Victoria - col-
lecting, collecting, collecting, always col-
lecting plant specimens; and always on the
lookout for useful and novel plants.
Mueller used his own and others’ speci-
mens to document the flora of Australia,
and earned an international botanical repu-
tation. He made the very first botanical
surveys of many of the areas he visited,
and many of these later became popular
sites for Club excursions. Mueller shaped
the botanical understanding of Victoria’s
flora which the FNCV welcomed and con-
tinued to elaborate.
Mueller’s image as the grand exemplar of
the field naturalist was not dimmed by his
death and, as described in the special issue
of The Victorian Naturalist which was
published in 1996 to commemorate the
centenary of his death, Mueller's life and
work became woven into the Club’s tradi-
tion. The Baron was remembered during
Club conversaziones, excursions and wild
flower exhibitions; and the FNCV’s presi-
dent, Charles Daley, prepared the first pub-
lished biography. Baron Sir Ferdinand von
Mueller , botanist, explorer, and geograph-
er (1924), to celebrate the centenary of his
birth in 1825.
Try finding an expanse of Victorian, or
even Australian, bush without a single
plant named by Mueller. His imprint on
the botanical lexicon of the Australian
landscape is huge. As Shakespeare claimed
long before Mueller’s time, a rose by any
other name would smell as sweet. True.
We can certainly appreciate the beauty of
plants and their flowers without knowing
their names; but to discuss them we need a
lexicon of mutually-agreed names.
Naming plants on a southern outlier of
the British Empire in the nineteenth centu-
ry was no easy task. But, despite enormous
problems, Mueller grasped the opportunity
to document Australia’s largely unde-
scribed flora, and named thousands of
species of Australian plants. Some of his
names endure in the current censuses of
Victorian and Australian plants. He used
specimens he collected when venturing
into often unmapped landscapes and speci-
mens from his vast network of collectors
explorers, pastoralists, missionaries, gov-
ernment officials and their wives and
daughters. In order to circumvent
European editorial control and the possible
loss of specimens and manuscripts during
their long sea voyages across the equator,
Mueller often sought to establish his plant
names by describing new taxa in local
journals, which, before the establishment
of the FNCV, meant journals of the Royal
Society of Victoria and sister societies in
other colonies.
In an era before the telephone and e-mail,
Mueller was forever writing letters. He
sent thousands of letters and plants to indi-
viduals and institutions around the world.
Flis letters are predominantly botanical, but
sometimes include personal details and
feelings. As his network of collectors pro-
liferated across Australia, he wrote thank-
ing them and requesting further botanical
112
The Victorian Naturalist
Book Reviews
information and specimens. He wrote offi-
cial letters and reports to the Victorian
government and often long, informative
letters to accompany herbarium specimens,
and sometimes living plants, to botanists
on the other side of the world. Regardful of
the place of his taxonomic and other botan-
ical work and his own perceived position
in the Eurocentric world of botany,
Mueller corresponded with numerous
European botanical authorities. Not sur-
prisingly, his copious correspondence with
three eminent British botanists. Sir
William Hooker and his son, Dr Joseph
Hooker, the first two directors of the Royal
Botanic Gardens at Kew, England, and
George Bentham, whose Flora austr alien-
sis (1863-78) relied heavily on herbarium
specimens which Mueller generously lent
him, is particularly botanically illuminat-
ing. Much of the botanical information in
Mueller’s letters was subsequently pub-
lished, sometimes in updated form.
His letters were important to Mueller
because, apart from face to face contact,
they provided the sole means by which he
communicated with the rest of the world.
They are important now because they con-
tain information not included in the public
or published record, and they provide
glimpses of the social, political and envi-
ronmental context in which Mueller car-
ried out his various botanical activities. In
their discussion of Mueller’s correspon-
dence at the distressing time of his dis-
missal from Melbourne’s Botanic Gardens
in 1873, the editors point that he ‘drew
strength from the sense that his science
transcended the petty unpleasantness of his
situation in Melbourne and enabled him to
participate in a larger and vastly more civi-
lized world, the international republic of
letters’ [Vol. II p. 47]. Mueller’s corre-
spondence also provides a veritable Who’s
Who of botanists in the second half of the
nineteenth century and plant collectors in
Australia during that period.
Regardful ly Yours were the words with
which Mueller commonly signed his let-
ters. The editors are involved in an ambi-
tious project to recover, translate, clarify
and collate extant letters to and from
Mueller in repositories all over the world.
The Mueller Correspondence Project is an
international project based at Melbourne’s
Royal Botanic Gardens and led by
Professor Rod Home of the History and
Philosophy of Science Department at the
University of Melbourne. In libraries,
archives and private collections scattered
across the globe, researchers have winkled
out thousands of notes, letters and reports
written by and to Mueller. These probably
represent a tiny fraction of his prolific cor-
respondence. So many letters have disap-
peared; but some keep turning up. You can
read about the complex and tragic fate of
Mueller’s extraordinary epistolary activity
in the Introduction to Volume I.
Some correspondence has already been
published in The Victorian Naturalist. Soon
after the 1924 publication of Daley’s bio-
graphical memoir of Mueller, a packet of
letters was found in the National
Herbarium of Victoria. They were from
William and Joseph Hooker and George
Bentham. Chas- Daley wove them into a
long article, ‘The history of Flora aus-
1raUensis\ which appeared in eight parts in
volume 44 [not 43] of The Victorian
Naturalist (1927-28). These letters, some of
which are published in Regardfully Yours ,
are now safe and secure in the Library in
the National Herbarium building in the
Royal Botanic Gardens in South Yarra.
The correspondence in these two vol-
umes spans the pre-FNCV period, 1840 to
1875, for half of which Mueller was the
director of Melbourne’s (not-yet-Royal)
Botanic Gardens as well as Government
Botanist. Letters are arranged chronologi-
cally, from personal letters from his sister,
Iwanne. in the early 1940s to official gov-
ernment letters, after his dismissal from the
Gardens, about the organization of his
botanical department. English translations
are provided for letters which, like a cou-
ple from Iwanne, are written in languages
other than English. The published letters
show the breadth of Mueller’s interests,
most of which are in some way linked to
natural history - Australian exploration,
plant geography and taxonomy, plant
acclimatisation and agriculture, and eco-
nomic botany and education. I shall not
attempt to summarize the scope or content
of the letters. Instead let me try to whet
your appetite with a few early snippets that
relate to two areas which are now much-
loved national parks, well-known to FNCV
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
113
Book Reviews
members - Mt Buffalo and Wilsons
Promontory.
Mueller provided the first botanical
records for both places during his first offi-
cial Victorian collecting trip, a circuitous
five-month expedition in 1853, during
which he was, as always, on the lookout
for novel and useful plants. His first annual
report as Government Botanist [53.09.05]
records some of the botanical discoveries
he made during that expedition, which
included ‘a brief stay' on ‘the Buffalo
ranges’ in late February and early March.
He suggested that a shrub he found there,
Baeckea utilis , ‘might serve travellers in
those desolate localities as tea, for the
volatile oil of its leaves resembles greatly
in taste and odour that of lemons not
without a pleasant peculiar aroma’. This
was before he used his Buffalo specimens
to formally name and describe Baeckea
utilis. On the Buffalo ranges Mueller
‘examined the rich almost tropical vegeta-
tion, which borders the rivers, rising to the
mountains. It was in this locality, that our
exertions were rewarded with the discov-
ery of the high majestic Grevillea
Victoriae and other rarities.’ He sent a
specimen to William Hooker [53.10.18]
and informed him that it was ‘the most
brilliant shrub, that I ever discovered (12'
high and higher) and I would venture to
adorn it as a token of my loyalty with the
name of our most gracious Majesty, should
this step be honored by the Queens sanc-
tion.' He would later use specimens he col-
lected on Buffalo and other alpine peaks to
formally name and describe Grevillea
Victoriae in the journal of a precursor of
the Royal Society of Victoria.
Mueller’s 1853 report mentions his ‘sev-
eral weeks travelling in the neighbourhood
of Port Albert and many excursions
through Wilsons promontory’. He had
sailed from Port Albert to Sealers Cove in
May. In an official letter written on his
return to Melbourne in June [53.06.27] he
discussed the last part of his expedition,
which included Wilsons Promontory. He
reported that several weeks had been
‘exclusively devoted for examining
Wilson's promontory, in order to elucidate
fully the connection, that exists between
the Flora of this country and Van
Diemen’s Land [Tasmania]’. He saw
impressive timber trees. Without mention-
ing the help of saw-millers at Sealers
Cove, Mueller reported; ‘In the deep
Fern tree-ravines of Sealers cove I discov-
ered for the first time on this continent the
Tasmanian Beech tree (Fagus Cunning-
ham i [Nothofagus ciimittghamii}), the only
timber here, that bears comparison with
that of Great Britain, (Pines excepted), oth-
erwise closely allied to the Beech-tree of
Patagonia. 1 did howev[er] not succeed in
finding any of the remarkable pines
(Microcachrys, Phyllocladus, Arthrotaxus
[sic]), with which this useful tree in Van
Diemens Land is consociated.’ This was
many years before Australian species of
Beech were transferred to the genus
Nothofagus .
Despite the absence of Tasmanian ‘pines’
which Mueller had hoped to find on
Wilsons Promontory, he was so impressed
with the timber there, that he organized the
collection of timber specimens for both an
exhibition and William Hooker. Volume I
includes correspondence relating to the
International Exhibition held in Paris in
1855 and mentions '24 Native Woods'
exhibited there [footnote p. 301], but not
that they came from Wilsons Promontory.
In July 1857 Mueller informed ‘My dear
Sir William’ [57.07.15] that he had
‘despatched a man to Wilsons Promontory
with 6 Wardian Cases, to secure young
plants of Fagus Cunninghami, Athero-
sperma, &c &c, and hope to be able to
send in a very short time one or two cases
with living plants and as large a collection
of timber as obtainable*. The following
year he reported [58.03.01 1 ‘that the own-
ers of the Sealers Cove saw-mill have been
generous enough to disclaim a debt of
£15.8/- incurred last winter ... when secur-
ing plants and timber specimens ... at
Sealers Cove'.
Regardfully Yours includes more than
correspondence. Introductions to both vol-
umes discuss Mueller’s life and work.
There are illustrations of people, plants,
landscapes and maps. There are biographi-
cal registers of Mueller’s correspondents
and people mentioned in the letters, bibli-
ographies of Mueller’s publications and
publications about him, and publication
details of Mueller's plant names. Both vol-
umes have a general index for people and
114
The Victorian Naturalist
Book Reviews
places and an index for botanical names.
These volumes show the importance of
archives and libraries, and provide a fasci-
nating and substantial historical botanical
resource. They should be in any library
that boasts a good botanical or Australian
history collection.
For details of the Baron’s correspon-
dence relating to the FNCV you will have
to wait for the publication of the third vol-
ume of Regardfully Yours , the CD-ROM
of the collected correspondence and a
biography of Mueller based on the findings
of the Mueller Correspondence Project.
Linden Gillbank
Department of History and Philosophy of Science
University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010
Old Land, New Landscapes: a story of farmers,
conservation and the landscape movement
by Chris Williams
Publisher: Melbourne University Press, Carlton, Victoria, 2004.
208 pp. RRP $34.95
Apart from the continuous and lethal
stream of trucks, T adore driving along the
Newell Highway through central NSW.
I love its broad vistas, hazy low blue
ranges, flood plains lined with red gums
and wetlands, ever-changing box and iron-
bark woodlands, generous travelling stock
reserves, pristine pastoral towns, bulk
canola crops, dense roadside thickets of
native pine seedlings, companies of apostle
birds, paddocks spotted with kurrajongs.
This is quintessential Australia Felix , but
its bushland patina is slightly illusory - the
native vegetation you admire is mostly lin-
ear - along roadsides, railways, stock
reserves and creek-lines and on stony coun-
try too rough to readily graze or crop.
Chris Williams did his PhD research here
in the late 1990s. living intimately with a
farming community north west of the min-
ing town. Peak Hill, combining ecology
and sociology with a little rural economics.
This was superb preparation for his current
work with Victoria’s Trust for Nature.
Not long before, from 1992-94, Genaren
Hill Landcare Group had raised funds for,
and co-ordinated the establishment of, a
400 hectare wildlife reserve on Genaren ,
the 3300 hectare grazing-cropping proper-
ty owned by group president Mike
Sutherland and wife Kylie. The reserve
required 8.6 kilometres of high electrified
predator-proof fence.
This was a huge and admirable project
for a small community group with few
resources - but great resourcefulness! By
enclosing a long stony ridgeline mainly
carrying tumbledown gum, mugga iron-
bark and currawang wattle, the new sanc-
tuary greatly reduced kangaroo damage on
farms throughout the district, and protected
a major landscape feature and bushland
remnant. Later the group stocked the
reserve with brush-tailed bettongs and bri-
dled nailtail wallabies - both long extinct
from Genaren.
This all required considerable commit-
ment, patience, thought, internal and exter-
nal debate, ingenuity, hard work, new part-
nerships and liaison with many government
organizations. But the group learnt a great
deal about the environment and developed
admirably better relations with the regional
Aboriginal community. As well, most
group members protected their own bush-
land remnants and connected them to
Genaren Hill with corridor plantings.
Chris Williams chronicles this story well.
Williams’ thoughts are comprehensive,
and indeed cerebral, so his style demands
your attention. But the reader is well
repaid in ideas, information and inspira-
tion. And what a delight it is to see a PhD
study transcribed into a reasonably acces-
sible form for the real world! Moreover he
respects his diverse social samples - the
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
115
Book Reviews
farm families striving to be viable having
to decide between grazing and cropping,
the Aboriginal elders and archaeologists,
the regional university people, and many
of the local departmental staff. This is an
illustrated, intriguing, generally positive
story of rural Australia, which demon-
strates the flexibility and creativity of the
Landcare concept.
The only deficiency was a final dot-point
summary of what Chris Williams and the
community had learnt from the Genaren
project - how to better utilize farmland for
conservation - something that a politician
or executive of a multi-disciplinary gov-
ernment department might find thought-
provoking.
Let me enlarge. Throughout the book the
departments involved appear distant,
unsympathetic and purist - which includes
an aversion to commercial activities. Yet
anyone who goes to a John Walmsley-type
sanctuary will find it moving and exciting
to see rarities like bettongs and quolls.
even if enclosed. They are a beautiful link
with old Australia! So this management
concept needs to be worked on further,
because it has rewarding aspects!
Williams reports that when the
Sutherlands sold their property two years
ago the sanctuary did not influence the
price; I believe this will change. Moreover,
I look forward to the next generation of
Australian philanthropists establishing
extensive bushland reserves on former
farmland - the way people like Malcolm
Forbes are buying buffalo rangeland in
western USA.
Rob Youl
Project Officer, Landcare Australia
Level 2, 24-28 Collins St
Melbourne, Victoria 3000
Guidelines for the Translocation of
Threatened Plants in Australia
by L Vallee, T Hogbin, L Monks, B Makinson, M Matthes and M Rossetto
Publisher: Australian Network for Plant Conservation , 2004 Second Edition, 80 pages,
paperback. ISBN 0 975219103. RRP $22
The past decade has seen significant
development in ex situ techniques for con-
serving biodiversity. Germination of rare
and endangered plant species is being
enhanced by advanced understanding of
compounding factors such as smoke chem-
istry, fungal associations and pathogens.
There comes a time, however, when ex situ
populations must become in situ , as this is
the ultimate aim of conservation efforts.
Translocation is the term given to this
process. Simply, it involves deliberately
transferring an ex situ collection, or a
threatened native population, to another
more suitable location in order to increase
the species chance of persisting in the
wild. More detailed consideration of this
notion, however, highlights a myriad of
potential pitfalls for the uninitiated! How
does one know if the benefits of transloca-
tion outweigh the risks? Indeed, what are
the benefits and risks? How does one man-
age them, or monitor them?
Guidelines for the Translocation of
Threatened Plants in Australia (2 cd.) con-
siders these points and much, much more!
Developed by the Australian Network for
Plant Conservation, the revised edition
provides step-by-step. clear and concise
instructions for planning, implementing
and monitoring translocation activities.
Chapters include deciding whether to
translocate, pre-translocation assessment,
translocation proposal writing, preparation
and translocation, post-translocation man-
agement, monitoring and evaluation and.
116
The Victorian Naturalist
Book Reviews
4m Australian Network
ojJJ for Plant Conservation
Guidelines for the
Translocation of
Threatened Plants
in Australia
SECOND EDITION
L. Valiee, T Hogbin, L Monks,
B. Makinson, M. Matthes, and M. Rossetto
among others, community and support.
Each chapter provides well-developed
checklists and fascinating Australian case
studies are used extensively throughout the
text to encapsulate the theme of the chap-
ter.
Significant improvements have been
made to the original edition, which was
published in 1997 and was quickly adopted
as a standard for translocating rare or
threatened plants in Australia. For exam-
ple, the NSW Parks and Wildlife Service’s
Application for a Scientific Licence for the
Purpose of Science, Education or
Conservation states that translocation of
threatened flora should adhere to the
ANPC’s Guidelines for the Translocation
of Threatened Plants in Australia (1997).
The most notable format improvement is
the addition of colour throughout, includ-
ing headings, subheadings, box informa-
tion making it far easier to navigate.
Photos, too, have been reproduced in
colour, improving not only aesthetics but
engagement with the subject matter!
Chapters have all been completely revised
and expanded to the extent that the original
truly is outdated.
This publication is a real gem. In addition
to thought-provoking text, the ubiquitous
information boxes are insightful and infor-
mative. Box 1 . 1 (p. 2) introduces the types
of translocation action (undertaken for
conservation purposes or as an ameliora-
tive measure for development), whilst box
2.2 (p. 8) presents management options
available for threatened plants, including
habitat protection, habitat rehabilitation
and removal of threatening processes (no
mean feat!), and active management which
may or may not involve translocation. 1
think the discussion on population genetics
(albeit somewhat brief) and supporting
information box (box 3.1) and case study
(case study 3.2) is highly valuable, and the
chapters considering post-translocation
management, monitoring and evaluation,
and community participation and support,
both greatly improved from the original,
are vital reminders.
If you own the original edition, you will
find the second edition a sound investment.
If you own neither, perhaps you should!
ANPC have fulfilled their self-professed
role in connecting conservation scientists,
managers and community and private sec-
tor practitioners with this very handy refer-
ence book. And, if your interests are aimed
more squarely at fauna conservation, I
believe this publication will offer you a
fresh look at conservation biology more
generally. Finally, I feel the book will be
of interest to all nature-lovers, if only to
highlight how complex conservation mea-
sures can be and how important suitably
qualified practitioners really are!
Melanie Birtchnell
School of Biological and Chemical Sciences,
Deakin University, Burwood, Victoria 3125
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
117
Book Reviews
Still Glides the Stream: the natural history of the Yarra
from Heidelberg to Yarra Bend
by Geoff Lacey
Publisher: Australian Scholarly Publishing , Melbourne, 2004.
281 pp. RRP $34.95
m
STILL GLIDES THE STREAM
The natural history .>/ the Yarra from
Heidelberg tti Yarra Bend
The El Nino events of recent years,
threats of global warming and the degrad-
ed state of so many Australian streams
have focused attention on the issues of
water supply and the ecological health of
our water systems. One manifestation has
been a substantial number of new pub-
lished and thesis histories of water and
waterways. Among those who have been
working on aspects of Melbourne's Yarra
River have been Tony Dingle, Helen
Doyle, Judith Buckrich, Gary Presland,
David and Cam Beardsell - and retired
engineer and naturalist Geoff Lacey.
Lacey’s book is the product of a lifelong
interest in and a love of the Yarra and its
surroundings. It is a study of the Yarra
from its confluence with the Plenty River
at View Bank and Templestowe down-
stream to Yarra Bend near Stud ley Park
Road in Kew. It is a meandering stretch of
river which, prior to European settlement
was dotted with wetlands and billabongs
and was rich in flora and fauna. Much of
this has been transformed and degraded by
the spread of Melbourne.
Lacey’s study is divided into four main
sections: the first outlines the geology and
‘natural history’ of the region, and the occu-
pation by the ‘traditional custodians’; the
second divides this reach of the Yarra into
seven sections and outlines the post-
European changes including the efforts by
various community groups to restore the
natural vegetation (in some of which Lacey
has been involved); the third looks briefly to
the future of the region, within the context
of the changes in the past; and finally there
are five very valuable appendices which list
the historical floods and the flora, avifauna
and much of the other fauna found in the
region.
The main body of the work is contained
in the second section with its detailed dis-
cussions of the river in seven geographi-
cally-based chapters - Banyule Flats and
Warringal Parklands. Yana Flats Park, the
Bulleen Flats. Wilson Reserve and
Chelsworth Park, some billabongs in Kew,
the Fairfield bank, and Yarra Bend Park.
Typically, these chapters contain a descrip-
tion of the area under discussion, an
attempt to identify the pre-European vege-
tation and its distribution, the post-settle-
ment usage of the land and the changes
these have brought to flora, fauna and the
river, observations on the avi faunal inhabi-
tants, detailed examination of particular
features, and an account of the efforts to
restore and revegetate the region.
While such an account makes this sound
a very utilitarian book, it is more than that.
Lacey’s love for the region, his expertise
as a naturalist in observing both flora and
fauna (particularly birds) and his involve-
ment in the restoration groups give the
118
The Victorian Naturalist
-
Naturalist Notes
book a personal and enthusiastic touch. At
the same time, his fascination with the
Yarra and its biota has motivated him to
read widely into its history and environ-
mental history, and to bring to the book
some analytical understanding of changing
attitudes to water systems which underlie
the post-settlement changes.
The book is well presented with some
excellent maps and historical and contem-
porary photographs
Don Garden
Department of History and Philosophy of Science
University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010
High density hibernacula in
Southern Water Skinks Eulamprus tympanum
On Sunday, 5 September 2004, I was
seeking cockroaches and other insects for a
‘bugs party’. To that end, I broke into a
fallen and decaying log derived from a
large Acacia.
The log had been cut as a section and
was about 30 cm in diameter and 1 80 cm
long, but it was not hollow in the sense of
containing a large open air space.
However, the log’s inside was a mass of
loose wood material that had been partially
decomposed by insects. Although it was
moist, there was no evidence of free water
or condensation.
The log was situated on the ground, but
not embedded in any way. It received dap-
pled sunlight and was in an area with a
strong northerly aspect on the southern
bank of the Yarra River, adjacent to a
walking track immediately behind the
main township of Warrandyte. Inside the
log I found numerous beetles, cockroach-
es, mealworms and some other insects.
Witchetty Grubs had ensconced them-
selves near the external surfaces on all
sides of the log. The mid section of the log
had been decomposed to densely packed
wood shavings.
It was in this section of the log that 1
found 12 Southern Water Skinks
Eulamprus tympanum , a common species
in Victoria. They were not found as a
group, but individually where they had
burrowed inside the woody material.
Although some lizards were immediately
adjacent to one another, they were not
aggregating to make use of each other’s
heat. From the positioning of the lizards, it
appeared that each lizard was effectively
hibernating on its own.
Five were adults and seven were juve-
niles from last summer. None was sexed.
In my view, the only reason so many
occurred in this log was because it provid-
ed such an effective hibernation spot in an
area with a limited choice of sites. These
lizards are very common in this area.
Under the same log, between it and the
ground, was a single adult Weasel Skink
Saprosc incus tnustelina. None of this
species was found in the log and no
Southern Water Skink was found under it,
indicating distinct microhabitat prefer-
ences for the two species.
As I had destroyed the hibernacula in my
search for ‘bugs’, I moved the skinks to
another similar log nearby that was not
broken open.
The weather at the time had been season-
ally mild and mainly sunny with a top tem-
perature about 17° C and little wind.
Although the log was broken open at about
3.00 pm, the warmest part of that day, all
the lizards appeared to be in a state of tor-
por and it would be reasonable to infer that
none had been active on that day or any of
the cooler days preceding it.
Raymond Hoser
488 Park Road
Park Orchards, Victoria 31 14
Vol. 122 (2)2005
119
Naturalist Notes
'Drunken’ Honey Bees
Apiarists have revealed a previously
undocumented phenomenon: that, under
certain climatic conditions, some Eucalypt
species can produce a substance(s) that
significantly affect the Honey Bee Apis
mellifera. 'Symptoms* include drastically
high bee mortality and, therefore, reduced
hive health and critically reduced honey
yields. The bees themselves appear 'drunk*
(unstable), are unable to fly, suffer diar-
rhoea (observed as ‘streaking’ in the hive)
and, less often, vomiting.
In a broader study investigating flower-
ing patterns, apiarists were asked whether
they believed 'toxic' pollen and/or nectar
to be the cause. Sixteen of twenty-five api-
arists answered the question and most (15)
believed it was due to ‘toxic’ nectar. Five
believed it also could be due to toxic
pollen and one apiarist believed it was only
due to toxic pollen.
Eucalyptus microcarp a (Grey Box) was
identified as the species most commonly
producing this ‘toxic* nectar. This species
flowers from (mainly) mid-February until
mid-April however, flowering can extend
to late May.
Apiarists proposed that nectar produced
during the latter weeks (particularly when
extending into May) is ‘toxic', whilst
rarely being so earlier in the flowering sea-
son. They theorise that higher rainfall and,
therefore, higher humidity, which occur in
the later weeks of flowering, dilutes the
nectar in the cups and allows nectar fer-
mentation. Apiarists in South Australia,
New South Wales (Melanie Birtchnell
pers. comm.) and Western Australia
(Robert Manning pers. comm.) also report
this phenomenon.
Chris Tyshing (pers. comm.) observed
similar symptoms from a planted eucalypt
(E. botryoides) following uncharacteristic
summer rainfall. Microscopic analysis of
the dead bees indicated a prevalence of
diarrhoea.
Pollen feeding trials in Western Australia
resulted in the same symptoms. Analysis
of the sugar solution revealed:
• the solution was too dilute;
• yeasts, particularly Candida albicans,
were present;
• the solution had fermented.
This phenomenon is being investigated
further by M Birtchnell and M Gibson.
Should any readers notice bees acting in a
‘drunken' manner, could they please notify
one of the authors as soon as possible.
Melanie Birtchnell, Christine Tyshing
and Maria Gibson
Plant Ecology Research Unit
School of Biological and Chemical Sciences
Deakin University, Burwood, Victoria 3125
One hundred years ago
GENERAL BUSINESS
Mr A. Mattingley said that the letter from the Club which recently appeared in the public press,
protesting against the destruction of wattle, appeared likely to give the public the idea that the
Club was opposed even to a sprig of blossom being taken from a tree, and thought it would be
well if the Club would define what it regarded as destruction of wattle trees.
The .President said that his view of the matter, and one which he thought all would agree with,
was that the mere picking of small sprays of of blossom in the public parks shoud be overlooked,
but it should be considered destruction where boys climbed the trees and broke down the branch-
es w ith the intention of making up large bunches of blossom. Such a case he had witnessed the
previous day on the banks of the river at Ivanhoc, but being on private property the police could
take no action.
From The Victorian Naturalist XXII, p.77, September 1905
120
The Victorian Naturalist
FNCV Environment Fund
FNCV Environment Fund
Report for the grants of 2004
The Hillcrest Association Inc is a com-
munity based non-profit organisation with
the purpose to serve the local community
of Donvale in matters of concern to local
residents.
The Association contributes to discus-
sions with local government authorities,
VicRoads, local councils, community
groups and individuals. The Committee
researches and addresses issues raised by
local residents. Members have been
involved in decisions pertaining to traffic
management and the management of
Hillcrest Reserve and have provided input
into public forums, proposals for policy
and planning documents, and matters to do
with local amenity.
The Committee consists of volunteers
elected by the members of the Association,
which has an excellent reputation for com-
mittment to achieving good relations with
individuals and agencies.
The group has taken an active role in car-
ing for the bushland and reserve of
Hillcrest Park and Hillcrest Reserve bush-
land. Regular working bees are held
throughout the year. Of concern to the
Association in recent years has been the
proposed building of the EastLink tollway.
The Hillcrest Association received a
Grant from the FNCV Environment Fund
in 2004. The Grant was awarded to assist in
the production of educational pamphlets
and newsletters. The first Newsletter was
produced in October 2004 and thanks to the
funding the group was able to reach a
broader section of the Donvale community.
Five hundred copies of the Newsletter
were produced. The production of the
Newsletter was done by a member of the
committee in her own time. The results
were pleasing and another Newsletter was
planned for early in 2005. Some of the
Grant will be used for the planned update
of the Association’s small brochure.
The contract for the EastLink tunnel was
awarded in October 2004 to Connect East.
Hillcrest Association plans to maintain a
high profile with authorities during the
works. To this end 1 have mailed the first
Newsletter to Mr Brian Wilson, Director of
Communications for SEITA, the company
overseeing the contracted works.
In March 2005, the Association produced
its second Newsletter. Three hundred
copies of the Newsletter were printed and
distributed. The Association was pleased
with the positive result, with some new
subscriptions and renewed interest within
the community.
i have continued to maintain contact with
the contractors (now Theiss John Holland);
engineering works have now commenced
in the Mullum Mullum Valley on the
EastLink project.
It has been a long and anxious time for
the Association as well as the members of
the community who have assisted with try-
ing to save at least partof this lovely val-
ley. The tunnel saves about 98% of the
forestway, although massive devastation
has occurred at both ends of the tunnel.
Fauna surveys and animal rescues were
done to correct procedures - eventually!
We continue to monitor flora and fauna
in the Hillcrest Forestway and have been
pleased to note an increase in sightings of
Black (Swamp) Wallaby and Echidna.
Koalas are heard and seen all through the
year although sadly no joeys have been
sighted for some years.
The birds (in spite of construction noise)
are as brilliant as ever. On a good morning,
starting early, it is still possible to see
between 30-40 birds, including Powerful
Owl and the resident Brown Goshawk.
The Hillcrest Association is very grateful
to FNCV Environment Fund Committee for
their help. It is important at the moment for
us to be active and information for the resi-
dents is part of that action.
Cecily Falkingham
Vice President
Hillcrest Association Inc
27 Chippewa Ave, Donvale 3111
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
121
Legislation
Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988
Final Recommendations in regard to nominations for listing under the Flora and Fauna
Guarantee Act 1988. The nominations for the following taxa to be listed as threatened are
supported by the Scientific Advisory Committee, November 2004.
1. Taxa
Abutilon oxycarpum var. malvaefolium
Mallow-leaf Lantern-flower
Abntilon oxycarpum var. subsagittatum
Flannel Weed
Acacia binervia
Coast Myall
A cacia caernlescens
Limestone Blue wattle
A cc ip iter novaehollandiae
Grey Goshawk
A techy on subcinerens
Native Quince
A nseranas semipalmata
Magpie Goose
A ristida jerichoensis
Jericho Wire-grass
Aristida obscura
Rough -seed Wire-grass
A ristida persona la
Purple Wire-grass
As pern la amble ia
Stiff Woodruff
Botrychium australe
Austral Moonwort
Caladenia sp. aff. frag rant iss ima
Bendigo Spider-orchid
(Central Victoria)
Callistemon kenmorrisonii
Betka Bottlebrush
Cardamine frank! inens is
Franklin Bitter-cress
Car dam i ne gun n ii
Tuberous Bitter-cress
Correa lawrenceana var. genoensis
Mountain Correa
Craspedia canens
Grey Billy-buttons
Cy penis rigide/lus
Dwarf Flat-sedge
Daviesia laevis
Grampians Bitter-pea
Deyeuxia affinis
Allied Bent-grass
Deyeuxia pungens
Narrow- leaf Bent-grass
Egernia guthega
Alpine Egernia
Epilobium brunnescens subsp. beaugleholei
Bog Willow-herb
Eucalyptus alligatrix subsp. limaensis
Lima Stringybark
Eucalyptus mo/yneuxii
Little Desert Peppermint
Euphrasia crassiuscula subsp. glandulifera
Thick Eyebright
Ficus corohata
Sandpaper Fig
Gre vill ea inf lee undo
Anglesea Grevillea
Hakea macraeana
Willow Needlewood
Hesperilla flavescens fla vescens
Yellow Sedge-skipper Butterfly
Hypochrysops ignitns ignitus
Fiery Jewel Butterfly
*Hypoc reops is sp. ‘Nyora’
Clasping Hypocreopsis
Jalmenus ici lius
Amethyst Hairstreak Butterfly
Jimcus antarcticus
Cushion Rush
Muehlenbeckia gracillima
Slender Lignum
Ogyris genoveva a raxes
Southern Purple Azure Butterfly
Philotheca difformis subsp. difformis
Small-leaf Wax-flower
Sclerolaena ventricosa
Salt Copperburr
Sminthopsis leucopus
White-footed Dunnart
Trapezites luteus lu tens
Yellow Ochre Butterfly
Westringia lucida
Shining Westringia
* This taxon is the first fungus to be recommended for listing under the Flora and Fauna
Guarantee Act in Victoria.
122
The Victorian Naturalist
Legislation
The nominations for the following processes to be listed as potentially threatening
processes are supported by the Scientific Advisory Committee. November 2004.
2. Potentially Threatening Processes
Wetland loss and degradation as a result of change in water regime, dredging, draining,
filling and grazing
Inappropriate fire regimes causing disruption to sustainable ecosystem processes and
resultant loss of biodiversity
Infection of Amphibians with Chytrid Fungus, resulting in Chytridiomycosis
Scientific Advisory Committee recommendations and
consideration of nominations, 15 February 2005
(advertised in newspapers April 2005)
1. Final Recommendations
Callistemon nyaltingensis
Bazzania hochstetteri
Ortho trie h urn hortense
Eucalyptus strzeleckii
Boggy Creek Bottlebrush
Caducous Whipwort
Gardener’s Bristle-moss
Strzelecki Gum
2. Preliminary Recommendations
Fish
Mugilogobius paludis Pale Mangrove Goby
Mammals
Conilurus albipes White-footed Rabbit-rat
Plants
Spy rid in m sp. 1 Forked Spyridium
(formerly Spyridium sp nov. Little Desert)
Nemalolepis squamea ssp. coriacea Harsh Nematolepis
(formally Phebalium squameum subsp. coriaceum)
Nematolepis frondosa Leafy Nematolepis
(pre v i ously Phebalium frondosum)
Westringia crenmophila Snowy R i ver W estri ngi a
Pseudophryne bibronii Bibron 5 s T oadlet
Potentially threatening processes
Use of Lead Shot Cartridges for hunting of Waterfowl - Nomination for de-listing
Invasion of native vegetation by Blackberry Rubus fruticosus L. agg. (potentially threat
ening process)
For assistance in preparing this issue, thanks to Virgil Hubregtse (editorial assistance),
Dorothy Mahler (administrative assistance) and Mimi Pohl (labels).
Vol. 122 (2) 2005
123
The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Inc.
Reg No A003361 IX **
Established 1880
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Understanding our natural world
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Terrestrial Invertebrate: Dr Alan Yen, as above.
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Victorian
Naturalist
Published by The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria since 1884
From the Editors
The symposium held on the weekend of 28/29 May, to celebrate the 125th anniversary of
the founding of the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria, was a great success, not the least
from the perspective of this journal. A number of the speakers gave papers that focused
attention on aspects of The Victorian Naturalist, such as the way the content has varied
through time, and the degree to which papers in the journal have been a source of data to
researchers. It was also clear from some of the papers presented that The Victorian
Naturalist was a primary source of information for many of the presenters. This is all the
more gratifying (for both the editors and speakers) because we anticipate that in the full-
ness of time these papers will themselves become part of the greater body of work that is
the content of this journal.
Those papers will comprise the content of a future issue, and perhaps be the subject of a
future editorial; in the meantime, in this issue, we offer a diversity of subject matter, .no
doubt as readers have come to expect. There is, in fact, an even wider than usual cover-
age because of the inclusion of an essentially historical piece. In something of a link to
the reason for the symposium, one of the papers offered here surveys The Victorian
Naturalist across its entire run, for articles referring to the Eastern Pygmy-possum
Cercartetus nanus.
The issue leads off, however, with a report of research on the effects of firefighting foam
on soil invertebrates. Also included here are a contribution on the unexpected occurrence
of Bobucks in The Gurdies, and the first in a series of studies on Victorian Bryophtes.
Diverse reading indeed.
Ian Endersby has drawn our attention to OWL (Ornithological Worldwide Literature).
OWL was an initiative of the American Ornithologists Union, the British
Ornithologists Union and the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union to abstract and
database all bird-related literature references. It was originally called ROL (Recent
Ornithologist’s Literature) but it now has the aim of including historical data.
Every article from The Victorian Naturalist with ornithological information since
1992 has been included with title, author’s address, citation and one-line abstract.
More recently, key words have been used. A search of the database at
www.birdlit.org/OWL shows that 50 bird articles have been incorporated to date.
One Hundred and Twenty-five Years Ago
VICTORIAN FERNS AND THEIR HABITATS, BY C. FRENCH
[Read before the Field Naturalists' Club of Victoria June, 1880]
During the last few years there has been a perfect mania for ferns, and many fine species have
been imported from European nurseries and elsewhere, so that there arc now some excellent col-
lections to be found in the colonies - private as well as public. According to Bentham and
Mueller, there are nearly sixty species of ferns to be found in Victoria, some of which are also
natives of New Zealand and other parts of the world.
From Southern Science Record 1, pp. 2-3, December 1 880
The
Victorian
Naturalist
Volume 122 (3)2005
June
Editors: Anne Morton, Gary Presland, Maria Gibson
From the Editors 126
Research Report Does application of firefighting foam affect soil invertebrates?
by Michelle Koehler, Robyn Adams and Dianne Simmons 128
Contributions Studies on Victorian bryophytes 1. The genus Orthotrichum Hedw.,
by David Meagher 134
Presence of Bobucks Trichosurus caninus in The Gurdies on
Westemport, Victoria, by D Hynes and M Cleeland 141
Annotated records of the Eastern Pygmy-possum Cercartetus nanus
from The Victorian Naturalist , by Jamie M Harris 146
Book Reviews Tree ferns, by Mark F Large and John E Braggins, reviewed
by Chris Tyshing. , 151
Herons, Egrets and Bitterns: Their biology and conservation in
Australia, by Neil McKilligan, reviewed by Fred TH Smith 152
Australian Magpie: Biology and Behaviour of an Unusual
Songbird, by Gisela Kaplan, reviewed by Tess Kloot 153
Nest Boxes for Wildlife: A Practical Guide, by Alan and
Stacey Franks, reviewed by Greg J Holland 154
ISSN 0042-5184
Cover: Photograph of Bobuck Trichosurus caninus. See article on p. 141.
Web address: http://www.vicnet.net.au/~fncv/vicnat.htm
Email vicnat@vicnet.net.au
Research Report
Does application of firefighting foam
affect soil invertebrates?
Michelle Koehler.1 ' Robyn Adams' and Dianne Simmons'
Abstract
Firefighting foam (Class A foam) is an effective and widespread firefighting tool often used in envi-
ronmentally sensitive areas. Although, firefighting foam is known to be ecologically damaging to
aquatic invertebrates, application of 1.0% foam to heathland soils showed no detectable impacts on
soil invertebrate orders sampled over several months. The results are encouraging for the continued
use of Class A foam as a tire suppression technique in areas with high conservation value. ( The
Victorian Naturalist 122 (3), 2005, 128-133)
Introduction
Protection of natural resources and con-
servation values, in addition to the protec-
tion of life and property, is now a wide-
spread comm unity expectation of fire man-
agement agencies (Sutton el al. 1999;
Nature Conservation Council NSW 2000).
However, many fire management practices
may conflict with biodiversity management
(Morrison el al. 1996), or have the potential
to disrupt critical ecological processes such
as nutrient cycling, energy flow, and
hydrology (Lefroy and Hobbs 1992).
The philosophy behind minimum impact
suppression tactics (Mohr 1994) is a 'do
least damage' one. where the objective is
to contain the fire while producing the
least possible impact on protected
resources. These resources include forest
products, soils, fences, livestock, remnant
native vegetation, rare species, critical lim-
iting resources such as habitat trees or, in
many areas, simply bushland character.
Changing community values, and increas-
ing emphasis on biodiversity conservation
require the re-examination of the accept-
ability of fire suppression actions and
tools, such as Class A foam, particularly
where there may be adverse ecological
impacts (Adams et al. 2004). If the envi-
ronmental resources being ’protected' by
fire suppression do not recover from the
suppression activities and tools used, those
activities and tools are inappropriate in that
'School of Ecology and Environment, Deakin
University, Burwood, Victoria
^Country Fire Authority, Victoria, Australia.
Correspondence: R Adams. School of Ecology and
Environment, Deakin University, 221 Burwood
Highway, Burwood, Victoria 3125. Email:
radams@deakin.edu.au
environmental context (C'FA 2003) and in
the current social and legal climate.
Biodiversity and ecological processes,
which show resilience to disturbances such
as bushfire, must also be able to recover
from the bushfire suppression activities.
Where these suppression activities cause
ecological damage to natural resources it is
incumbent on good managers to examine
those activities and, where possible, use
only sustainable environmental suppres-
sion practices in their operations (DNRE
1998; Bames 2000). An assessment of the
appropriateness of a bush lire suppression
tool such as Class A foam is not possible
without data indicating the type and severi-
ty of any impacts. .
Bushfire fighting foams (Class A foams)
are alkaline surfactants containing foaming
and wetting agents, and are used extensive-
ly during bushfire suppression in environ-
mentally sensitive areas (Finger 1995;
Larsen et al. 1999). Foam impacts at the
species or ecosystem level are still rela-
tively unknown (Norecol 1989; Adams and
Simmons 1999; Adams 2000) but they
have potential ecological impacts which
should be considered before they are used
near protected resources (Larson and
Duncan 1982; Adams and Simmons 2002;
Adams et al. 2004).
Class A foams have the potential to
change ecological processes such as nutri-
ent cycling, as surfactants are known to
affect soil physical and biological proper-
ties including changing structural stability
(Cardinali and Stoppini 1981), Soils may
become hydrophobic, altering infiltration
rates (Batyuk and Samochvalenko 1981;
128
The Victorian Naturalist
Sebastiani et al. 1981a), soil microorgan-
ism growth may be stimulated (Simonetti
et al. 1981), and microorganism mobility
altered (Sebastiani et al. 1 98 1 b).
Class A foam damage to plant communi-
ties and species appears negligible or at
least very short-term (Larson and Newton
1996; Larson et al. 1999; Hartskeerl et al.
2004). Riparian zones (Larsen et al. 1999)
and aquatic habitats (McDonald et al.
1997) are known to be more vulnerable to
the negative effects of foams. In freshwater
ecosystems Class A foams are known to
adversely affect fish and aquatic inverte-
brates, and disrupt ecosystem functions
(Gaikowski et al. 1996; McDonald et al.
1997). Studies on Class A foam impacts on
terrestrial vertebrate fauna are limited, but
suggest Class A foams are not harmful
(Vyas and Hill 1994; Vyas et al. 1996),
and there are almost no data on potential
impacts on terrestrial invertebrates (Vyas
etal. 1996).
Sclerophyllous heathlands are fire prone
(Keith et al. 2002) and bushfire suppres-
sion activities in these heathlands frequent-
ly include the use of Class A foams.
Heathlands are also characteristically
invertebrate rich (Specht 1994). As inver-
tebrates play a critical role in ecosystems
(Kim 1993), they may have the potential to
act as biological indicators of less easily
measured ecosystem functions (Clausen
1986; Disney 1986). This study aimed to
investigate the impacts of Class A foam on
selected soil parameters and changes in
soil dwelling invertebrates (Koehler 2001 ).
Materials and methods
Soil and surface-active invertebrates
were sampled from heathland sites on
French Island, Victoria. Ten 20 m x 20 m
plots, subdivided into twenty-five 4 m x 4
m quadrats, were randomly assigned to one
of five sampling times; 0 days (before
foam application), 1 day, 7 days, 30 days
and 180 days after foam application. Five
quadrats from each plot were sampled al
each time. Five plots were left untreated as
controls. Angus ForExpan S (Angus Fire
Armour 1997) Class A foam was applied
at maximum field concentration (1%) in
May 2000, using standard fire service
foam proportioning equipment. The foam
was applied evenly across the sites and
Research Report
readily penetrated the vegetation to form a
layer on the soil surface.
Invertebrates were recovered from a sur-
face litter and soil sample 30 cm x 30 cm x
5cm collected from each of the 5 assigned
quadrats (50 samples per sampling time).
The sample was bagged and sealed until
sieved. The large number of samples to be
processed in a short time (150 samples in
one week) precluded the use of more time-
consuming recovery techniques. All indi-
viduals collected were counted and identi-
fied to order (Harvey and Yen 1995).
Invertebrate abundance data from the five
within-plot quadrats were pooled for
analysis. Soil water infiltration capacity
(scconds/litre), soil moisture content (%),
and soil pH were measured from five sam-
ples per plot at each sampling interval, and
the five wilhin-plot samples pooled for
analysis (Koehler 2001). Multivariate
analyses of all sampling times and all
orders, using the Bray-Curtis similarity
measure and multidimensional scaling
(MDS) (PRIMER analysis package) were
used to examine overall patterns in the
data. Soil parameter data were examined
using one- way ANOVA (SPSS 1 1.5)
(Koehler 2001 ).
As Class A foam biodegrades in about 28
days, any effects of foam would probably
be most apparent in the four sampling
times immediately following foam applica-
tion. Invertebrate populations are known to
fluctuate seasonally in response to plant
growth and flowering rhythms (Majer and
Greenslade 1988), and initial examination
of the data indicated extreme soil dryness
180 days after foam application, rather
than any foam effect, could account for the
population changes. Therefore invertebrate
data for only the ten common orders and
only the first four sampling times were
analysed using two-way ANOVA (SPSS
11.5).
Results
Water infiltration capacity varied over
time with a marked increase six months
(180 days) after application (Figure la).
However, there was no detectable effect
due to Class A foam. Soil moisture content
(Figure lb) was not significantly different
between the first four sampling times, but
had decreased significantly six months
Vol. 122 (3) 2005
129
Research Report
c/5
c3 Q , , , , ,
I 0 1 7 30 180
Sampling interval (days)
20
o
6
’o
(b)
0 1 7 30 180
Sampling interval (days)
Fig. 1. Mean (±SE) for (a) soil water infiltration
capacity, (b) soil moisture content and (c) soil
pH for five sampling times. Foam Treated:
squares. Untreated: triangles.
after application. However, this decrease
was associated with a substantial decrease
in rainfall during November (Koehler
2001) and there was no detectable effect of
Class A foam. Class A Foam is an alkaline
surfactant but appears to have no
detectable effect on soil pH (Fig. lc).
Initial mean soil pH was 5.5 (n=50) and
pFl ranged between 5.1 and 5.7 over the
sampling period (Koehler 2001).
Seventeen orders were recorded (Table
1) of which ten (Diptera to Haplotaxida)
occurred relatively consistently over the
sampling period, while individuals from
the other seven orders (Lepidoptera,
Nematomorpha, Dermaptera, Isopoda,
Flemiptera, Blattodea, Orthoptera) were
found infrequently and in very low num-
bers, and have been omitted from Table 1.
The mean number of orders per plot
decreased over time with the lowest num-
ber of orders per plot recorded 180 days
after Class A Foam application. This
decrease reflects the decrease in soil mois-
ture content and an increase in temperature
at the six month sampling time (Koehler
2001).
The ANOVA indicated no significant
interactions between time and Class A
foam for any orders (Table 2), suggesting
there was no detectable effect of foam
application. Six of the ten orders examined
(Coleoptera, Acarina, Spirobolida,
Araneae, Flymenoptera. Haplotaxida)
(c)
6.0
a.
o 5.2
00
4.8
0 1 7 30 180
Sampling interval (days)
showed significant changes in population
numbers over the 30 day period (Table 2),
but these were not related to foam applica-
tion. Julida was present and relatively
abundant across all plots, while Diptera,
Coleoptera, Araneae, Scolopendrida and
Gcophilida were usually present, but less
abundant (Table 1 ).
Multivariate analysis indicated two dis-
tinct groups of sampled plots (Fig. 2). The
grouping indicates a seasonal time
sequence rather than any pattern associated
with a Class A foam effect. Group 1 con-
sists of a mix of sample times and treat-
ments and suggests invertebrate presence
and abundance over late autumn-winter-
spring. The samples taken before foam
application (0 days) form a relatively cohe-
sive sub-group of this larger group. Group
2 consists of samples taken 1 80 days after
foam application and may indicate orders
with members more abundant in the drier
soils of late spring-early summer.
130
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Report
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Discussion
Invertebrate populations are extremely
variable, with their composition largely
determined by environmental factors.
Responses to disturbance such as Class A
foam may be difficult to detect where a
broad level of taxonomic resolution, such
as order, has been used (Friend 1994),
however higher-level taxonomic assess-
ment in some terrestrial invertebrate
groups can adequately detect disturbance
and environmental change (Pik et al.
1999). A number of the orders recovered
during this study contain predators and
have potential as bio-indicators of distur-
bance, particularly Araneae, Diptera,
Acarina and Coleoptera (Friend 1994;
Neumann et al. 1995). Sampling was
designed to maximize the detection of
changes in invertebrate orders due to Class
A foam, however no foam impacts were
detected at this taxonomic level. No
detectable changes in these indicator
groups suggest the soil processes mediated
by other less easily sampled microbiota
continue after foam application. The
changes in number of orders over time is
likely to be the result of seasonal changes
in soil moisture and soil temperature, or
small scale colonization (Friend 1994),
rather than foam.
These results, in conjunction with other
field studies on plant species and communi-
ties (Larson and Newton 1996; Larson et
al. 1999: Hartskeerl et al. 2004), are
encouraging for the continued use of Class
A foams for fire suppression. Typical expo-
sures of invertebrates to foam do not appear
to have had detectable impacts, although
further examination of soil invertebrates at
finer taxonomic level may reveal popula-
tion changes. Riparian zones (Larsen et al.
1999) and aquatic habitats (McDonald et
al. 1997) are known to be more vulnerable
to the negative effects of foams, but where
stream protection plans are in place, appli-
cations of Class A foam outside these habi-
tats are likely to have minimal long-term
effects (Norris and Webb 1989).
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank the Country Fire Authority,
Victoria, Australia for funding the project, and
Mr Peter Brown and Dr. John Aberton (Deakin
University) for statistical advice. This research
was carried out under DSE Permit Number
10000614.
Vol. 122 (3) 2005
131
Research Report
Table 2. Results of two-way ANOVAs for numbers of individuals in ten most common Orders and
for four sampling times (0 days to 30 days following application of Class A foam. *** = P < 0.00;
N.S. = not statistically significant; df = degrees of freedom..
Source
df
Diptera
Julida
Scolependrida
Geophilida
Coleoptera
Acarina
Spirobolida
Araneae
Hymenoptera
Haplotaxida
Between Plots
Amongst Foam
levels
39
1
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
Within Plots
Time
40
3
N.S.
***
**
*
Foam x Time
3
N.S..
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
ci®
Cl®
130 days - dry soil, late
spring-early summer
Cl®
stress = 0.2
' s
/ R> 0 days
** pre-foam
„ «■ .fc-TP1
CT
FJO
. CM autumn- winter - early spuing \
\ invertebrate assemblage
\ FM /
. ct?jc /
V. Fisc
Group 2
Group 1
Fig. 2. Multidimensional scaling diagram (MDS) showing an autumn-winter-early spring inverte-
brate assemblage (Group 1), and a dry soil invertebrate assemblage of late spring-early summer
(Group 2). The pre-treatment samples are a sub-group of Group 1. There is no grouping of Class A
loam treated and control samples, suggesting no detectable impact of Class A foam.
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Vol. 122 (3) 2005
133
Contributions
Studies on Victorian bryophytes 1. The genus
Orthotrichum Hedw.
David Meagher1
Abstract
Five species of the moss genus Orthotrichum Hedw. are known to occur in Victoria. These species
are described and illustrated, and their known distributions in Victoria are delineated. A key to
species is provided. ( The Victorian Naturalist 122 (3) 2005 134-141)
Introduction
The family Orthotrichaceae is represent-
ed in Australia by nine genera: Groutiella ,
Macro co nut . Macro m i friit m , Mite 1 1 eriella ,
Orthotrichwn , Schlotheim ia, Stoneobtyum ,
Ulota and Zyg&don. Seven of these genera
are present in Victoria. The general distin-
guishing features of those seven genera are
shown in Table 1 .
The Index Mu s corum (van der Wijk et aL
1959-69) recorded 230 species of
Orthotrichum Hedw. throughout the world,
but many of these have since been reduced
to synonymy. A thorough review of the
genus in Australasia was undertaken by
Lewinsky (1984a) who reported only live
species from Australia, all from the tem-
perate zone. Four of these — O. as simile,
O. cupula turn, O. rupestre and O. tasman-
icum — were reported from Victoria. In
the current study the other Australian
species, O. hortense , was found to occur in
Victoria.
Features of the gametophyte, such as the
height of shoots, the size and shape of
leaves and the density of rhizoids, are rather
variable, so that except in the case of O. tas-
manicum they are not useful in separating
Victorian species. In some cases the shape
and wall thickness of the basal leaf cells is
useful. The taxonomy, at least to species
level, is based mainly on sporophyte char-
acters, in particular the following:
• capsule — immersed, emergent or exserted
• outer peristome — reflexed, recurved or
straight; 8 or 16 teeth
• inner peristome — present or absent;
teeth wide, narrow or ciliate
• stomata on capsule — cryptopore (partly
hidden by capsule wall cells) or phanero-
pore (not hidden by cells).
1 School of Botany, The University of Melbourne,
Victoria 3010
Fortunately, almost every specimen of
Orthotrichum collected in Victoria has
mature capsules, so the identity of most
specimens can be determined with reason-
able confidence, even in the field.
Similar taxa
Other genera of Orthotrichaceae may be
mistaken for Orthotrichum in the field,
especially if there are no capsules.
Macromitrium and Macrocoma are imme-
diately distinguished by their creeping
habit, having prostrate primary stems from
which arise short, erect secondary stems.
In the one Schlotheim ia species present in
Victoria (S. brownii) the stems are very
short and the leaves are tightly twisted in a
spiral around the stem when dry. Zygodon
intermedins and Z. minutus have some-
times been mistaken for O. tasmanicum
because their capsules are rather similar,
but they are very much smaller than O. tas-
manicum, their leaves do not have tightly
recurved margins, and their calyptrae are
not hairy. Ulota species are restricted to
wet forest and rainforest, where they are
always epiphytic and usually grow in small
tufts. Although they are often distinctive in
the field, the surest way to separate them
from Orthotrichum is to look at the cells
on the margins of the leaf base. In Ulota
these cells have distinctly thickened trans-
verse walls, which is not the case in
Orthotrichum. In the two Victorian Ulota
species the inner peristome teeth are cili-
ate, which separates them immediately
from O. tasmanicum , and the more or less
spreading leaves separate them from the
other Orthotrichum species.
On rocks in montane to alpine areas,
Racomitrium crispulum and Schistocarpum
apocarpum can sometimes resemble
Orthotrichum species, especially if there
134
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
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are no capsules. Racomitrium crispulum
can be distinguished by its very long seta
and conspicuously long operculum, and by
the leaves, which usually end in an apicu-
lus or short hairpoint. In S. apocarpum the
capsules are deeply immersed among long
perichaetial leaves, and the flattish opercu-
lum is orange-red. Microscopic differences
are well described in Scott and Stone
(1976).
Finally, several Orthotrichum species
that are thought to be endemic to New
Zealand are similar to Victorian species,
and should be kept in mind when deter-
mining unusual specimens.
Synonyms of all Australian species are
published in Streimann and Klazenga
(2002).
Description of species
In the following descriptions, dimensions
are included only where they are of use in
distinguishing species. In general, leaf and
cell dimensions are not useful taxonomic
characters for these species. Distribution
maps are based on a review of all speci-
mens in MEL, MELU and CANB. Grey
dots represent records more than 50 years
old. Although English names have been
constructed for the species, they are not in
common usage and are therefore not
included here.
Orthotrichum assimile Mull. Hal. (Fig. 1).
Syn. Muse. Frond. 1 : 704 ( 1 849)
Known distribution in Australia: Vic,
NSW, ACT (Fig. 2).
Habitat: epiphytic on shrubs and trees in
montane to alpine regions.
Plants to 1.5 cm tall, yellowish green to
olive green in life, fading to mid brown
when dead. Leaves ovate-lanceolate to
lanceolate, straight or slightly flexuose,
appressed to the stem or very slightly
spreading when dry, spreading when wet;
leaf margins recurved for most of their
length, plane (rarely denticulate at the
apex); apex acute or sometimes obtuse.
Seta very short. Capsules immersed to
slightly emergent, straw-coloured, deeply
8-pleated when dry with the pleats extend-
ing to the capsule base, and the base often
swollen in comparison to the upper por-
tion; stomata cryptopore. Operculum very
shortly conical, with a moderately long,
Vol. 122 (3) 2005
135
Contributions
Key to Orthotrichum species in Victoria
This key relies on the presence of capsules, which is the common condition in the genus. All criti-
cal features, except stomata, are visible with a I Ox hand lens. The key is also valid for Tasmania and
New South Wales. Field identifications should be confirmed in the laboratory using the full key in
Lewinsky (1984a).
1 Mature capsules mostly with outer peristome teeth strongly rellexed over mouth of capsule 2
Mature capsules mostly with outer peristome teeth spreading, erect or incurved, not rellexed 5
2 Leaves in upper half of stems mostly contorted and diverging widely from stem when dry;
capsules on a long seta (stalk), somewhat to not at all pleated when dry, pleats mostly in
top half of capsule; stomata phaneropore tasmanicum var. tasmanicum
Leaves ± straight to slightly divergent; capsules on a short seta, narrowly cylindrical and
pleated along all or most of their length; stomata phaneropore or cryptopore 3
3 Plants growing on calcareous rock cup ulatum var. cupulatum
Plants epiphytic or rarely on non-calcareous rock 4
4 Older capsules ± cylindrical when dry, with ciliate, ± hyaline inner peristome teeth; leaf
apex acute, apiculate; costa ending just below apex; stomata phaneropore hortense
Older capsules ± cylindrical but usually bulging at base, w ith narrow, orange-yellow
strap-like inner peristome teeth; leaf apex often rather blunt, generally not
apiculate; costa reaching apex; stomata cryptopore assimile
5 Leaves strongly contorted and spreading widely from stem when dry; capsules exserted;
stomata phaneropore tasmanicum var. tasmanicum
Leaves more or less straight when dry, not strongly contorted or spreading widely from
stem; capsules immersed to emergent; stomata phaneropore or cryplopore 6
6 Outer peristome of dry capsules ± erect; capsules emergent; mature calyptra conical or
conic-oblong, hairy or not; stomata phaneropore rupestre var. rupestre
Outer peristome of dry capsules spreading; capsules immersed to emergent; mature
calyptra ± globose, always hairy; stomata cryptopore ...cupulatum var. cupulatum
narrow beak. Peristome double; outer
peristome of 8 yellowish teeth, strongly
reflexed over the capsule mouth in older
capsules, erect to recurved in younger
ones; inner peristome of 8 narrow teeth,
often breaking off in older capsules so that
the peristome appears single. Calyptra
more or less conical, usually hair. .
Notes: This species is superficially similar
to O. rupestre and often has been mistaken
for that species. However. O. rupestre
grows almost exclusively on non-calcare-
ous rock, has phaneropore stomata, and is
usually appreciably larger than O. assimile.
Lewinsky (1984a) found that all Australian
records of k O . alpestre ’ were O. longithe-
cum , but later corrected the name to O.
assimile (Lewinsky 1984b). Orthotrichum
assimile is rare in Victoria, being known
only from a few scattered localities in the
higher country in the east of the state.
Orthotrichum cupulatum Hoffm. ex Brid.
var. cupulatum (Fig. 3).
Muse. Rec. 2(2): 25 (1801).
Known distribution in Australia: Vic,
NSW, ACT (Fig. 4).
Habitat: limestone rock (rarely epiphytic)
in montane regions.
Plants to 2 cm tall, olive to glaucous green
in life, fading to yellow-green or pale
brown when dead. Leaves ovate-lanceolate
to lanceolate, straight or slightly flexuose,
appressed to the stem or very slightly
spreading when dry, spreading when wet;
often long-decurrent; leaf margins
recurved for most of their length (but
sometimes on one side only), plane (rarely
denticulate at the apex); apex acute or
sometimes obtuse. Upper leaf cells thick-
walled, isodiametric and papillose. Cells of
leaf base thin-walled and more or less rec-
tangular, rather rounded in basal comers.
Seta very short. Capsules immersed to
slightly emergent, ovoid to urn-shaped,
136
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Fig. 1. Orthotrichum assimile. Fig. 2. Known distribution of Orthotrichum assimile in
(Scale bar = 2 mm.) Victoria.
Fig. 3. Orthotrichum cupulatum Fig. 4. Known distribution of Orthotrichum cupulatum var.
var. cupulatum , with typical cupulatum in Victoria,
calyptra and operculum. (Scale
bar = 2 mm.)
straw-coloured, deeply 8-pleated when
dry, pleats extending to the capsule base
and often with smaller pleats in between;
stomata cryptopore. Operculum flat to
slightly convex, with a short beak.
Peristome single or rarely double; outer
peristome of 16 yellow-orange teeth, erect
to incurved in younger capsules but mostly
more or less reflexed in older ones; inner
peristome (not seen in Victorian speci-
mens) of 16 short hyaline teeth, not visible
under a hand lens. Calyptra almost glo-
bose, always hairy.
Notes: Orthotrichum cupulatum is listed as
a threatened species under the Victorian
Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988. It is
rare and endangered in Victoria, being
known only from two localities in the
Buchan River district in the east of the
state. Its habitat in both locations is threat-
ened by human activity and wildfire.
Orthotrichum cupulatum is superficially
Vol. 122 (3) 2005
137
Contributions
similar to O. rupestre , but that species has
not been found on limestone and has most-
ly erect outer peristomes on old capsules.
Orthotrichum cupulatum var. austro-cupu-
latum is known only from New Zealand. It
is a smaller brownish plant with exserted,
cylindric-ovoid capsules and a well-devel-
oped inner peristome.
Orthotrichum hortense Bosw. (Fig.5).
Journal of Botany 30: 97 ( 1 892).
Known distribution in Australia: Vic,
NSW (Fig. 6).
Habitat: epiphytic on trees and shrubs.
Plants to 2 cm tall, yellow-green to olive
green in life, fading to yellow-brow n when
dead. Leaves ovate- lanceolate, erect and
slightly spreading when dry, spreading
widely when wet; costa ending just below
apex; apex with a long apiculus; leaf mar-
gins entire, recurved for most of their
length. Seta very short. Capsules
immersed to emergent, cylindrical, deeply
8-pleated when dry, slightly narrowed
below mouth; stomata phaneropore.
Operculum often tinged red, with a mod-
erately long and straight beak. Peristome
double; outer peristome of 8 pale yellow to
whitish teeth, strongly reflexed over cap-
sule mouth in older capsules; inner peris-
tome of 8 ciliate hyaline teeth, mostly 1 cell
wide and 3 or more cells long. Calyptra
conic-oblong, usually lightly hairy.
Notes: In the field this species might easily
be mistaken for O. tasmanicum , but is dis-
tinguished by the strongly appressed leaves
when dry and by the capsule pleating,
which extends to the base of the capsule.
Under the microscope the very narrow
(one cell wide) inner peristome is obvious,
and the capsule stomata are phaneropore.
In New' Zealand O. hortense is common on
both indigenous and introduced trees
(Sainsbury 1952, Beever 1996). The Latin
name reflects the habitat of the type speci-
men — - on trees in a garden. There has
been some speculation that the species was
introduced to Australia, because it was
known only from the Yarrangobilly Caves
district where there has been much human
activity. Recently confirmed records from
Victoria established it as a genuinely
indigenous Australian species (Meagher
2005). The single record from Lake
Mountain, from a collection made in 1948,
needs to be followed up to determine
whether the species still exists at that local-
ity. The species has been recommended for
listing as a threatened taxon in Victoria
under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act
1988 (M O’Brien, Department of Sustaina-
bility and Environment, pers. comm.
March 2005).
Fig. 5. Orthotrichum hortense. Fig. 6. Known distribution of Orthotrichum hortense in
(Scale bar = 2 mm.) Victoria.
138
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Fig. 7. Orthotrichum rupestre var. Fig. 8. Known distribution of Orthotrichum rupestre var.
rupestre. (Scale bar = 2 mm). rupestre in Victoria.
Orthotrichum rupestre Schleich. ex
Schwagr. var. rupestre (Fig. 7).
Sp. Muse . Suppl. 1(2): 374 (1816).
Known distribution in Australia: Vic,
Tas, NSW, ACT (Fig. 8).
Habitat: granite and other non-calcareous
rock in montane to alpine regions.
Plants to 4 cm tall (rarely taller), olive to
dark green in life, fading to yellowish
brown when dead. Leaves ovate-lanceo-
late, more or less straight when dry,
spreading widely when wet; margins
recurved for most of length, apex acute to
apiculate; costa ending just below apex.
Cells of upper leaf thick-walled, isodia-
metric, papillose; cells of leaf base rectan-
gular to rhomboidal with thick, often nodu-
lose walls. Seta very short. Capsules bare-
ly emergent, usually pale brown and cylin-
drical, not or barely constricted at the
mouth, about 1 .5 to 2 mm long, 8-grooved
when dry with grooves often extending to
base of capsule; stomata phaneropore, con-
fined to middle of capsule. Operculum
more or less flat with a pointed, fragile
beak. Peristome single or double; outer
peristome erect, consisting of 8 wide yel-
low-orange teeth that may be split in two;
in older capsules teeth are often broken off
or bent outwards over the mouth; inner
peristome rarely present, consisting of 8
hyaline teeth one cell high, not visible
under a hand lens. Calyptra conical, usu-
ally hairy.
Notes: In Victoria Orthotrichum rupestre
is known from a small number of alpine or
subalpine locations. The core of its distrib-
ution is on the Bogong High Plains, around
and south of Pretty Valley. Non-calcareous
rock (especially granite) is the only habitat
recorded for this species in Victoria,
although it is known to occur occasionally
on trees (Lewinsky 1984a). It has therefore
been largely spared, so far, from the effects
of human activities in the alpine regions.
Without capsules O. rupestre would be
hard to separate in the field from O. cupii-
taium , but that species grows exclusively
on calcareous rock. Orthotrichum rupestre
var. papillosum is known only from New
Zealand. It has very tall and often Y-
shaped leaf papillae that are particularly
visible at the leaf apex.
Orthotrichum tasmanicum Hook.fi & Wils.
var. tasmanicum (Fig. 9).
London Journal of Botany 7: 27 ( 1 848).
Known distribution in Australia: SA,
Vic, Tas, NSW, ACT (Fig. 10).
Habitat: epiphytic on indigenous and
introduced shrubs and trees (also rarely on
non-calcareous rock), from lowlands to
alpine regions.
Plants to 3 cm tall, yellow-green to dark
green in life, fading to yellow-brown when
dead. Leaves ovate-lanceolate to tongue-
shaped, usually flexuose and widely
spreading; costa ending below the apex;
Vol. 122 (3) 2005
139
Contributions
Fig. 9. Orthotrichum tasmanicum var. tasman-
icum. (Scale bar = 2 mm.)
leaf margins recurved and often rather
undulate, sometimes denticulate in upper
third; leaf apex acute, sometimes apiculate.
Cells of upper leaf isodiametric and papil-
lose, cells of leaf base long, narrow and
often sinuous, thick-walled, without papil-
lae; usually several rows of quadrate and
often colourless cells at basal margins,
forming a vague border. Seta straw-
coloured, about 3 mm long (up to 5 mm
long). Capsule exserted well above leaves,
straw-coloured, cylindrical, about 2 mm
long, mostly 8-grooved in the top half or
so when dry, although sometimes more or
less smooth; stomata phaneropore.
Operculum shortly conical with a short,
blunt beak. Peristome double; outer peris-
tome of 8 wide teeth strongly reflexed
back over the mouth in older capsules,
often merely erect or recurved in younger
ones; inner peristome of 8 triangular teeth,
much the same as the outer peristome: sev-
eral cells wide at the base, one or two cells
wide at apex. Calyptra conical to conic-
oblong, usually hairy.
Notes: In Victoria, any Orthotrichum west
and south of the Baw Baw Plateau is
almost certain to be this species.
Orthotrichum tasmanicum is distinguished
by the flexuose, widely spreading leaves,
which give the shoots a rather dishevelled
appearance. This characteristic is more or
less constant in all specimens examined.
Fig. 10. Known distribution of Orthotrichum
tasmanicum var. tasmanicum in Victoria.
and separates the species from all others in
Victoria. Orthotrichum tasmanicum is by
far the most commonly collected species,
accounting for more than 90% of all
herbarium specimens. It occurs from sea
level to the alpine region, but at higher alti-
tudes it may be mixed with O. rupestre or
O. assimile. It is most commonly epiphytic
on trees and shrubs, but occasionally
grows on rock. It seems equally at home
on both indigenous and introduced plants,
especially willows and poplars.
A straighter-leaved form with shorter
setae, from the Bogong High Plains, is dif-
ficult to separate from O. hortense ; only
the width of the inner peristome teeth
seems to be consistently different, and
even then there seem to be intermediates.
It might represent an undescribed variety,
but further study is needed.
All Victorian specimens identified as
k Ortho trie hum calvum ’ on their herbarium
labels have been examined, and all have
been found to be Orthotrichum tasman-
icum var. tasmanicum. There seems little
doubt that O. calvum is endemic to New
Zealand. Orthotrichum tasmanicum var.
parvithecum is also known only from New
Zealand. It has emergent, entirely smooth
capsules, typically with two or often more
arising from the same perichaetium, and is
known only from areas of high rainfall. It
is possible that this variety exists in
Australia, but it has yet to be found here.
140
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Acknowledgements
Thanks to the curators of MEL and CANB for
loans of specimens, and to Nic Middleton and
Kathy Vohs (MELU) for providing facilities and
arranging loans. Special thanks are due to Helen
Ramsay for confirming the identify of
Orthotrichum hortense specimens. Many thanks
also to the anonymous referee who pointed out
several errors and kindly suggested numerous
improvements to the manuscript. This paper
would not have been possible without the pio-
neering work on the genus by the late Jette
Lewinsky.
References
Beever J, Allison KW and Child J (1996) The Mosses
of New Zealand. (University of Otago Press:
Dunedin)
Lewinsky .1 (1984a) The genus Orthotrichum Hedw.
(Musci) in Australasia. A taxonomic revision. J.
Hattori Bot. Lab. 56, 369-460.
Glossary
apiculus : a short, abrupt point
calyptra: a membranous and sometimes hairy cap covering the young sporophyte
cgmpanulate: bel 1-shaped
costa: the thickened midrib or nerve of a leaf
cucuJ/ate : shaped like a hood
decurrent: extending below the point of origin on the stem
glaucous: having a waxy or powdery covering that gives a white, grey or blue colouration
hyaline: colourless and transparent, or nearly so
lanceolate: lance-shaped, narrow and tapering from the base
mammillose: having a single bulge in the external cell wall, into which the lumen extends
nodulose: having localised thickenings or swellings
operculum' a cap or lid that covers the capsule mouth until maturity
papillose: having one or more small, localised thickenings projecting from the external cell wall
perichaetial leaves: modified leaves surrounding the female sex organs
Lewinsky J (1984b) Orthotrichum Hedw. in South
America 1. Introduction and taxonomic revision of
taxa with immersed stomata. Lindbergia 10, 65-94.
Meagher DA (2005) New and interesting bryophyte
records from New South Wales, Queensland and
Victoria. Australasian Brvological Newsletter 50,
6-9.
Scott GAM and Stone 1G (1976) The Mosses of
Southern Australia. (Academic Press: London)
Sainsbury GOK ( 1952) A handbook of the New
Zealand Mosses. Bulletin of the Royal Society New
Zealand 5, l -490.
Streimann H and Klazenga N (2002) Catalogue of
Australian Mosses. (Australian Biological Resources
Study: Canberra)
van der Wijk R, Margadanl WD and Florschutz PA
(1959-69) Index Muscorum (5 volumes). Regmim
Vegetabile 1 7. 26. 33, 48. 65.
Received 18 November 2004; accepted 3 1 March 2005
Presence of Bobucks Trichosurus caninus in
The Curdies on Westernport, Victoria
D Hynes' and M Cleeland1 2
Abstract
This article reports on the presence of Bobucks Trichosurus caninus in an open forest habitat abut-
ting a swampy creek near the eastern shore of Westernport Bay, Victoria. Observations were made at
night using infrared activated automatic cameras. {The Victorian Naturalist 122, (3) 2005, 141-145)
Introduction
The Bobuck Trichosurus caninus also
known as the Black Possum or Mountain
Bmshtail Possum, is common in cool-tem-
perate wet forests and subtropical rainforest
with luxuriant understorey of non-sc lero-
phyllous shrubs and ferns along the Great
Dividing Range from southern Queensland
to Victoria. It is described as terrestrial in
its habits: it often feeds at ground level and
1 PO Box 285. Burwood, Victoria 3125, Email:
debbiehynes2()02@yahoo.com.au
- Bass Coast Landcare Network, PO Box 272, Cowes,
Victoria 3922. Email: theropod@dcsi.nct.au
dens in fallen logs. It is larger, longer-lived
and more sedentary than its relative the
Common Brushtail Possum T. vulpecula
(Menkhorst and Knight 2001). The sexes
form long-term monogamous pairs and the
young take significantly longer to wean
than do the offspring of T. vulpecula
(Strahan 1983). It seems plausible that
these behavioural traits make Bobucks
more vulnerable to environmental distur-
bance than Common Brushtail Possums
and hence may account for the species’
more restricted range.
Vol. 122 (3) 2005
141
Contributions
KSorrtttr**
Fig. 1. Map of the camera site at The Gurdies Nature Conservation Reserve. From Department ot
Natural Resources and Environment. The Gurdies Nature Conservation Reserve. Resources
Information Sheet, November 1997.
This article documents the discovery of a
population of Bobucks in atypical lowland
habitat in central coastal Victoria, and dis-
cusses the possible origins of the population.
Methods
The Gurdies Nature Conservation
Reserve comprises an area of some 260 ha
along the eastern side of the Bass Highway
at The Gurdies, approximately 3 km north
of Grantville on the eastern side of Western
Port, Victoria. The surrounding area has
been extensively cleared and is currently
used mainly for beef cattle grazing.
A purpose-built infrared-activated auto-
matic camera was deployed at ground level
on the shores of the creek that separates
the Donmix Quarry leasehold from The
142
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Gurdies Nature Conservation Reserve (38°
22.865'S, 145° 33.420'E) (Fig. 1).
The Gurdies site was chosen because
data presented by the regional catchment
management body, Port Phillip and
Westemport Regional Catchment Strategy
(2004-2009), indicates it lies on the periph-
ery of a zone of remnant native vegetation.
The area thus offered an attractive prospect
for a survey of nocturnal fauna. A camera
was left out for three nights in August
2004. During that time it captured images
of probable Bush Rats Rattus juscipes and
a single image of a Bobuck. After consid-
eration of this picture, it was decided to
employ two more cameras in the same area
in order to search further for these animals.
The cameras were deployed over another
three nights from 1 September, 2004 to 3
September, 2004. One of these instru-
ments, a little upstream from the first site,
captured eighteen images of Bobucks. No
attempt was made to trap or to interfere in
any way with the animals.
Geology and Soils
Tertiary outwash sands and gravels over-
lie earlier Tertiary basalts and Cretaceous
sediments in this part of West Gippsland.
These sands and gravels are the subject of
several extractive industrial operations
within and nearby the Reserve. They sup-
ply material for road surfacing, concrete,
mortar and glass manufacture. Soils devel-
oped over the outwash sediments appear to
be low in nutrients including nitrogen and
phosphorus, a factor that may have influ-
enced early settlers to refrain from clearing
the Reserve area. The topography is dis-
sected by local drainage channels that flow
into Western Port Bay.
Vegetation
A mixed age stand of Messmate Euca-
lyptus obliqua and Peppermint E. radiata
dominates this open forest community.
Understorey and ground level plants include
Bracken Pteridium esculentum , Common
Heath Epacris impressd , Hedge Wattle
Acacia armata , Hop Wattle A, stricta ,
Prickly Tea Tree Leptospermum continen-
tale , Spiny Mat Rush Lomandra longifolia ,
Sundew Drosera spp. and several species of
orchids. A drainage line adjacent to the cam-
era site supports populations of Common
Reed Phragmites australis and Swamp
Fig. 2. Camera in creek next to Donmix
Quarries,
Paperbark Melaleuca ericifolia. Sweet
Pittosporum Pittosporum undulatum is scat-
tered throughout the area. A view of the
camera situated at the edge of the creek is
presented in Fig. 2.
Results
Two pictures are presented (front cover
and Fig. 3 ), The best means of distinguish-
ing the Bobuck from its cousin, the
Common Brushtail Possum, is to examine
the ears (front cover).
In the Bobuck the ears are shorter
(around two thirds the length) and more
rounded than the ears of the Common
Brushtail (Kerle 2001).
Bobucks tend to be larger (2.5-4. 5 kg)
than the Common Brushtail (1. 5-4.0 kg)
(Menkhorst and Knight 2001). The animal
shown in Fig. 3 exhibits its species’ char-
acteristic short rounded ears. Like its
cousin, the Bobuck also possesses a long,
luxuriantly bushy, black tail; hence another
of its vernacular names, the ‘Mountain
Brushtail’. Generally the animals reported
here were darker than Common Brushtail
Possums, being very dark grey to almost
black dorsally but paler grey ventral ly.
They also appeared to be more robustly
built than the Common Brushtail, especial-
Vol. 122 (3) 2005
143
Contributions
Fig. 3. Gurdies Bobuck.
ly around the head, neck and forearms. The
snout seems blunter and there was no
black-white banding as is sometimes
apparent immediately behind the rhinarium
in Common Brushtails. One image showed
an animal sitting upright, its long, power-
ful claws easily visible.
[Images collected by the cameras may be
viewed at the following internet address:
http://www.thylacoleo.com/publications/
bobucksOl/bobucksOl.html ].
Discussion
According to Menkhorst and Knight
(2001) and also Kerle (2001) the range of
Trichosurus caninus extends through the
Great Dividing Range from southern
Queensland to the mountains of Gippsland
in Victoria.
However, it was stated to us that Bobucks
are only known along the shores of
Westernport near GrantviDe from three pre-
vious instances. There is said to be a pair liv-
ing in thick foliage on a farming property
near Grantville and one road-killed speci-
men was found on the nearby Bass Highway
about 10 years ago. (P Westwood, pers.
comm.) An injured Bobuck from Grantville
was brought into a wildlife shelter at
Inverloch during the 1090s, was rehabilitat-
ed and subsequently released in the
Dandenongs, since it was assumed to be a
vagrant (J Hillyard, pers. comm.)
Neither Wilson (1990) nor Kutt and
Yugovic (1996) reported the presence of
Bobucks in The Gurdies when their
respective studies were conducted. This is
puzzling because one of the present
authors observes that vegetation within the
Reserve itself has not materially changed
during the last 25 years (M Cleeland, pers.
obs.). It is also reported that the Gurdies
Reserve is heavily infested with European
Foxes Vulpes v id pcs and has been so for
many decades, (M Cleeland, pers. obs.). It
appears, from occasional reports over many
decades, that a very small but unreported
population of them may have been present
in or near The Gurdies over a time span of
decades. Possibly their small numbers may
account for their absence from previous
biodiversity surveys. How they manage to
survive in the presence of foxes is unclear.
Barring deliberate or accidental release,
the most obvious scenario is that the ani-
mals reported here have migrated into The
Gurdies from the north or the east, perhaps
from the still timbered regions of the
Strzelccki Ranges. But Lindenmayer et al.
(1991) state that Bobucks tend not to move
about much, one animal being recaptured
after 10 years only 250 metres from where
it was first caught and tagged. Given such
sedentary habits of the adults it may be
that the principal means of population
spread by this species is through dispersal
of the young. This method would presum-
ably be quite slow, given their lower rate
of reproduction and late weaning as com-
pared with the Brushtail Possum. It also
means that young, inexperienced animals
would have to travel large distances across
open farmland in order to reach the shores
of Westernport. However, in view of their
apparent affinity with the creek, one way
for them successfully to disperse across
farmland and main roads might be to fol-
low natural watercourses wherever these
provide suitable habitat. In this case the
animals photographed in The Gurdies may
represent a snapshot, literally, of a larger
population movement that is presently tak-
ing place over a wider geographical area.
Two problems arise with this picture.
Firstly, The Gurdies-Grantville region is
hemmed in by open farmland on three sides
and by Westernport Bay on the fourth. One
of the authors (D Hynes) travelled around
the West Strzelecki hills to ascertain if
habitat corridors leading from further east
are present. There appears to be none. In
any case, if habitat corridors such as creek
beds are being used as migration routes
from far afield one would expect to find
Bobucks in residence in most creeks in
south-west Gippsland. If such were the case
144
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
one should expect the frequency of report-
ed road kills and sightings to be much high-
er than it actually is. Consequently the
authors believe that any theory involving
current or recent migration of Bobucks
over large distances through the Strzelecki
Hills to The Gurdies is untenable.
An alternative scenario is that Bobucks in
The Gurdies were cut off from the parent
population in the Great Dividing Range
when the West Strzelecki Ranges were
cleared of timber in the late 19”' to early
201" century. In this case, the Grantville
population may represent a relict that has,
remarkably, survived since then in isola-
tion. However the notion of a tiny colony
or colonies lingering on in isolation over,
perhaps, the better part of the 20"’ century
presents severe difficulties, mainly to do
with questions about the long-term viabili-
ty of extremely small populations.
It is not likely that the Bobucks in the
creek next to the Donmix Quarry are the
only ones in The Gurdies. A population,
albeit small, must be distributed throughout
various parts of the Reserve and, presum-
ably, in nearby areas of suitable habitat that
are not formally part of the Reserv e itself
The question of how long a remnant popu-
lation of Bobucks in The Gurdies may have
been separated from others of their kind is
fraught with uncertainty. A few kilometres
to the east of The Gurdies Reserve the Bass
River flows to the south-west. It seems pos-
sible this waterway may form a natural cor-
ridor or haven for Bobucks, allowing them
to move into the Grantvillc-Gurdies area
from the north-east. The Bass River has not,
to date, been surveyed by the authors. It was
stated to the authors (A Westwood, pers.
comm.) that stands of connected vegetation,
capable of forming corridors through which
medium sized animals might pass, were
indeed available north east of The Gurdies
up until approximately twenty years ago.
After that time, and especially in the past 10
years, the rate of vegetation clearance from
countryside near The Gurdies district has
accelerated.
Hence it may be that a Gurdies Bobuck
population was sustained by immigration
up until a decade or two ago but is now cut
off In this case the present day Gurdies
Bobucks might represent a population that
once was larger but now is dwindling
towards extinction. There have been very
few reports of sightings or captures in the
past as in the present. Bobucks have been
almost unknown in the Gurdies. Appar-ently
Bobuck movement along any now vanished
corridor was at such a low level as to remain
all but invisible. Moreover if Gurdies
Bobucks were more numerous ten to fifteen
years ago, one would expect them to have
appeared in the surveys that were done then.
The authors are thus unable, at the pre-
sent time, to offer an hypothesis that might
satisfactorily account for the presence of
Bobucks in The Gurdies on Westernport
Bay, Victoria. It is hoped that further pho-
tographic surveys may be carried out in
order to discover more about their distribu-
tion and perhaps cast light upon how they
came to be in their present situation.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Anne and Phil
Westwood who provided much useful back-
ground information about Gippsland flora and
fauna and .1 Hillyard who provided information
about an injured Bobuck. The authors also wish
to thank Peter Menkhorst who reviewed the
manuscript and suggested many useful improve-
ments. The authors would like to thank, as well,
an anonymous referee whose comments added
significantly to the content of this paper.
References
Kerle A (2001) Possums: the Brushtails, Ringtails and
Greater Glider (UNSW Press: Sydney)
K Lit t AS and Yugovic JW (1996) Fauna of the
Grantville Gravel Reserve, with reference to vegeta-
tion and conservation significance. The Victorian
Naturalist 1 13, 58-57.
Lindenmayer DB, Warnekc RM, Meggs RA, Linga T
and Seebeck JI1 ( 1991) Note on the longevity of the
Mountain Brushtail Possum, Trichosurus caninus , in
the montane ash forests of the Central Highlands of
Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist 108, 4-5.
Menkhorst P and Knight F (2001 ) A Field Guide to the
Mammals of Australia (Oxford University Press:
Melbourne)
Port Phillip and Westernport Regional Catchment
Strategy (2004) 2004-2009: Draft for Community
Consultation August. Port Phillip and Westernport
Catchment Management Authority.
Resources Information Sheet (1997) The Gurdies
Nature Conservation Reserve, Parks Victoria.
Strahan R (cd) (1983) The Australian Museum
Complete Book of Australian Mammals (Angus and
Robertson: Sydney)
Wilson CG (1990) Mammals of The Gurdies, a pro-
posed Flora and Fauna Reserve. The Victorian
Naturalist 107, 52-57.
Web Site: Gurdies Bobucks Image Archive
http: //www, thy lacoleo.com/pub/ icat ions/bobucksO 1/
hobueks0l.html
Received 20 January 2005; accepted 31 March 2005
Vol. 122 (3) 2005
145
Contributions
Annotated records of the Eastern Pygmy-possum
Cercartetus nanus from The Victorian Naturalist
1884-2004
Jamie M Harris1
Abstract
The Eastern Pygmy-possum Cercartetus nanus, while widely distributed throughout south-eastern
Australia is encountered relatively infrequently. However, The Victorian Naturalist is a major source of
records of the distribution of the species, beginning with a mention in Volume 1 (1884). Past issues
of the journal were surveyed for records of the species, which were then annotated here. {The
Victorian Naturalist 122 (3), 2005. 146-150)
Introduction
Although the diminutive Eastern Pygmy-
possum Cercartetus nanus is widely dis-
tributed in the forests, woodlands and asso-
ciated habitats of south-eastern Australia,
it is encountered relatively infrequently
(Bowen and Goldingay 2000). Therefore,
records of this species are particularly sig-
nificant. Many important records of
Eastern Pygmy-possum are published in
the volumes of The Victorian Naturalist.
Hence, the aim of this contribution is to
extract and present an annotated chronolo-
gy of records of the Eastern Pygmy-pos-
sum published in The Victorian Naturalist
during the past 120 years ( 1 884-2004).
Eastern Pygmy-possum Records from
The Victorian Naturalist
In the first volume of The Victorian
Naturalist , Forbes-Leith and Lucas (1884)
presented a check-list of the mammals of
Victoria, and accepted the Eastern Pygmy-
possum (as Phalangista glirifonnis = C.
nanus) as a component of the State's
fauna. Following this, ‘two Opossum
Mice' were reported from Heathcote. cen-
tral Victoria (Anon 1890). Hall (1904)
refuted the suggestion by Waite (1904)
that the Victorian Eastern Pygmy-possum
(Dromicia nana = C. nanus) records were
not authentic, and identified further
records from Gembrook, The Black Spur,
and Sale. Kershaw (1906) reported on an
excursion to Wilsons Promontory, and
although Eastern Pygmy-possums were not
found during the trip, he stated that they
were ‘sure to exist there'. Kershaw’s asser-
1 School of Environmental Science and Management,
Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW, 2480.
Email: jharril l@scu.edu.au
tion was proved correct, and the species is
known to be ‘locally common' on Wilsons
Promontory today (Menkhorst and
Seebeck 1999). In 1911, at a meeting of
the Victorian Field Naturalists Club, a
young ‘Dormouse Phalanger', from the
Mallee at Underbool, northwest Victoria,
was exhibited by AHE Mattingley (Anon
1911). It was noted that this was a new
Eastern Pygmy-possum record for the
Mallee, however, Wakefield (1963a) later
clarified that the specimen had been incor-
rectly identified, and was in fact the
Western Pygmy-possum C. concinnus.
In 1930, Norman Chaffer made a short
contribution on the ‘Opossum Mouse' and
presented a photograph of an individual
found in a disused nest of a New Holland
H oney eater PhyUdonyris novae ho l landiae
in an area of heathland near Svdney, New
South Wales (NSW) (Chafer" 1930a; see
also Chafer 1930b). He provided brief
notes on the characteristics of the species,
including the fattening of its tail and hiber-
nation during winter. David Fleay also
mentioned dormancy in the species (Fleay
1932) and reported that a captive animal
was housed in a new section of the
Melbourne Zoological Gardens (Fleay
1935). In 1939, Kathleen Conway from
Eskdale provided an article about ‘Bluey’,
a female Eastern Pygmy-possum kept as a
pet for over four years (Conway 1939).
Bluey was brought to Conway on 8
September 1934 and died on 6 January
1939, a day reportedly 44°C in the shade.
Its captive diet included insects, honey,
fruit, lollies and cream, and it became quite
overweight. In winter 1935, it was noted
146
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Fig. 1. Eastern Pygmy-possum Cercartetus
nanus. Photo Teresa DuBois..
that Bluey hibernated for five days. In this
article it was also noted that common
names for the species included ‘Dormouse-
Opossum’, ‘Dormouse-Phalanger’ and
‘Possum Mouse'. In a companion article
by Miss JM Booking, a report was made
from the Blue Mountains, NSW, of a cat
which brought in a Feather-tailed Glider
Acrobates pygmaeus , which did not live
long, and also an Eastern Pygmy-possum
(Booking 1939). This male animal was
named ‘Twinkle’ and lived with the
Booking family for over a year. Some
anecdotal notes on Twinkle were provided,
including its ability to hang from a human
finger by the tail and then climb it, and its
meticulous grooming behaviour.
Photographs of both Bluey and Twinkle
accompanied the articles.
A decade passed before a ‘Pigmy-
Possum ’ was again reported (Learmonth
1949); a record from the Portland district.
Another decade later (in the 1960s), the
Eastern Pygmy-possum became a high
profile species in the journal, under the
editorial direction of Norman Wakefield.
The front covers for both May 1962
(Volume 79, Issue 1) and August 1963
(Volume 80, Issue 4) showed photographs
of Eastern Pygmy-possums. The former
featured a family of three juveniles found
by a wood-cutter in the Rushworth Forest
(Anon 1962), while the latter showed a
family found at Yackandandah (Anon
1963). Baines (1962) reported a meeting of
the Fauna Survey Group held 1 March
1 962 at which Mr RM Wameke displayed
two very well-fed specimens of the
‘Common Pigmy Possum’ that were ‘live-
ly despite their obesity’. Notes from mam-
mal reports of the Fauna Survey Group for
June 1965 record the ‘Pygmy-possum’
from Tidal River, where the Ranger, Mr A.
Miller found a female nesting in a cup-
board in April (Anon 1965). Three young
were produced and the nest was noted
empty by 5 June 1965. A record of the
‘Eastern Pigmy Possum’ was also provided
for Powelltown/Labertouche State Forest
(Anon 1967).
The 1960s included the prolific work of
Norman Wakefield on the sub-fossil mam-
malian fauna of Victoria (Wakefield
1960a,b; 1963b,c; 1964; 1967a,b) and his
authoritative contribution on the
‘Australian Pigmy-Possums’ (Wakefield
1963a). In a pair of papers, Wakefield
(1960a,b) noted the discovery of the
Eastern Pygmy-possum as a fossil speci-
men in a number of caves in the vicinity of
the Murrindal River in eastern Victoria
(Pyramids Cave, Mabel Cave. M-27 and
M-28) (see also Wakefield 1967a). Eastern
Pygmy-possums were subsequently found
in fossil deposits collected near Portland,
in the far southwest of the State (Fern
Cave and McEachem’s Cave) (Wakefield
1963b: 1967b). in the Grampians (Victoria
Range and Black Range) (Wakefield
1963c). and near Hamilton (Byaduk Caves
and Mount Eccles) (Wakefield 1964). For
a review of these sub-fossil records see
Harris and Goldingay (In press).
Wakefield (1963a) reviewed around 40
mainland records including one from
Mill icent. South Australia (1925) and sev-
eral from NSW including St. Leonards
(1863), Jindabyne (1903), Royal National
Park (1925), Bowral (1939), Blue
Mountains (1958) and Newcastle (1958).
The sources for these records included the
Australian Museum, Krefft (1863), Waite
(1904), Wood Jones (1925), and Marlow
(1958). Wakefield (1963a) believed that
Vol. 122 (3) 2005
147
Contributions
the northern range limit was then
Newcastle. Victorian records included
Western Port (1880), Mucklcford (1886),
Mordialloc (1887), Avoca (1918), Buangor
(1935), Portland (1945, 1946, 1948, 1957
and 1959), Erica (1947), Wilsons
Promontory (1950), Mount Loch (1952),
Tamboon Inlet (1958, 1962), Mallacoola
(1958, 1962, 1963), Whitlands (1958),
Nowa Nowa (1960), Snake Valley (1961,
1962), Rushworth Forest (1961). Cape
Conran (1963), Grenville (1963) and
Yackandandah (1963). Thirty-six museum
and literature records from Tasmania were
available, but most had no locality data or
precise dates of collection. Those with
recorded localities included its discovery
by Europeans on Maria Island (1802). and
also Waratah (1900), Mount Wellington
(1957), Launceston, Westbury district.
Fury Gorge near Cradle Mountain and
Cloudy Bay on Bruny Island.
Wakefield (1963a) examined the subspe-
cific taxonomy of C. nanus and assigned
the mainland populations as C. nanus uni-
co/or and the Tasmanian populations as C,
nanus nanus (see also McKay 1988). He
noted that the mainland form {unicolor)
appeared to be ‘widely scattered but
uncommon1 in the highland forests of
Victoria and south-eastern NSW, and
‘apparently less rare in contiguous densely
scrubby coastal forests'. His data indicated
that it was absent from the savannah for-
mations of central Gippsland, the western
district of Victoria, and the woodlands of
the Monaro district of southern NSW.
With regards to the Tasmanian subspecies
(nanus), Wakefield suggested that it had
suffered a marked decline in the preceding
century, and its status was rare. He postu-
lated that the decline was ‘most likely due
to the marked changes in vegetation
brought about by the periodic forest fires
that have occurred in Tasmania ever since
European settlement there1. A preference
for dry sclerophyll forest rather than wet
sclerophyll forest was also advanced by
Wakefield (1963a) for both subspecies on
the basis of distributional records and from
some earlier interpretations of sub-fossil
data. He also suggested that Eastern
Pygmy-possums are ‘localised1, and that
there was a ‘medium to dense element of
shrubbery in most areas concerned’.
In a subsequent note on the ‘Pigmy-pos-
sums’, Wakefield (1970) referred to the
discovery of the species in 1936 at
Lamington National Park, southern
Queensland (O'Reilly 1941). New records
from Flinders Island, Tasmania and Mount
Drummond, near Stawell, western Victoria
were also identified. An observation of an
individual with five nipples was reported,
which was thought unusual since only four
nipples had been previously described
However, later research has demonstrated
that the species does in fact have six nip-
ples (Turner and McKay 1989). Finally,
Wakefield (1970) reviewed data on dor-
mancy in captive Eastern Pygmy-possums,
and also held a captive female and her five
young under observation for 21 days. He
found a positive correlation between peri-
ods of dormancy and the occurrence of
rain, which he suggested demonstrated an
adaptive advantage of torpor.
Other Eastern Pygmy-possum records in
The Victorian Naturalist from the 1970s
include further mention of the fattening
and dormancy of the species (Anon 1 974),
and a photograph of a female with five
pouch young on the front cover of the
issue for March 1975 (Volume 92, Issue 3)
(Anon 1975). This was of an animal
caught by hand on the ground in Wiregrass
Tetarrhena jiincea during spotlighting at
Nolan’s Gully in the Upper Lerderderg
Valley (Deerson et al. 1975). Gilmore
(1977) also opportunistically captured an
Eastern Pygmy-possum while it was cross-
ing Kangaroo Swamp Road, 2km east of
the Old Rosedalc Road, in the Stradbroke
area of South Gippsland. Galbraith (1977)
provided additional records for the 1970s
from Mallacoota. Cape Conran, Maffra,
Connors Plains near Mount Skene, and
Mu 11 an dang Forest near Won Wron. She
also commented that the species is ‘fairly
widespread in eastern Victoria, but proba-
bly not common, for they are rarely seen’.
In 1980, an Eastern Pygmy-possum was
caught by pitfall trap at Strathbogie ( Anon
1980) and again recorded in this area in
1987 (Anon 1988). Hampton et al. (1982)
compiled the Mammal Survey Group
records from 1966-80, which included
records already referred to (Anon 1967;
Wakefield 1970; Deerson et al. 1975;
Anon 1980) as well as several new records
148
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
from the vicinity of Rushworth Forest,
Sale, Anglesea, and the ‘Alpine Area’.
There is also a record from Tolmie, where
an individual was found in a post-hole, and
from Sheepyard Flat, Mount Timbcrtop,
where three individuals were recovered
from a felled dead tree (Nicholls and
Meredith 1984). Lumsden and Schulz
(1985) caught a male in a pitfall trap at
Gellions Run, South Gippsland, and spotlit
two animals in an area of woodland domi-
nated by Manna Gum Eucalyptus viminalis
and Saw Banksia Banksia serrata. Another
individual was sighted in a thicket of
Swamp Paperbark Melaleuca ericifolia
adjacent to woodland. Wilson and
Moloney (1985) trapped an Eastern
Pygmy-possum within a recently burnt
area of swampy heathland dominated by
Scented Honey Myrtle Melaleuca squar-
rosa and Prickly Tea Tree Leptospermum
jimiperinum at Anglesea. Loyn et al (1986)
found remains of Eastern Pygmy-possum
at Mallacoota in five Sooty Owl Tvto tene-
bricosa pellets, of 14 examined.
Leahy ( 1 990) mentioned that on a previ-
ous expedition to the Nooramunga region,
the Fauna Survey Group recorded an
Eastern Pygmy-possum. Another record is
provided by Trainor (1992), who noted
that Mr R Brouwers had found two indi-
viduals in an area of burnt Box-Ironbark
forest (mixed stands of Eucalyptus spp.)
south of Maryborough. In a mammal sur-
vey of Sunday Island, South Gippsland, an
Eastern Pygmy-possum was pitfall -trapped
in an area of secondary sand dune bush-
land, with Saw Banksia B. serrata and
Manna Gum E. viminalis on the crest of
dunes, and Swamp Paperbark M. ericifolia
in the dune swales. Three more specimens
were captured during this survey in an area
of Banksia woodland, southwest of
Gumboot Flat (Myroniuk et al. 1993).
Quin (1996) undertook a mammal survey
in South Gippsland (Mullungdung and
Won Wron State Forests) and captured
eight Eastern Pygmy-possums (six individ-
uals) using Elliott traps, in two separate
sites: heathy woodland and rehabilitated
gravel scrape. An abundance of potential
food shrubs, including Tea Tree
Leptospermum continentale , occurred in
the scrape, but not Banksia. Quin suggest-
ed that Eastern Pygmy-possums might
have been taking advantage of fallen logs
present at this site as diurnal nesting sites.
Wallis et al. (1996) found traces of Eastern
Pygmy-possums in four of the 1,992 fox
scats collected from the Dandenong
Ranges National Park (0.2 per 100 scats
analysed). Thompson et al. (1998) reported
the most recent record of the Eastern
Pygmy-possum in The Victorian Naturalist
during a post-fire survey at Wilsons
Promontory. Here one individual was cap-
tured in an unburnt control site (25 years
fire age), near the western foot of Mount
Bishop, which was dominated by Coast
Beard- Heath Leucopogon parviflorus ,
Bushy Needlewood Hakea sericea , Dwarf
She-oak Allocasuarina pus ilia. Hairpin
Banksia B. spimilosa , Coast Tea-tree L.
laevigatum and Messmate Stringybark E.
obliqua.
Conclusion
The Victorian Naturalist contains around
1 10 distribution records of the Eastern
Pygmy-possum, excluding multiple
records from the same locality and exclud-
ing fossil records. These extend from 1802
to 1998, and cover some aspects of the
species’ discovery, life history, behaviour,
taxonomy, and habitat utilisation. Included
are the various vernacular names that have
been used for the Eastern Pygmy-possum,
and survey methods that have detected the
species. There are many additional
accounts of the species held in other jour-
nals, published and unpublished records in
the Atlas of Victorian Wildlife (-617
records), and specimens within museum
collections; although an unknown number
of these records are overlapping with those
presented here. Therefore, this paper pro-
vides a basis for crosschecking and recon-
ciling such information. Furthermore, it
demonstrates the value of an historical
review of species records published in The
Victorian Naturalist , particularly for elu-
sive or relatively poorly known species.
References
Anon (1890) The Zoological and Acclimatization
Society. The Victorian Naturalist 7, 51-52.
Anon (1011) Exhibits. The Victorian Naturalist 28, 4.
Anon (1062) Fauna Survey Group - March 1, 1962.
The Victorian Naturalist 78, 367-368.
Anon (1962) Front Cover Issue No.l. The Victorian
Naturalist 79, 1-3.
Anon (1963) Front Cover Issue No.4. The Victorian
Naturalist 80, 93-95.
Vol. 122 (3) 2005
149
Contributions
Anon (1965) Fauna Survey Group, Mammal Reports -
June, 1965. The Victorian Naturalist 82, 125-126.
Anon (1967) Fauna and flora of the
Powelltown/I abertouebe State Forest. The Victorian
Naturalist 84, 49.
Anon (1974) Early Naturalists’ Writing 5. The
Victorian Naturalist 91. 4- IS.
Anon (1975) Front cover Issue No. 3. The Victorian
Naturalist 92, 25-27.
Anon (1980) Mammal Survey Group Easter camp at
Strathbogie. The Victorian Naturalist 97, 137.
Anon (1988) FNCV Mammal Suney Group Annual
Report 1987-88. The Victorian Naturalist 105. 60-61.
Baines JA (1962) Fauna Survey Group - March 1,
1962. The Victorian Naturalist 78, 367-368,
Bocking JM (1939) The story of Twinkle. The
Victorian Naturalist 56, 1 34-135.
Bowen M and Goldingay RL (2000) Distribution and
status of the eastern pygmy possum ( Ccrcartctus
nanus) in New South Wales. Australian Mammalog}- ■
21, 153-164.
Chaffer N (1930a) The opossum mouse. The Victorian
Naturalist 47, 18-19.
Chaffer N (1930b) The opossum mouse ( Dromicia
nana). Austral an Zoologist 6, 109.
Conway K (1939) The life of Bluey. The Victorian
Naturalist 56. 133-4.
Deerson D, Dunn R, Spitall D and Williams P (1975)
Mammals of the Upper Lerderderg Valley. The
Victorian Naturalist 92. 28-43.
Fleay D (1932) The pigmy flying possum. The
Victorian Naturalist 49, 1 65-7 1 .
Fleay D (1935) The native fauna section Melbourne
Zoological gardens. The Victorian Naturalist 51,
217-224.
Forbes-Leith TA and Lucas AH (1884) Catalogue of
the fauna of Victoria. Vertebrates: Mammalia. The
Victorian Naturalist I, 4-6.
Galbraith J ( 1977) Pigmy possum. The Victorian
Naturalist 94, 82 -83.
Gilmore AM (1977) A survey of vertebrate animals in
the Stradbroke area of south Ciippsland, Victoria. The
Victorian Naturalist 94. 1 23 28.
Hall TS (1904) The genus Dromicia on the Australian
mainland. The Victorian Naturalist 20. 176.
Hampton JWF, Howard AF, Poynton ,1 and Barnett JL
(1982) Records of the Mammal Survey Group of
Victoria, 1906 80. on the distribution of terrestrial
mammals in Victoria. Australian Wildlife Research
9, 177-201.
Harris JM and Goldingay RL. I he distribution of fossil
and sub-fossil records of the Eastern Pygmy-possum
in Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist (In press).
Kershaw JA (1906) General /oology (except Molluscs]
in Excursion to Wilsons Promontory. The Victorian
Naturalist 22, 191-223.
Krefft G (1863) Description of a new species of (he
genus Dromicia discovered in the neighbourhood of
Sydney. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of
London 1863, 49-50.
Leahy J (1990) A trip to Nooramunga with the Fauna
Survey Group. The Victorian Naturalist 107, 109-
112.
Learmonth NF (1949) Monthly notes from Portland
F.N.C. The Victorian Naturalist 66, 40
Loyn R 1 1 , Traill BJ and Trigg* BE (1986) Prey of
Sooty Owls in East Gippsland before and after fire.
The Victorian Naturalist 103, 147-149.
Lumsden LF and Schulz M (1985) The mammals of
Gellions Run, South Gippsland. The Victorian
Naturalist 102. 4-16.
Marlow BJ (1958) A survey of the marsupials of New
South Wales. CSIRO Wildlife Research 3, 71-114.
McKay GM ( 1988) Burramyidae. In Zoological
Catalogue of Australia 5. Mammalia , pp. 98-102. JL
Bannister. JH Calabv. LJ Dawson, JK Ling, JA
Mahoney. G McKay, B.l Richardson, WDL Ride and
l)W Walton. (Australian Government Publishing
Serv ice: Canberra)
Menkhorst P and Seebeck J (1999) A list of native
mammals of Wilsons Promontory Notional Park. The
Victorian Naturalist 1 1 6, 26-27.
Myroniuk P, Grusovin J and Thompson R (1993)
Mammal survey of Sunday Island, South Gippsland,
Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist lit), 165-169.
Nicholls D and Meredith C (1984) Native mammals of
the Ml. I'itnbcrtop Region, north-eastern Victoria.
The Victorian Naturalist 101, 67-75.
O’Reilly B (1941) Green Mountains. (W.R. Smith and
Patterson Pty Ltd: Brisbane)
Quin HR (1996) New Holland mouse Pseudomvs
novaehoflandiue (Rodentia: Muridae) in South
Gippsland, southern Victoria. Part one distribution
and status. The Vic torian Naturalist 113. 236-246,
Thompson R, Myers S and Dsshpcr S (1998) Post-tire
colonisation ol heulhland by small vertebrate species
at Wilsons Promontory, Victoria. The Victorian
Naturalist 1 15. 343-349.
Trainer CR (1992) Vertebrate fauna ofPuddys Ranges
State Park. The Victorian Naturalist 109, 38—45.
Turner V and McKay GM (1989) Burramyidae. In
Fauna of Australia Volume IB f Mammalia , pp 652-
664. Ed DW Walton and BJ Richardson. (Australian
Government Publishing Sendee: Canberra)
Waite I.R (1904) The genus Dromicia in New South
Wales. Records of the Australian Museum 5, 1 34.
Wakefield NA (1960a) Recent mammal bones from the
Buchan district - 1. The Victorian Naturalist 77, 164-
178.
Wakefield NA ( 1960b) Recent mammal bones from the
Buchan district - 2. The Victorian Naturalist 77, 227-
240.
Wakefield NA (1963a) The Australian Pigmy-
Possums. The Victorian Naturalist 80, 99-116.
Wakefield NA (1963b) Mammal sub-fossils from near
Portland, Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist 80, 39-
45.
Wakefield NA (1963c) Mammal remains from the
Grampians. Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist 80,
130-133.
Wakefield NA (1964) Mammal sub-fossils from basalt
caves in south-western Victoria. The Victorian
Naturalist 80. 274-278.
Wakefield NA (1967a) Mammal bones in the Buchan
district. The Victorian Naturalist 84, 21 1-214.
Wakefield NA (1967b) Preliminary report on
McEachem’s Cave. S.W. Victoria. The Victorian
Naturalist 84, 363-383.
Wakefield NA ( 1 970) Notes on Australian Pigmy
Possums ( Cercartetus , Phalangeridae. Marsupial ia).
The Victorian Naturalist 87, 11-18.
Wallis RL, Brunner II and Seebeck JH (1996) Diet of
red foxes and cats: their impact on fauna living in
parks near Melbourne. The Victorian Naturalist 113,
301-305.
Wilson BA and Moloney 1)J (1985) Small mammals in
the Anglesea-Airey’s Inlet area of southern Victoria
- a post fire survey. The Victorian Naturalist 102,
65-70.
Wood Jones F (1925) A new South Australian
Dormouse Opossum. Transactions of the Royal
Society of South Australia 49, 96-98.
Received 25 November 2004; Accepted 16 March 2005
150
The Victorian Naturalist
Book Reviews
Tree Ferns
By Mark F Large and John E Braggins
Publisher: CSIRO Publishing, Collingwooci, Victoria 2004. 360 pages, hardback,
colour photographs. ISBN 0643090762. RRP $59.95
Tree ferns inspire the soul when encoun-
tered on a bush walk or found growing
luxuriantly in the sheltered corner of a
home garden. For some people, tree ferns
engender thoughts of the primeval swamps
and dinosaurs of ancient times, while for
others these spore-bearing non-flowering
plants are fascinating scientifically. In the
Foreword to this book, Professor David J
Mabberley acknowledges that:
‘Mark Large and John Braggins have pro-
duced a book to do justice to tree ferns:
there is nothing else like it. A guide to all the
known tree ferns is a must for fern gardener
and pteridologist alike, yet no one has ever
before attempted such a thing/
This well presented book provides a
wealth of information about tree ferns in a
very readable form. It is well researched,
with references frequently cited in the text,
and it contains an extensive bibliography.
The 131 colour plates, mostly showing tree
ferns growing in situ, are excellent, and
attest to the authors’ extensive travels
across the globe studying these ferns.
There are also several illustrations relating
to tree fern anatomy, and maps showing
distribution of genera. Technical terms
used in the book are explained clearly in
the glossary, while the index is user-friend-
ly and includes species synonyms.
Appendix 1 provides information regard-
ing tree ferns with nomenclatural prob-
lems, while Appendix 2 lists tree ferns by
geographic region, and Appendix 3 lists
selected tree ferns suitable for gardens.
The introduction defines the term ‘tree
fern’ and outlines distribution and history
of these ferns over evolutionary time. A
succinct, illustrated description of the tree
fern life cycle demystifies alternation of
generations, the sexual reproductive cycle
common to all plants. Anatomical features
of tree ferns are described along with sci-
entific and cultural snippets, which occur
throughout the book, giving it a satisfying
richness.
Conservation and trade in tree ferns is
discussed, with emphasis on those species
endangered through overexploitation or
loss of habitat. Use of tree ferns as food,
medicine and building materials is also
covered.
Chapter two describes many aspects of
the cultivation and propagation of tree
ferns. Technical aspects such as climate,
temperature, humidity, soils, moisture,
light and nutrition are dealt with, as well as
practical hints on topics such as frost pro-
tection and landscaping. Vegetative propa-
gation using trunk cuttings is described
and the mysteries of propagation from
spores is explained.
The diseases and pests of tree ferns are
discussed and the potential damage to
these ferns by some modern chemical
remedies is noted, as is damage due to var-
ious physiological factors.
The third and largest chapter of this book
discusses botanical nomenclature and the
use of molecular data and morphological
Vol. 122 (3) 2005
151
Book Reviews
studies to construct tree fern phylogenic
cladograms. The main tree fern families
and families containing ferns with short
trunks are highlighted. A tree fern key is
provided to family/genus and sometimes
clade level. This key requires a microscope
and. probably, some botanical knowledge
in order to be of maximum use, but the
uninitiated would soon learn and maximize
their value of the book because of its easy-
to-read style. Significant attention is given
to providing valuable taxonomic, descrip-
tive, cultural and distribution information
on each tree fern, enhanced at times with
distribution maps and anatomical draw-
ings, making the book ideal for the more
scientifically minded as well as the Tay’
person.
This comprehensive and very interesting
book is highly recommended for all.
Chris Tyshing
Plant Ecology Research Unit
School of Biological and Chemical Sciences
Deakin University, Burwood Victoria 3125
Herons, Egrets and Bitterns
Their biology and conservation in Australia
by Neil McKilligan
Publisher: CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Victoria, 2005. 144 pages,
paperback, illus. ISBN 0643091535. RRP $ 39.95
AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORT SfcRIEs]
HERONS, EGRETS
AND BITTERNS
Their biology and conservation in Australia
^ # Neil McKilligan
The author, Neil McKilligan, has
observed and studied the Australian
Ardeidae for many years and obviously
has a special empathy with the group. This
becomes clearly evident as one peruses
this small, information-packed volume,
which caters for both scientific and popu-
lar perceptions.
Until I examined this important natural
history book the best popular reference to
the Ardeidae available to me that included
all Australian species was The Herons
Handbook by Hancock and Kushlan
(1984). McKilligan cites this publication in
his ’References', His book, a monograph of
a special group of birds, the Ardeidae, now
supersedes and greatly updates the
Australian information in Hancock and
Kushlan, Fourteen resident species are
referred to and their biology is described in
detail. Six additional species are recorded
as 'occasional visitors'; four of these on dis-
tant offshore islands, and two, the Grey
Heron and the Yellow Bittern, on mainland
Australia. There are nine chapters: Herons
of the World; What makes herons differ-
ent?; The importance of herons;
Distribution, movements and longevity;
Feeding and food: Breeding; Population
numbers and conservation; Species resident
in Australia, and Occasional visitors. There
is also an extensive References section and
many excellent colour and black and white
photographs and sketches of birds, besides
numerous diagrams and maps.
152
The Victorian Naturalist
Book Reviews
Having myself observed all fourteen
species of the 'Resident Australian Herons'
referred to in this book, in locality and
habitat, and watched most of them at
length, I certainly agree with the author's
sentiments that they form striking mem-
bers of our avian fauna. For instance, the
White-faced Heron, a special favourite of
mine from early days, was once a common
species along the lower Yarra River valley
at Kew near Melbourne, Victoria. Winter
flocks of these picturesque birds occasion-
ally numbered up to fifty or more.
Nowadays the species is considerably
reduced in number in that area and the bird
observer can no longer expect a sighting of
even one White-faced Heron on a bird
ramble there. The main reason for its pre-
sent scarcity is the old story for it and oth-
ers of its kind, the reclamation of prime
habitat, swamps, billabongs and surrounds.
although the few White-faced Herons
remaining still have the edges of the Yarra
River to patrol. Even at Werribee numbers
arc down significantly although more suit-
able habitat is presently available there
than along the Yarra River valley.
Members of the Ardeidae are fascinating
birds to watch as they hunt and obtain food
items. Recently, March 26, 2005, at
Werribee I watched a White-faced Heron
stalking around in long glass. Suddenly its
bill disappeared into the vegetation and
reappeared clasping a fat mouse, which
was promptly swallowed whole.
This book is a credit to Neil McKilligan
It is a much desired and welcome addition
to Australian ornithological literature and
should be equally well accepted overseas.
Fred TH Smith
7 1 Cobden St
Kew, Victoria 3101
Australian Magpie: Biology and Behaviour
of an Unusual Songbird
by Gisela Kaplan
Publisher: UNSW Press and CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Victoria, 2004. 142 pages,
paperback. Ulus. ISBN 0643090681 . RRP $39.95
Australia has too few monographs on
birds, so this contribution on the
Australian Magpie is most welcome.
Importantly, so much of the information
in this book has been gathered at first hand
and deals with both wild and tame birds.
Additionally, it incorporates extensive
study by Kaplan’s colleagues. It \ .. repre-
sents the very first attempt to bring togeth-
er what we know about magpies to date.’
The 12-page list of References is an indi-
cation of just how thoroughly the subject
has been researched.
In the interests of serious researchers and
interested birdwatchers it is worthwhile not-
ing the chapter headings. These show the
extent of coverage devoted to this species,
and will enable those eager to learn more to
see at a glance if their particular need is
catered for. Subsections within each chapter
expand the subject matter under discussion.
The chapters are headed: Origin and classi-
fication; Anatomy; Diet and feeding habits;
Territoriality and dispersal; Bonding and
breeding; Physical and social development;
Agonistic and co-operative behaviour; Song
production; Communication and mimicry;
Magpies and humans; and the epilogue The
success of magpies.
In the light of current, exciting research,
‘Origin and classification’ should be com-
pulsory reading. This revision regarding
the importance of Australian birds in the
worldwide picture is riveting stuff.
The chapter on ‘Anatomy’ answers many
questions, not only on magpies, but on birds
in general. It sets out, succinctly, character-
istics common to all birds, e.g. how many
of us would have considered that ‘there are
about seven types of feet in birds/
It is very satisfying to learn how DNA
fingerprinting has destroyed all notions of
faithfulness in pair-bonded birds. It is now
/.. possible to isolate the DNA and estab-
Vol. 122 (3) 2005
153
Book Reviews
AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY SERIES
AUSTRALIAN
MAGPIE
Biology and Behaviour of an Unusual Songbird
lish paternity reliably, ... as a precondition
for social parenthood.’ (This is so topical
when applied to humans. Producing a fam-
ily tree these days can be a nightmare!).
Another valuable chapter, "Agonistic and
cooperative behaviour’ deals with a situa-
tion frequently encountered by the public.
The author explains, to the uninitiated, that
in ornithology agonistic behaviour (NOT
aggression) has developed "... to fulfil spe-
cific functions. ... It represents a well-
evolved strategy to enhance the chances of
survival either of an individual, a group or
of offspring. It ranges from mild warnings
to attack, usually in defence of offspring, a
mate, a food source or a territory or all of
them, as the need arises.’ Such behaviour
is common to many birds, and is vital for
the continuance of a species.
Many people have a set against magpies
because they misunderstand the birds'
behaviour. If all the exaggerated stories
and believe me, they grow in exaggeration
with each re-telling! - were to be credited,
these birds, as evil monsters, should be
destroyed. An understanding of the birds’
conduct would help alter the attitude of the
public.
Behaviour is one of the more readily
observed functions of bird life even if it is
not readily understood, and it provides
endless interest and speculation.
The excellent text is generously illustrated
with diagrams, black and white pho-
tographs, and eight pages of superb colour
photographs.
Don’t be put off by the indispensable sci-
entific data. A study of this book will have
everyone looking anew at this ubiquitous
bird.
It is a pleasure to bring it to the attention
of interested bird lovers.
Tess Kloot
8/1 14 Shannon St
Box Hill North, Victoria 3129
Nest Boxes for Wildlife: A Practical Guide
by Alan and Stacey Franks
Publisher: Bloomings Books, Melbourne, 2003. 12 pages, softcover;
colour photographs. ISBN
As the title suggests. Nest Boxes for
Wildlife: A Practical Guide is a book con-
cerned with instructing the reader how to
provide artificial shelter for native wildlife.
However, in addition to simply being a
"how-to’ guide, the pages also contain var-
ious interesting anecdotes and basic eco-
logical information for a variety of native
animal species. Consequently, the book is
1876473207. RRP $16.95
not only a practical guide for anyone wish-
ing to construct and install nest boxes, but
also an entertaining read in its own right.
Australia is home to a large number of
hollow-dependent animal species.
However, it is a sad reality that, as a result
of vegetation clearing, tree hollows have
become a limited resource in many envi-
ronments. This is especially true in
154
The Victorian Naturalist
Book Reviews
urbanised areas. The authors outline that,
although nest boxes should never be seen
as a substitute for natural hollows, they are
a viable alternative in such areas. Not only
do nest boxes provide shelter for various
species, they can also provide people with
the opportunity to learn about hollow-
dependent fauna.
The book provides brief accounts for
native species most likely to be encoun-
tered in nest boxes. These include a wide
variety of birds (e.g. Rainbow Lorikeet,
Australian King Parrot, Wood Duck) and
mammals (e.g. Common Brushtail Possum,
Sugar Glider, microbats). The species
accounts include a combination of general
ecological information and information
specific to nest box use. Introduced species
likely to use nest boxes are also discussed
(e.g. the Common Mynah and feral Honey
Bees), including tips for eviction.
For those wishing to construct and install
their own nest boxes, this book would be a
valuable resource. In addition to providing
tips on what species to target, the book
outlines what tools/equipment are needed
to build boxes, what materials should be
used in construction, and what the impor-
tant dimensions are for various species
(e.g. the depth of the chamber from the
bottom of the entrance hole, the diameter
of the entrance hole, and the height above
ground at which the box should be placed).
Detailed (but easy to follow) plans are also
provided for nest boxes suitable for vari-
ous species. These plans should be suffi-
cient to allow someone with limited car-
pentry skills to successfully construct a
nest box. Information is also provided on
how to effectively and safely attach nest
boxes to trees, and how to monitor nest
boxes once installed.
The book contains a large number of
high quality colour photographs, mostly of
animals in and around nest boxes and hol-
lows. These photographs provide detail for
many species and will inspire readers to
install nest boxes so that they too can have
such beautiful wildlife in their backyards.
The book is further enhanced by the inclu-
sion of a variety of poems and quotes from
authors as famous and well respected as
AB "Banjo1 Paterson and David Fleay.
This book will probably answer all the
questions you ever had about wildlife nest
boxes. It is informative and entertaining,
while also providing much practical
advice. It is well written and can be easily
read in an hour or two. However, for those
committed to enhancing their local envi-
ronment via the installation of nest boxes,
it will no doubt be a valuable reference for
years to come.
Greg J Holland
School of Ecology and Environment
Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway
Burwood, Victoria 3125
Vol. 122 (3) 2005
155
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In which is incorporated the Microscopical Society of Victoria
Understanding our natural world
Membership is open to any person interested in natural history and includes
beginners as well as experienced naturalists.
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Naturalist
Volume 122 (4)
August 2005
Published by The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria since 1884
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August
The
Naturalist
Volume 122 (4) 2005
Editors: Anne Morton, Gary Presland, Maria Gibson
From the editors 158
Research Report The distribution of fossil and sub-fossil records of the Eastern
Pygmy -possum Cercartetus nanus in Victoria, by Jamie M Harris
and Ross L Gotdingay * 160
Contributions The density and distribution of cattle and horse dung in
Pretty Valley, Bogong High Plains, by David Meagher 171
Ecology of the endangered Southern Shepherd’s Purse
Ballantinia antipoda (Brassicaceae) and the associated moss mat
community on Mount Alexander, by JE Seidel . GJ Ambrose,
SK Florentine and ME Wilson 179
Observations of the ecological impacts of Sambar Cenms unicolor in
East Gippsland, Australia, with reference to destruction of rainforest
communities, by Bill Peel , Rohan J Bilney and Roger J Bilney 189
Tribute Robert Graham Taylor, 5 June 1941-17 May 2005,
by Raymond Gibson and Russell Thompson 201
Naturalist Notes Unusual ‘outbreaks’ of a diatom (Tabellaria flocculosa) in the
Australian Alps, by Keith L McDougall and Brett A Summerell 202
Bush creatures: animals observed on a Tbyptomene shrub,
by Virgil Hubregtse 204
Observations of movements of Water Rats Hydromys chiysogaster
on Cat island, Fumeaux Group, Bass Strait, Tasmania,
by Jenny A Wilson and Andrew R. Duffell 209
A road-killed exotic snake in a Melbourne suburb, by Nick Cleeman .212
Book Reviews Where river meets sea: Exploring Australia’s estuaries,
by L Turner, D Tracey, J Tilden and WC Dennison, reviewed
by Brian Finlayson 213
In search of sustainability, edited by J Goldie, B Douglas and
B Furness, reviewed by Bill Pemberton 215
Fungi Down Under, by P and E Grey, reviewed by Sarah Lloyd 216
A Field Guide to Australian Fungi, by B Fuhrer, reviewed
by Sarah Lloyd 4 * 2 1 7
The Complete Field Guide to Australian Butterflies, by M F Braby,
reviewed by Ross Field 218
The Darling, edited by R Breckwoldt, R Boden and J Andrew,
reviewed by An neke Veens tra-Quah 219
ISSN 0042-5184
Cover: Hoverfly Melangyna sp. Photograph by Virgil Hubregtse. See article on p. 204.
Web address: http://www.vicnet.net.au/~fncv/vicnat.htm
Email vicnat@vicnet.net.au
Research Report
The distribution of fossil and sub-fossil records of the
Eastern Pygmy-possum Cercartetus nanus in Victoria
Jamie M Harris' and Ross L Goldingay1
Abstract
The Eastern Pygmy-possum Cercartetus nanus has a variable status throughout its current geograph-
ic range. Investigating its prehistoric range may provide some perspective into its current distribution
and abundance. We reviewed available information from the published literature and museum data-
bases to document the fossil and sub-fossil sites in Victoria where bones of the species have been
reported. This revealed 17 sites of late Pleistocene and Holocene age ranging from ca. 780 ± 100 to
>33 000 years. The fossils from five sites (Bridgewater Caves South; Clogg’s Cave; McEachern’s
Cave; McEachern's Deathtrap Cave and Pyramids Cave) are dated at >10 000 years, and extend
from the far south-west to the far east of Victoria. The Steiglit/. Cave (<6 000 years), located in
south-central Victoria, provides evidence that Eastern Pygmy-possums were also present in that area
in the mid-Holocene. The apparent prehistoric distribution of the species is likely to be an artifact of
the availability of fossil sites. The fossil localities for the Eastern Pygmy-possum appear to be within
the distribution of extant populations, and the available evidence does not suggest a contraction of
geographic range. This may suggest that the available habitat for Eastern Pygmy-possums has not
changed to any great extent during the last 10 000 years. Thus, this study provides a preliminary
basis for examining modem contractions in the range of the Eastern Pygmy-possum, whether due to
climate change, proximate anthropogenic disturbances, or other factors. {The Victorian Naturalist 122
(4), 2005, 160-170)
Introduction
The Eastern Pygmy-possum Cercartetus
nanus (family Burramyidae) is a small (15-
38 g) marsupial occurring along the south-
eastern seaboard of mainland Australia and
in Tasmania. It inhabits a range of vegeta-
tion communities including wet and dry
eucalypt forest, Banksia woodland and
heathland. Currently, it is officially classed
as ‘Vulnerable' in New South Wales
(NSW) and in South Australia (SA), but
‘not threatened' in Victoria, Queensland
and Tasmania. Information on the modern
distribution of the species in Victoria, NSW
and SA (Menkhorst 1995; Bowen and
Goldingay 2000; van Weenen 2002) has
been assessed more recently and thoroughly
than in Queensland (Van Dyck and
Longmore 1991 ) and Tasmania (Rounsevell
et at. 1991 ). However, data on its fossil dis-
tribution are poorly documented and have
not been reviewed for any State.
This situation contrasts with the
Mountain Pygmy-possum Burramys
parvus , which has a famous history as a
‘living fossil’ (Anon 1966a,b; Lane and
Richards 1967).
The Mountain Pygmy-possum was first
discovered as a fossil in 1895 at
'School of Environmental Science and Management,
Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW, 2480.
Corresponding author. Email: jharril l@scu.edu.au
Wombeyan Caves in NSW (Broom 1896;
Ride 1960) and subsequently collected
from Pyramids Cave in eastern Victoria
(Wakefield 1960a). It was believed extinct
until one was captured alive in 1966 in a
ski hut at Mount Hotham, Victoria
(Epstein 1981). Apart from its celebrated
discovery, the species is also well known
because of its endangered status, and
because it is an example of how the fossil
record can be used to inform conservation
perspectives (Broome and Mansergh 1989;
Brammall 1993; Mansergh and Broome
1994). Archer et at. (1991) noted that
Cercartetus Pygmy-possums also appear
to have declined in distribution. However,
whether the Eastern Pygmy-possum
specifically has suffered a range decline of
a similar magnitude to that reported for the
Mountain Pygmy-possum is unclear.
Therefore, the primary aims of this study
were to; ( 1 ) map the point occurrences of
Victorian fossil and sub-fossil Eastern
Pygmy-possum Cercartetus nanus ; and (2)
relate these localities to its modern distrib-
ution. Secondary aims w'ere to document
the reported ages for the fossil material,
the agent/s responsible for their accumula-
tion, and the frequency of Eastern Pygmy-
possums collected from each of the sites.
160
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Report
Methods
A literature search of lists of mammalian
fossil and sub-fossil deposits was conduct-
ed to obtain records of the Eastern Pygmy-
possum. Papers by Archer and Hand
(1984) and Rich (1991) assisted with this.
Enquiries were also made at Museum
Victoria and the Australian Museum to
ascertain the source of Victorian Eastern
Pygmy-possum material held in their
palaeontological collections (642+ speci-
mens and 0 specimens respectively). The
co-ordinates of the cave sites were deter-
mined using the Geoscience Australia
online mapping place-name search and by
correspondence with members of the
Australian Speleological Federation
(ASF). However, the co-ordinates for one
Victorian cave remain unknown.
Beehive Cave, as it is referred to in the
Museum Victoria database, apparently
occurs in the Bats Ridge area, near
Portland, but we found no mention of it in
the literature reviewed. The Karst Index
Database (KID), maintained by the ASF,
has no entry for a ‘Beehive Cave’ from
Victoria, therefore it may be a local name
or one assigned at the time on account of a
beehive being at the entrance (M Pierce
2004 pers. comm. 1 1 December). It is like-
ly that the cave is one of the now numbered
caves, but to suggest which one would
require more information on the where-
abouts of the subject cave and/or other
nearby features. The fossil material collect-
ed from Beehive Cave forms part of the
Wakefield collection at Museum Victoria.
The Curator of Vertebrate Palaeontology,
Tom Rich, advised that Wakefield provided
brief, often cryptic, labelling of specimens,
and the only locality data available are
those with the specimens, as recorded in
the museum database, and with the papers
that Wakefield published. Therefore, for
Beehive Cave we have had to assign
approximate co-ordinates.
There may, potentially, be some confu-
sion associated with the Natural Bridge (H-
10) locality, referred to by Wakefield
(1964a) as near Mount Eceles. In the spele-
ological literature (Matthews 1985), this
cave is referred to as ‘Natural Arch1 and/or
‘Gothic Cave1, and the term ‘Natural
Bridge1 seems mainly to appear on Parks
Service (Parks Victoria) maps (M Pierce
2004 pers. comm. 1 1 December). It could
easily be mistaken for Bridge Cave (H-13),
which is at Byaduk, and the Australian
Karst Index records that Bridge Cave ‘con-
tains bones; important for paleontology1
(Matthews 1985). However, Byaduk is a
distinct and separate locality from Mount
Eccles with the lava flows originating from
separate volcanoes (Mount Napier and
Mount Eccles respectively).
Definitions of Holocene (10 000 ya -
present). Pleistocene (1.75 mya - 10 000
ya), and Tertiary' (1.75 mya - 65 mya) fol-
low Long et al. (2002). The body mass of
small mammals referred to follows
Menkhorst and Knight (2001). Modern
records of Eastern Pygmy-possums were
extracted from the Atlas of Victorian
Wildlife (maintained by the Department of
Sustainability and Environment), and use
of a Geographic Information System (GIS)
allowed the estimation of distances
between modern and fossil records.
Results
Fossil and sub-fossil Eastern Pygmy-pos-
sums have been reported from 17 sites
(Table 1). These were caves and/or rock
shelters varying in size and origin. M-27,
M-28 and Pyramids are caves formed
within Early Devonian limestone in the
vicinity of the Murrindal River, and Mabel
Cave and Clogg’s Cave are within similar
substrates at East Buchan (Matthews
1985). The Victoria Range site, in the
Grampians, is a rock shelter around 1 m
wide and 3 m long occurring in sandstone
( Wakefield 1963d). Black Range is also in
the Grampians sandstone (Wakefield
1963d, 1969a), but its features have not
been systematically recorded by
cavers/speleologists in Victoria (M Pierce
2004 pers. comm. 1 1 December). Fern
Cave, near Portland, occurs in Tertiary
limestone and the dimensions of its cham-
ber are approximately 18 m long, 12 m
wide, and 9 m high (Matthews 1985). Also
derived from Tertiary limestone is
Amphitheatre Cave (Baird 1992), which
has a vertical range of around 1 8 m, and a
horizontal extent of 50 m long and 30 m
wide (Matthews 1985). McEachern’s Cave
is formed in an Oligocene-Miocene
Limestone, and is approximately 60 m
long (Hope and Wilkinson 1982). The
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
161
Research Report
Table 1. Location and frequency of Eastern Pvgmy-possum remains in Victorian Holocene and
Late Pleistocene cave deposits.
Cave No. - Alphanumeric identification system assigned to caves by the Australian Speleological
Federation (Matthews 1985). Origin: OP= Owl Pellet. MS= Mammal ScaL, PF= Pitfall. Total ~
Minimum number of individuals of all non-volant mammals in the deposit, and ( ) - number of ter-
restrial mammal species present MNI - Minimum number of individual Eastern Pygmy-possums
present. % ■- Percentage occurrence of Eastern Pygmy-possums calculated as MNI/Total x 100. The
sites are listed in approximate order of age. w ith undated sites listed first. A dash (-) indicates that
the data are unknown or not available. The age of the material is years before present (yr BP) ascer-
tained either by radiocarbon dating as detailed by Lundelius (1983), or as provided by the source
indicated. Sources: 1 W Gerdtz (Museum Victoria) pers. comm., Wakefield 1963d, Wakefield
1964a, 1 Wakefield 1964b, Wakefield 1963b, " Wakefield 1972, 7 Baird 1991, Baird 1992, ''
Wakefield 1960a, 1 Hope 1973, 11 Peake el a/. 1993, 12 Kos 2001, ' Kos 2003, " Godwin 1980, 15
Lourandos 1983, 16 Lundelius 1983, 17 Wakefield 1967b, ,K Wakefield 1969a. |,J Wakefield 1969b, 20
Link 1967, 21 Hope and Wilkinson 1982, ' Wakefield 1960b, Wakefield 1967a.
Site Name
Cave No.
Origin
Total
MNI
%
Age (yr BP)
Beehive Cave1
_
_
_
100+
_
_
Victoria Range2
-
OP
402(19)
75
18.7
-
Natural Bridge24
H-10
OP, MS
1573 (24)
28
1.8
_
Flowerpot Cave2
H-19
OP
89(18)
2
-
-
Harman Two2
H-12
OP, MS
323 (22)
16
-
-
Black Range2
-
-
-(5)
1-2
-
780+ 100
Fern Cave3-5-6
K.B-1
PF, OP
1552 (33)
18
1.2
3 000 to 4 000
Amphitheatre
G-2
PF
-
102
-
4 670 ± 90
Cave17*
M-27l>'10
M-27
MS
878 (-)
43
4.9
<5000
M-28‘M0
M-28
MS
552 (-)
16
2.9
<5000
Mabel Cave7-9-10
EB-1
OP, MS
1380 (-)
69
5.0
<5000
Steiglitz Cave11
-
OP
90 (20)
2
2.2
<6000
McEachern’s
Deathtrap Cave1212
G-49
PF
-(29)
18
-
11 700+ 160 to
9 840 ± 290
Bridgewater Cave
P-9
OP
611 (13)
45
7.4
<11 390 + 310
South1415
Clogg’s Cave10,16
EB-2
OP, MS
1374 (29)
26
1.9
22 980 ± 2 000 to
13 690 + 350
McEachem’s
Cave«w*.wr
G-5
PF
2260 (47)
67
3.0
25 580+ 850 to
15 200 + 320
Pyramids
Cave 6-9,I0; 1*-18--.-'5
M-89
OP, MS
10796(31)
1125
10.4
>33 000 to
2 530 ± 90
nearby McEachem's Deathtrap Cave has a
total surveyed length of about 122 m,
although this is only about 80% of the total
length (Ackroyd 1994). The Harman Two
and Flowerpot Cave (part of the Byaduk
Caves system near Hamilton) and Natural
Bridge (near Mount Eceles) occur on the
volcanic plains (Tertiary basalt), while
Beehive Cave in the Bat Ridges Area, west
of Portland, is formed on Quaternary aeo-
lian limestone (Matthews 1985).
Bridgewater Cave South is essentially an
open rock shelter developed in an exposed
calcarenite bluff (M Pierce 2004 pers.
comm. 1 1 December). Steiglitz Cave in the
Brisbane Ranges of southern Victoria is
formed within an anticline of tightly folded
and uplifted Ordovician shale, and is
approximately 8 m deep by 6 m wide (LE
Conole 2004 pers. comm. 1 2 October).
The minimum number of individuals
(MNI) contained in the cave/rockshelter
bone deposits was typically ascertained by
counts of dentaries (lower jaw bones) or
their fragments, and/or other skeletal ele-
ments. This permitted the size and frequen-
cy of the Eastern Pygmy- possum collection
to be compiled for most sites (Table 1). For
example, at Pyramids Cave, an extensive
deposit was collected (3 1 terrestrial mam-
mal species; 10 796 individuals), and the
Eastern Pygmy-possum was present in large
numbers (MNM 125). Fourteen caves pro-
duced >10 individual Eastern Pygmy-pos-
sums, although the percentage occurrence
for each cave differed considerably. At only
162
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Report
two caves (Pyramids and Victoria Range)
did the percentage occurrence exceed 10%.
None of these fossils was pre-
Pleistocene, but the reported age of the
material ranges from 780 ± 100 years
(Black Range deposit) to >33 000 years
(Pyramids Cave). There are also five
undated deposits (Table 1). The oldest
deposits from five sites are reported to be
older than 10 000 years (Bridgewater
Caves South; Clogg’s Cave; McEachem’s
Cave; McEachern’s Deathtrap Cave and
Pyramids Cave). The caves occur in the far
southwest and near Buchan in eastern
Victoria (Fig. 1 ).
The deposits were reported to be the
result of a natural pitfall where animals fell
into the cave and became trapped (e.g.
McEachem’s Deathtrap Cave), or accumu-
lations of regurgitated owl pellets (e.g.
Bridgewater Cave South), or as a result of
accrual of coprolites (fossil scats) of mam-
malian predators (e.g. some material from
Clogg’s Cave) (Table 1). Owls were attrib-
uted as the principal accumulating agent
for most caves, but the identity of the owl
species concerned for the various roost
sites is ambiguous. For Pyramids and
Mabel Caves, the late John Calaby consid-
ered that the Barn Owl Tyto alba and the
Masked Owl T. novaehollcmdiae were the
only candidates (correspondence cited in
Wakefield 1960b). However, Wakefield
(1960b) thought it unlikely that the smaller
Barn Owl would be capable of handling
some of the larger mammals found in the
deposits, such as Short-nosed Bandicoot
Isoodon obesulus (500-1500 g) and
Common Ringtail Possum Pseudocheirus
peregrinus (660-900 g). Other owls were
considered, such as the Powerful Owl
Ninox stremta , Barking Owl N. connivens
and Sooty Owl T. tenebricosa , but were
rejected on the basis of available informa-
tion on their habitat and diet (Wakefield
1960b). Also considering the proportions
of various species represented, Wakefield
deduced that the owl responsible was the
Masked Owl.
At the Flowerpot Cave and Victoria
Range, the Masked Owl was also consid-
ered to be the accumulating agent
(Wakefield 1963d, 1964a, 1969a). In con-
trast, Fern Cave was noted as both a death-
B lack Range ^ - * * ,
Victoria Range % ■
^ Fern Cave vByaduk Caves • \
* /_ Natural Bridge SteigHtecave*
’ - - - ^
Beehive Cave • 3
Bridgewater Cave South ‘
Amphitheatre Caves
McEachem's Cave
McEachem's Deathtrap Cave
1 ^3*
Cloggs Cave -•$
Mabel Cave •* l
mV
\
Pyramids Cave
M-27
M-28
N
Fig. 1. Prehistoric and modern distribution of the Eastern Pygmy-possum in Victoria. Modern
records are derived from the Atlas of Victorian Wildlife. Black dots indicate modern records.
Diamonds indicate fossil sites with Eastern Pygmy-possum.
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
163
Research Report
trap and an owl roost, but Wakefield
(1963b) suggested that the Eastern Pygmy-
possum and other small agile species such
as the Feather-tailed Glider Acrobates pyg-
maeus (10-14 g) and the Sugar Glider
Petaurus breviceps (90-150 g) would have
been able to escape.
For Fern Cave, Wakefield more cautious-
ly implicated owls of the genus Tyto,
rather than specifically identifying the owl
species concerned. This was probably
because of the discovery of both Masked
Owl and Bam Owl cave deposits in south-
western Victoria (Wakefield 1963b). In
relation to Harman Two and Natural
Bridge, Wakefield (1964a) notes them as
mixed prey assemblages, resulting from
the action of both owls and quolls
( Dasyurus spp.), but suggests that the main
part of the deposits may have been the
responsibility of the Barn Owl (see also
revision of the published article in
Wakefield 1969a). Flowever, whether
avian or mammalian predators, or both,
were responsible for the remains of
Eastern Pygmy-possum specifically was
not addressed, and cannot be determined
without re-examination of the material.
The fossil localities identified for the
Eastern Pygmy-possum allows its known
paleodistribution to be mapped (Fig. 1 ).
This reveals the tendency for the fossil
sites to occur in groups, with the main
groupings being from the limestone forma-
tion near Buchan in eastern Victoria, and
the basalt/limestone caves and sandstone
rock shelters of southwestern Victoria.
There was also a fossil site (Steiglitz Cave,
Brisbane Ranges) reported for south-cen-
tral Victoria, which was well separated
from those in eastern and western Victoria.
There are many fossil cave sites in south-
ern Victoria where the Eastern Pygmy-pos-
sum appears to be absent. The fossil sites
identified for Eastern Pygmy-possum coin-
cide with its present distribution, as mod-
ern records are present within 0 - 27 km of
the fossil records. That is, there is a mod-
ern Eastern Pygmy-possum population in
the immediate vicinity of McEachern's
Deathtrap Cave (AM Kos 2005 pers.
comm. 9 January) and both McEachertfs
Cave and Amphitheatre Cave are nearby.
The nearest modern record to Pyramids
and Clogg’s Caves is at Nowa Nowa,
which is 22 km SSW. Other nearby
records include Balmoral (6 km SSE of
Black Range), Cavendish (2 km W of
Victoria Range), Mount Richmond (10 km
ESE of Fern Cave), Cashmore (5 km NNE
of Bridgewater Cave South). Portland
(near Beehive Cave), Hey wood (41 and 27
km SW from Byaduk Caves and Natural
Bridge respectively), and Dereel (28 km
WNW from Steiglitz Cave).
Discussion
Accumulating agents and biases of the
assemblages
Animal remains may accumulate in caves
by: (1) animals living and dying in caves:
(2) animals falling in by accident; (3) ani-
mals taken into caves by predators; or (4)
animal bones transported into caves after
death (Andrews 1990). The McEachern’s
Cave (G-5) and the similarly named
McEachertfs Deathtrap Cave (G-49) con-
tain examples of fossil assemblages where
animals have fallen into the cave by acci-
dent and been trapped. These natural pit-
falls have claimed numbers of the Eastern
Pygmy-possum, and many other species of
small mammals (Wakefield 1967b; Kos
2003). However, the fossil samples recov-
ered from these caves are biased and as
such may not reflect the presence or abun-
dance of animals that have lived in that
area over a defined period of time. Pitfall
caves are selective in capturing fauna, and
some taxa may be over-represented or
under-represented, depending on factors
such as the size and nature of the entrance
holes, the ground cover immediately sur-
rounding them, and on various aspects of
the life history and activity patterns of the
different species (Andrews 1990).
The Eastern Pygmy-possum appears to
be susceptible to capture in pitfall caves,
evidenced by its common occurrence in G-
5 and G-49, and during pitfall trapping or
in pipeline trenches in some modem fauna
surveys (Bennett et at. 1988; Bowen and
Goldingay 2000; Doody ei ai 2003).
The fossil investigators suggested that for
1 1 caves, most of the small mammal bones
were brought in by predators such as cave-
dwelling owls and carnivorous marsupials
(see also Lundelius 1966; Hope 1973;
Andrews 1990; Baird 1991). However, the
composition of the prey assemblages may
164
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Report
be highly biased and not representative of
the true relative abundance of the con-
stituent species from a past community.
This is because of the selectivity of differ-
ent predators (Dodson and Wexlar 1979;
Baird 1991), by the different ways in
which predators eat and digest their prey
(Andrews and Evans 1983; Marshall 1986;
Andrews 1990; Geering 1990), differential
fragmentation and disappearance rates of
the remains of different prey species
(Garvey 1999) and temporal variability of
populations (Peterson 1977). There are
other taphonomic (preservation) biases in
the fossil record as well, but limitation of
space precludes detailed discussion. Due to
the biases and/or limitations, in this study
we have not attempted to make compar-
isons between the various assemblages or
to interpret the reported abundance of
Eastern Pygmy-possums retrieved from the
deposits. We note that for several caves
(EB-2; G-5; G-49; M-89; P-9), the recov-
ery of fossil material accounted for the fre-
quency of small mammals in different
stratigraphic units. Wakefield (1963a,
1969a, 1972) advanced an hypothesis in
which the taxonomic composition and pro-
portions of species present in various layers
could be attributed to climatic and vegeta-
tion changes, which have occurred in the
localities during the period of deposition of
the bones (see also Hope 1973; Hope and
Wilkinson 1982; Lundelius 1983). The
accumulating agent may have shown a con-
sistent bias, and temporal changes in com-
position may reflect real changes.
Identity of the predatory accumulators
Owls are known to be major contributors
to the fossil record of small vertebrates,
and it is likely they were responsible for
much of the bone recovered from the cave
sites referred to, because of the characteris-
tic sausage-like ‘casts’ (Drummond 1963)
and the presence of whole skulls
(Wakefield 1960a). The recording of rock
ledges used as daytime roosting places for
owls in Mabel Cave, Pyramids Cave,
Flowerpot Cave and Victoria Range
(Wakefield 1960b, 1963d, 1964a) and the
observation of a live Masked Owl in
Clogg’s Cave (McKean 1963) and a
Southern Boobook N. novaeseelandtae in
both Flowerpot Cave and Natural Bridge
(Wakefield 1964a), also tend to support
this conclusion.
The specific identity of the owls responsi-
ble is unclear. Baird (1991) re-examined
quantitative data from Pyramids Cave (and
several other cave deposits) and contrary to
Wakefield (1960a, 1960b), concluded that
the Barn Owl was most likely responsible
for many of the cave deposits in south-east-
ern Australia. However, the Eastern
Pygmy-possum has not been reported from
studies of the contemporary diet of the
Barn Owl (Morton 1975; Rose 1996a;
Higgins 1999), and as the Bam Owl mainly
forages in open country for terrestrial prey,
we believe that it would rarely encounter
the Eastern Pygmy-possum, which seems
to prefer dense habitats (Wakefield 1 963c;
Harris and Goldingay 2005).
At Steiglitz Cave, the Masked Owl was
reported responsible for the small mammal
remains found there (Peake et al. 1993).
This deposit was compared with a Masked
Owl assemblage from Tasmania (Geering
1 990), and a strong correlation between the
two assemblages was found in terms of
prey size and age structure. Peake et al.
(1993) considered the Barn Owl but
excluded the likelihood of this species
being responsible for the fossilized pellets,
based on the range and size of prey recov-
ered from the cave. They also made a reap-
praisal of the Pyramids Cave data set
(Wakefield 1960a, 1960b), and based on
knowledge of the habits of the prey species,
and the foraging and dietary preferences of
the owls, they supported Wakefield’s view
that the Masked Owd was responsible for
the deposit at Pyramids Cave. However,
Peake el al. (1993) may have been unaware
of the quantitative analyses undertaken by
Baird (1991), as his research was not
specifically referred to.
As Eastern Pygmy-possums are arboreal
and nocturnal, they would be favoured prey
for many owrl species that occur within the
forest, woodland and heath habitats of the
subject species. For example, there are mod-
em records of the species falling prey to the
Masked Owl (Mooney 1992, 1993), Sooty
Owl (Loyn et al. 1986; Hollands 1991;
Lundie-Jenkins 1993; Kavanagh and
Jackson 1997; Kavanagh 2002). Barking
Owl (Menkhorst et al. 1 984), and Southern
Boobook (Green et al. 1986; Rose 1996b; S.
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
165
Research Report
Debus pers. comm.). The Eastern Pygmy-
possum is clearly susceptible to predation by
these species and they are all known to roost
in caves, albeit to varying extents (McKean
1963; Marshall 1986: Hollands 1991; Chafer
1992; Higgins 1999).
The authors feel that the possible
involvement of any or all of these species
in accumulating the deposits should not be
immediately discounted, as it has previous-
ly, and that positive identification of the
avian accumulator/s for each of the
deposits remains equivocal. Hence, as
noted by Chafer (1992) and other authors,
caution should be exercised if attempting
to assign a cave deposit of owl pellets to
any particular owl species.
Several caves (M-27, M-28, Mabel Cave,
Harman Two, Natural Bridge and
Flowerpot) contained some highly fragment-
ed bone material that was characteristic of
prey of a small carnivore, such as the
Eastern Quo 1 1 Dasvurus viverrinus (syn. D.
quoll) (0. 7-2.0 kg) or the Spotted-tailed
Quoll D. maculatus (1.5-7 kg) (Wakefield
1960a, 1964a, 1964b; Baird 1991). The
bones of these predatory species were also
found in a number of the deposits, although
the Eastern Quoll was collected more fre-
quently than the Spotted-tailed Quoll
(Mansergh 1983). Both species have been
implicated as accumulators of the fossil
material, but it is difficult to substantiate
whether one or both species were involved
at the relevant deposits. It appears that an
introduced predatory species (e.g. the Red
Fox Vulpes vulpes ) (3. 5-8.0 kg) was not
involved because of the absence of other
introduced species (e.g. the European Rabbit
Orveto/agus euniculus) (1.0-2. 4kg)
(Drummond 1963). but the possibility
remains that parts of some deposits were due
to the Tasmanian Devil Sarcophilus harhsii
(7. 0-9.0 kg). Remains of this species were
also found in several deposits (Wakefield
1963b, 1967a), and it is believed that the
Tasmanian Devil was responsible for at least
part of the accumulation from Clogg’s Cave
(Hope 1973; Flood 1974). While there are
modem records of the Eastern Pygmy-pos-
sum falling prey to both Quolls and Devils
(Guiler 1970; Belcher 1995), the published
accounts of the fossil deposits do not permit
assessment of the relative contribution of
these predators to the accumulations.
Past and present distribution of the
Eastern Pygmy-possum
As far as is known, the 1 7 cave deposits
referred to comprise the Victorian Eastern
Pygmy-possum fossil record. The localities
are well separated between far south-west-
ern Victoria, the Brisbane Ranges and near
Buchan in eastern Victoria. The record sug-
gests that in the Holocene and late
Pleistocene, the Eastern Pygmy-possum
was widely distributed in southern Victoria,
as it is today, or alternatively, the species
may have had a disjunct range in prehis-
toric times. This raises questions about the
areas of origin of this species and its subse-
quent dispersal through Victoria. It would
appear that present evidence is insufficient
to allow definitive answers, and we empha-
sise that fossil localities for the Eastern
Pygmy-possum are dependent on the pres-
ence of suitable caves as preservation sites,
and consequently the fossil record is both
incomplete and biased. In addition, more
information on its distribution is obviously
available for modern than for prehistoric
populations. However, the available infor-
mation does not indicate that the northern
plains are part of the present or past distrib-
ution, although this probably reflects the
paucity of caves in northwestern Victoria,
as well as the unsuitability of modern habi-
tats for the species in that region.
It would appear that the fossil localities
identified have nearby records from extant
populations, and at this juncture, the evi-
dence does not suggest any striking contrac-
tion of geographic range as reported for the
Mountain Pygmy-possum (Broome and
Mansergh 1989). This could be due to wider
ecological tolerances and/or a wider geo-
graphic range of the Eastern Pygmy-possum
than that of the Mountain Pygmy-possum.
Although more than 700 caves of varying
dimensions have been recorded for
Victoria (Matthews 1985), only a small
proportion contain mammal bones, and
fewer still contain the remains of the
Eastern Pygmy-possum. At the time of this
study, it appears that Eastern Pygmy-pos-
sums have not been collected from
deposits other than those of Holocene and
Late Pleistocene age reported in this paper.
Without documenting the distribution and
composition of all fossil-bearing caves in
Victoria (but see Horton 1984 p. 645; KID;
166
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Report
Museum Victoria database), it appears that
the Eastern Pygmy-possum is absent from
the much older Tertiary mammal fauna
localities (Rich 1991).
An example of a cave where the species
was not found, but may have been expect-
ed to be present, is the main lava cave at
Mount Hamilton, 177 km west of
Melbourne. Wakefield (1963a, 1963b)
reported that Mount Hamilton is believed
to have been a death-trap cave, ‘similar in
operation1 to Fern Cave. The reason why
the Eastern Pygmy-possum was found at
Fern Cave but not at Mount Hamilton is
unknown. Both were primarily death-trap
caves, and both have yielded a variety and
abundance of small mammals, including
representatives of the families Dasyuridae,
Peramelidae, Phalangeridae, Potoroidae,
Macropodidae, and Muridae (Wakefield
1963b). The discrepancy may indicate that
the Eastern Pygmy -possum was absent
from the Mount Hamilton area during the
period of deposition, that this natural pit-
fall was catch-deficient for the species, or
neither of these hypotheses.
The age of the fossil and sub-fossil mater-
ial ranges from late Pleistocene to recent.
Several deposits (McEachern’s Cave,
McEachern's Deathtrap Cave; Pyramids
Cave, Clogg's Cave and Bridgewater Cave
South) are dated at more than 10 000 years.
However, the accuracy and reliability of
some of the reported radiocarbon dates
requires qualification. For example, the age
of the Bridgewater Cave South material
(Godwin 1980; Lourandos 1983) was later
shown to be 8000 years too young (Bird
and Frankel 1991). The dates for Pyramids
Cave may also be unreliable and should be
treated with caution (Wakefield 1969a;
Lundelius 1983). The Clogg’s Cave date
can be considered reliable (Ride and Davis
1997), but the majority of other dates may
be inaccurate (Baynes 1999) and needs to
be corroborated by other methods (as advo-
cated by Moriarty et ctl. 1999).
Although we have limited our report to
the fossil records from Victoria, further
insight might be achieved by review of the
fossil records outside Victoria. Records of
the Eastern Pygmy-possum, of late
Pleistocene or younger age, have been
found from caves or archaeological
deposits extending from south-eastern
South Australia (Tidemann 1967; Smith
1971; Williams 1980; Wells et al. 1984;
Pledge 1990; Brown and Wells 2000;
Moriarty et al. 2000; Reed and Bourne
2000), through eastern NSW (Ride 1960;
Drummond 1963; Turnbull and Schram
1973; Gorter 1977; Hope 1982; Recher et
al. 1993; Morris et al. 1997), and into
south-eastern Queensland (Archer 1978).
Fossil deposits in Tasmania have also
revealed the species (Bowdler 1984;
Cosgrove 1995; Garvey 1999). A cursory
examination of the distribution of the fossil
sites outside Victoria appears to represent
largely the known modern range for the
species. These sites are reported to contain
mainly cave accumulations of regurgitated
owl pellets, as in Victoria.
Conclusion
This study has provided valuable data on
the past distribution of the Eastern Pygmy-
possum, and some insight into the long
susceptibility of the species to predation by
owls and carnivorous marsupials, as well
as its propensity to capture by pitfall.
Further research should involve closer
study of the museum collections, as
Wakefield's material held at Museum
Victoria is at present only partly sorted.
Microscopic reappraisal of the collection
might be profitable in terms of identifying
diagnostic taphonomic signatures of the
predatory species, such as skeletal element
representation and breakage, digestive cor-
rosion patterns or tooth markings, which
could allow specific attribution to predato-
ry species or verification of pitfall origin.
Re-examination and refinement of the
age limits of the materials are also desir-
able, and this would provide an opportuni-
ty to examine chronological aspects of the
occurrence of the species, and to generate
and test palaeobiogcographical hypotheses
on dispersal or vicariance events. Further
knowledge of the habitat requirements and
of the limiting factors on distribution of
modem populations are also necessary, to
aid and inform interpretations of the tem-
poral abundance of the Eastern Pygmy-
possum in past vegetation communities,
and to assess the effects of climatic fluctu-
ations on the species. In this regard, further
research on the plant communities that
may have been associated with the fossil
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
167
Research Report
deposits is also important. It is hoped that
this review will serve as an introduction to
the literature on the relevant cave deposits,
and promote further interest and under-
standing of the Eastern Pygmy-possum
throughout its range.
Acknowledgements
Many of the Victorian fossil and sub- fossil
Eastern Pygmy-possum specimens are the result
of the work of the late Norman Wakefield, who
was a key figure in the formation of the Fauna
Survey Group of the Field Naturalists Club of
Victoria, and also an Editor of The Victorian
Naturalist for several years. We acknowledge
his work, as well as other researchers cited, for
collection and cataloguing of the mammalian
sub-fossils of Victoria. For information and
advice we thank Susan White, Peter Matthews,
Mike Lake, Jillian Garvey, Lawrie Conole and
Wayne Gerdtz. For critical comments on an ear-
lier draft we acknowledge Stephen Debus, Miles
Pierce and Andrew Kos. Wc arc grateful to Greg
Luker and Dan Morgan for generating/amending
the figure, and to an anonymous referee for
helpful comments which improved this report.
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McEachern's Cave, S.W. Victoria. Helictite 7, 17-20.
Wakefield NA (1970) Notes on Australian Pigmy
Possums ( Cercarteius , Phalangcridae, Marsupialia).
The Victorian Naturalist 87, 11-18.
Wakefield NA (1972) Palaeoccology of fossil mammal
assemblages From some Australian eaves.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 85, 1-26.
Wells RT, Moriartv K and Williams DLG (1984) The
Fossil vertebrate deposits of Victoria Fossil Cave
Naraeoorte: an introduction to the geology and fauna.
Australian Zoologist 21, 305-333.
Williams DLG (1980) Catalogue of Pleistocene verte-
brate fossils and sites in South Australia.
Transactions of the Roval Society of South Australia
104,101-115.
Received 25 November 2004: accepted 16 March 2005
One hundred years ago
SOURCE OF THE YARRA RIVER
by Mr AE Kitson, FGS
... that our present maps of the source of the Yarra and Thompson Rivers were incor-
rect, as it had been found that the stream which had hitherto been regarded as the fur-
thest source of the Yarra was really the head of the Thompson. The mistake had
occurred through the latter river flowing first west, then north, and east, before taking
its southerly course. It was probable that at one time the portion flowing westerly had
belonged to the Yarra, but it had been captured by the stream flowing to the north, and
was thus lost to the Yarra watershed. The country w'here this occurred was covered
with very dense vegetation, and without the aid of instruments it was quite impossible
to ascertain the positions of ridges and trends of the valleys.
From The Victorian Naturalist 22 (1905), pp.55.
170
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
The density and distribution of cattle and horse dung
in Pretty Valley, Bogong High Plains, Victoria
David Meagher1
Abstract
Cattle dung pats and horse droppings were counted in Pretty Valley, on the Bogong High Plains,
along one permanent transect in March 2004 and 14 transects in March 2005 (total length 19.9 km).
The results show that cattle pat density is highest in vegetation where grasses are dominant, but that
pats are distributed throughout all other vegetation types, in varying densities. Horses contributed
2.3% of the total droppings counted. The number of cattle pats on a permanent transect in Poa
hiemata tussock grassland fell by 17% between 2004 and 2005, in the absence of cattle. In 2005, it is
likely that at least 1 million cattle pats remained in Poa hiemata grassland in Pretty Valley. Some
potential consequences of the presence of cattle pats are discussed. ( The Victorian Naturalist 122 (4),
2005, 171-178)
Introduction
Until the wildfires burnt much of the
Victorian high country in February 2003,
up to 8000 head of cattle grazed some 60
licensed areas in the Alpine National Park
between December and March each year
(Parks Victoria 2005). About two thirds of
these cattle grazed in alpine or high sub-
alpine country, including Pretty Valley on
the Bogong High Plains (Fig. 1). Since
2003 cattle have not been returned to the
Bogong High Plains because of the risk of
damage to the burnt areas. In May 2005
the Victorian Government announced that
cattle would no longer be allowed to graze
in the Alpine National Park, of which
Pretty Valley is a part.
Cattle in alpine areas are free-ranging but
prefer to graze within open vegetation
communities where palatable plants are
abundant, such as grassland, open heath-
land and snowpatch (van Rees 1984).
Despite the observations of van Rees, it
has often been assumed, and sometimes
stated as fact, that cattle do not enter other
vegetation types because palatable plants
are not available there (e.g. closed heath-
land) or the terrain is too difficult for them
to negotiate (e.g. sphagnum bogs).
Studies of cattle in alpine environments
have understandably focused on long-term
changes in vegetation structure caused by
grazing, and on soil disturbance from tram-
pling. However, bushwalkers and other visi-
tors to the Bogong High Plains have long
complained about the amount of cattle dung
there, and concerns have been raised about
' School of Botany, The University of Melbourne 3010
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
the potential effects of the dung. Anecdotal
evidence suggests that cattle dung could
take several years to disintegrate in alpine
regions. The aim of this study was to assess
the density of pats in different vegetation
types, and to begin measuring the change in
abundance over time.
Methodology
Pretty Valley was chosen as the site for
this study because it remained largely
unbumt after the 2003 fires, and thus both
the dung and the vegetation were intact
and easily identifiable. The valley is also
easily accessible, has been grazed by cattle
over a long period, and supports a number
of vegetation communities, although domi-
nated on the valley floor by Poa hiemata
grassland.
A two-metre transect width was found to
be the largest practical width for one per-
son. It enabled pats to be counted quickly
and accurately, and allowed a simple mea-
sure with a metre rule to determine whether
pats were within or outside the transect
without having to leave the transect centre-
line. The methodology was tested in March
2004 along three short transects, and at that
time a transect was set up in Poa hiemata
grassland as a permanent transect along
which counts could be made each year to
determine decomposition rates.
Fourteen transects of various lengths and
orientations were selected so that all vege-
tation types in the valley would be sam-
pled (Fig. 2).
Most transect starting points were select-
ed at random along roads or tracks, so that
171
Contributions
Fig. 1. Pretty Valley, Bogong High Plains; a view from Cope Saddle Track towards Mount Jim.
Darker areas on the valley floor are bog, relic bog and patches of open healhland. Darker areas on
the slopes are open and closed heathland.
their positions could be accurately identi-
fied. Starting points were identified on a
vegetation map before the survey, and were
therefore not influenced by conditions at
the time of the survey. Pole 333 on the
Alpine Walking Track was selected as the
starting point for transect 3 because it is a
clearly defined landmark, and the direction
was chosen to pass through many different
vegetation types while traversing as much
of the valley as possible. The commence-
ment point of transects 4, 5, 12 and 13 was
determined by selecting at random a point
on transect 3, and their directions were
determined randomly using a toy "spinner'.
Transect 14 commenced at the end of tran-
sect 13, and its direction was also selected
at random. The alignments of other tran-
sects were determined either wholly ran-
domly, as above, or semi-randomly (on the
basis of the range of vegetation types they
could pass through). Transect 2 consisted
of a series of straight lines aligned more or
less parallel to the Alpine Walking Track.
This transect was aligned to sample Poa
CQstiniana and basalt outcrop grasslands.
The directions of transects 1, 6, 9, 10 and
1 1 were altered during the transects to
ensure that they passed through some of the
rarer vegetation types, or to avoid obstacles
such as boulder fields.
Where possible, transects were walked
by line-of-sight using clearly discernible
landmarks. When landmarks were not
available or not visible, transects were
walked on compass bearings. Transect
start and end points were identified by
GPS, and a standard metre rule was used to
define the lateral limits of the transect. Pats
intersecting the transect boundary were
counted only if more than half of their area
was clearly within the transect. Fragments
close to one another were counted as a sin-
gle pat, even if it seemed likely that they
had been derived from more than one pat.
Droppings of horses were recorded sepa-
rately. This method of counting ensured
that over-counting did not occur.
Vegetation types, as defined by
McDougall (1982), were recorded along
172
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
roads walking tracks Alpine Walking Track
^ streams 1700 m contour
Fig. 2 Locations of transects in Pretty Valley, Bogong High Plains.
each transect. Along some parts of some
transects the vegetation differed from the
mapped vegetation. This is an artefact of
the difficult nature of aerial photo interpre-
tation during the original mapping. The
results given in this paper are based on the
actual vegetation encountered.
Results
Details recorded during each of the 14
transects are presented in Table 1, and sum-
marised, for horses and cattle, in Table 2.
Other observations
Most cattle pats were intact, dry. and
firmly attached to the soil or vegetation on
which they were deposited, and there was
no evidence of attack by insects or fungi
(Fig. 3). In contrast, most horse droppings
were actively disintegrating and weakly if
at all attached to the substratum, and fungi
were often seen on them (Fig. 4). Dung
beetles (family Scarabaeidae) were found
in one group of horse droppings, but they
were dead and had not completed the dis-
integration of the droppings. Pats in closed
heathland were found most commonly
where cattle tracks formed narrow breaks
in the vegetation, but many were deposited
in untracked vegetation.
Little decomposition of pats was appar-
ent. Thirty-eight pats selected at random
on transect 1 were inspected for signs of
biological activity such as dung beetle or
fungal attack. Fungal mycclia were not vis-
ible in any of these pats, and no beetle or
other insect activity was apparent. In con-
trast, Fruiting fungi were found on numer-
ous horse droppings, and dead dung bee-
tles were found in one horse dropping.
For a broad comparison, a transect approx-
imately 200 metres long and two metres
Table 1. Results of transects walked across a variety of vegetation types. Figures
headed ’Cattle' and 'Horse' indicate the number of pats counted.
in the columns
Vegetation
Distance (m)
Cattle
Horses
Transect 1, length 1950 m.
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
90
14
-
bog/relic bog
285
35
1
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
390
82
1
open heathland
120
8
-
Kumea heathland
225
6
-
open heathland
75
9
-
Kumea heathland
225
3
_
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
150
17
-
bog/relic bog
240
16
5
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
150
46
4
Vol. 122 (4)2005
173
Contributions
Table 1. (Continued)
Vegetation
Distance (m)
Cattle
Horses
Transect 2, length 3705 m.
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
210
59
6
open heathland
195
30
1
bog/relic bog
90
2
1
open heathland
480
52
1
Poa costiniana grassland
915
96
5
basalt outcrop grassland
450
28
3
snow patch
195
15
-
basalt outcrop heathland
450
3
1
basalt outcrop grassland
720
21
2
Transect 3, length 3475 m.
Poa costiniana grassland
270
57
2
open heathland
360
11
-
Snow Gum grassy woodland
25
10
1
Kunzea heathland
405
11
-
Poa costiniana grassland
525
20
1
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
1245
238
1
bog/relic bog
75
7
-
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
120
42
—
bog/relic bog
300
8
-
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
150
27
-
Transect 4, length 825 m.
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
825
115
-
Transect 5, length 480 m.
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
480
133
3
Transect 6 - permanent (2004), length 660 m.
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
660
70
2
Transect 6 - permanent (2005, length 660 m.
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
660
58
1
Transect 7, length 585 m.
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
195
29
bog/relic bog
75
10
-
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
315
43
-
Transect 8, length 695 m.
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
180
14
-
Kunzea heathland
45
3
1
bog/relic bog
105
2
-
open heathland
195
6
-
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
120
26
-
Transect 9, length 1710 m.
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
195
27
-
bog/relic bog
105
1
-
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
75
28
-
bog/relic bog
225
5
3
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
1110
196
2
Transect 10, length 1 140 m.
bog/relic bog
30
2
-
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
40
10
-
bog/relic bog
80
4
-
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
45
10
-
open heathland
375
16
-
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
75
14
-
open heathland
60
7
-
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
225
49
-
closed heathland
210
12
-
174
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Table 1. (Continued)
Vegetation
Distance (m)
Cattle
Horses
Transect 11, length 2370 m.
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
705
87
-
closed heathland
135
3
-
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
120
21
-
bog/relic bog
20
1
-
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
1390
222
2
Transect 12, length 910 m.
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
910
243
2
Transect 13, length 825 m.
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
825
184
1
Transect 14, length 615 m.
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
615
167
1
Table 2. Summary of results for all transects, for cattle and horses
Cattle, all transects 2005, length 19 895 m.
Vegetation
Distance (m)
No. pats
Mean (pats/m:)
Snow Gum grassy woodland
25
10
0.200
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
11610
2213
0.095
snowpatch
195
15
0.077
Poa costiniana grassland
1710
173
0.051
open heathland
1860
139
0.037
bog/relic bog
1630
93
0.029
closed heathland
345
15
0.021
basalt outcrop grassland
1170
49
0.021
Kunzea heathland
900
23
0.013
basalt outcrop heathland
450
3
0.003
Change in count, permanent transect: 70 (2004) to 58 (2005) =
Horses, all transects 2005, length 19 895 m.
-17%
Vegetation
Distance (m)
No. pats
Mean (pats/m2)
Snow Gum grassy woodland
25
1
0.020
bog/relic bog
1630
10
0.003
Poa costiniana grassland
1710
8
0.002
basalt outcrop grassland
1170
5
0.002
Poa hiemata tussock grassland
1 1610
26
0.001
basalt outcrop heathland
450
1
0.001
snowpatch
195
0
<0.001
open heathland
1860
2
<0.001
closed heathland
345
0
<0.001
Kunzea heathland
900
1
<0.001
wide was made across a grazed paddock of
exotic grasses at Wooragee, near
Beechworth. The mean density of pats on
this transect was 0. 1 28 pats per square metre
(/? = 51), and 55% of the pats on this transect
were being disintegrated by dung beetles.
Discussion
Although some caution is needed in com-
paring the results for different vegetation
types because of the small sample sizes
(except Poa hiemata grassland), some gen-
eral observations can be made. The mean
density of cattle pats was greatest in vegeta-
tion dominated by grasses (Snow Gum
grassy woodland. Poa hiemata tussock
grassland, snowpatch and Poa costinicina
grassland). The high density in the single
Snow Gum grassy woodland area surveyed
is unlikely to be indicative of that vegetation
type as a whole, since it was easily accessi-
ble from the adjacent grasslands and would
be favoured as shelter in poor weather.
On the reasonable assumption that pat
density is an indicator of the time spent at
a particular location, the results suggest
that cattle prefer Poa hiemata grassland
over Poa cost ini an a grassland, and that
snowpatch vegetation is about as attractive
Vol. 122 (4)2005
175
Contributions
as grassland for cattle. Basalt outcrop
grassland is the least preferred of the
grassy vegetation, perhaps because it is
rocky underfoot and the grass is sparse.
The results confirm that callle enter all
vegetation types, including bogs and relic
bogs, closed heath land and Kimzea heath-
land. The lower densities of pats in these
vegetation types suggest that cattle do not
graze there. In bogs and relic bogs they are
likely to be seeking w'ater, and in closed
heathland and Kimzea heath land they are
likely to be moving from one grassland to
another or seeking shelter.
The decrease of 17% in the number of
pats on the permanent transect suggests
that pats survive for many years in the
alpine environment, and that the pats pre-
sent are the result of several years of depo-
sition. Cattle dung on lowland farmland is
usually wholly decomposed within a few
months of deposition, and disintegration
may be exceedingly rapid in areas where
there are two or more introduced dung bee-
tles, such as Onthophagus taunts
(Schreber) and Onitis alexis Klug
(Tyndale-Biscoe 1994).
Ultimately, however fungal and bacterial
decomposition destroys the dung.
Decomposition rates are likely to be much
slower in the colder climate of the high
country, where insect, fungal and micro-
bial activity is probably confined to the
warmer months. It is possible that mechan-
ical disturbance (by snowmelt, wind, rain,
trampling, etc.) may be the main cause of
pat disintegration and dispersal.
Horse droppings are much less common
than cattle pats in Pretty Valley (2.3% of
all counts), and most that were encoun-
tered were disintegrating. It is reasonable
to say that their contribution to the overall
dung abundance in Pretty Valley is very
small, and that they break up rapidly. As
cattle dung abundance declines over time,
horses will eventually become the major
source of dung in the area.
In this survey, only the data for Poa
hiemata grassland can be treated statistical-
ly, as the sample sizes for other vegetation
types w'ere too small. In order to analyse
this data, the mean pat densities in all tran-
sect segments passing through Poa hiemata
176
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Fig. 4. Fungus on horse dropping, transect 1 .
grassland were calculated, and the mean,
standard deviation and standard error of
these means were found (mean = 0.104
pats/m:, s.d. = 0.038, s.e. = 0.0081 ). The rel-
atively large s.d. indicates that cattle do not
graze this grassland uniformly. The lowest
density in any transect segment was 0.039
pats/m:, and the highest was 0.187 pais/m-.
The total area of Poet hiemaia grassland
in Pretty Valley is approximately 14 km
(Department of Sustainability and
Environment, unpublished data). Thus the
total number of pats in the valley in this
vegetation type alone in 2005 is likely to he
have exceeded 1 million. The total number
of pats in Pretty Valley (total area at least
28 km2, of which the remainder is mostly
open heathland. Poa costiniana grassland
and bog/relic bog) would clearly exceed
this figure considerably.
What are the possible consequences of
large numbers of cattle pats? Cattle pats
attract house flies, bush flies and stable
flies, which lay eggs around the edges of
pats (DPI Victoria 1995, DPI Queensland
2004). The larvae crawl into or under the
pats, where they are protected from heat,
sunlight and predators. In the absence of
introduced cattle, horses, deer and hares.
only wombat droppings would be suitable
for flies, but no wombat droppings were
encountered during this survey. The cattle
pats therefore must have contributed sub-
stantially to artificially raised populations of
some flies on the Bogong High Plains.
March Hies and blow flies do not breed in
pats, so their populations would be unaffect-
ed by the presence of cattle pats. One might
expect, then, that the abundance of house
flies, bush Hies and stable flies would grad-
ually diminish on the High Plains as cattle
dung disintegrated and decomposed, but
that the abundance of March flies and blow
flies would remain unchanged.
Cattle pats are a major potential vector
for the introduction and spread of palatable
weed species in alpine vegetation (van
Rees 1984, McDougall and Appleby
2000). A change in the nutrient status of
the soil (which is the likely result of the
localised release of nutrients into the soil
from pats) might also encourage the estab-
lishment of exotic species, at the expense
of native species that are adapted to lower
nutrient levels (Rowe et al. 2004).
Another potential effect of the presence
of cattle pats is an increase in the input of
soluble nutrients such as potassium and
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
177
Contributions
phosphorus into the water table and direct-
ly into streams. Although this is likely to
occur only where pats lie on damp soil or
are close to streams (since dry soil and
vegetation would act as buffers elsewhere),
the presence of pals in bogs and relic bogs
indicates that it is a possibility.
Remarkably, no water quality data (and
only historic stream flow data) have been
published for the Bosons High Plains
(VWRDW 2005). However, the water
quality of the East Kiewa River, of which
Pretty Valley is one of many source
streams, was rated ‘marginal’ in 1999
(VWRDW 2005). and stream condition in
the Kiewa catchment as a whole was rated
‘poor’ in 2002 (VCMC 2002).
Acknowledgements
Thanks to the anonymous referee for useful
comments on the first draft of the manuscript.
Thanks also to Parks Victoria for enabling me to
conduct research in the park. This study was
undertaken without financial assistance or other
material support from any organisation.
References
DPI Victoria (1995) Control of Hies on dairy farms.
AgNote No. 262. Department of Primary Industries.
DPI Queensland (2004) Management of nuisance fly
populations on cattle feedlots. DPI website
www.dpi.qld.gov.au, Viewed October 2004.
McDougall K (1982) Alpine vegetation of the Bogong
High Plains. Ministry for Conservation.
McDougall K and Appleby M (2000) Plant invasions in
the high mountains of north-eastern Victoria. The
Victorian Naturalist 117, 52-59.
Parks Victoria (2005) Park web
WWW.parkweb.vic.gov.au, Viewed i9 May 2005.
Rowe K, Gibbons F and Anderson H (2004) High
mountain soils. In Alpine Ecology Course 2004
Course Notes. Centre for Applied Alpine Ecology,
La Ttobe University: Bundoora.
l yndale-Biscoe M (1994) Dung burial by native and
introduced dung beetles (Searabaeidae). Australian
Journal of Agricultural Research 45(8). 1 799-1808.
van Rees H (1984) Behaviour and diet of free ranging
cattle on the Bogong High Plains. Victoria.
Environmental Studies Publication 409. Department
of Conservation, Forests and Lands.
VCMC (2002) The health of our catchments : a
Victorian report card. Victorian Catchment
Management Council.
VWRDW (2005) Victorian Water Resources Data
Warehouse www.vicvvaterdula.net. Viewed May
2005.
Received 25 November 2004: accepted 23 June 2005
One hundred years ago
A LIZARD MIMICKING A POISONOUS SNAKE
By T. S. Hall, M.A.
A specimen was recently sent to me for identification which appeared to be the
young stage of the brown snake, Dicnrenia textilis , D. and B., named by McCoy
Furina bicucullata. On turning to McCoy’s plate in his “Prodromus of the Zoology of
Victoria.” the colouring of my specimen appeared almost identical with that or the
coloured figure. There were the same velvety black patches on the head and nape,
with deep orange between the two bands and behind the last. The back had the exact
tint of pale brown in both eases. True, there were no transverse black marks on the
body, and the ventral surface was not mottled as in the figure and was of a paler tint.
But these markings I knew w'ere variable, and the bands and spots were often absent.
The only other noticeable colour difference was a light transverse line cutting the ante-
rior black patch into two nearlv equal pails. Still, T felt satisfied as to the identity of
my specimen. However, to make quite sure, I examined the plates of the head. They
did not agree, and, glancing at the body, I saw that I was the victim of one of Nature’s
practical jokes, for the specimen was clearly one ot the so-called legless lizards.
Having been deceived myself, I suppose it was only in accordance with human
nature for me to wish to entrap as many of my friends as possible. One after another
they pronounced it to be McCoy’s Furina. I snail mention no names; they must con-
fess themselves. I need only say that it was extremely comforting to me to find one
naturalist after another falling into the trap which Nature had so cunningly laid.
From The Victorian Naturalist 1 22 (1905), p. 74.
178
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Ecology of the endangered Southern Shepherd’s Purse
Ballantinia antipoda (Brassicaceae) and the associated moss
mat community on Mount Alexander, Victoria
JE Seidel, GJ Ambrose, SK Florentine and ME Wilson
Abstract
Southern Shepherd's Purse Ballantinia antipoda (Brassicaceae) is a small, cool-season annual herb.
It now occurs in only one of its previously recorded locations in Victoria and Tasmania. It is current-
ly endemic to Mount Alexander Regional Park, Victoria. Tall plants and high densities of B. antipo-
da were associated with TriquetreUa papillata and Catnpylopus cfcn>ati/s. The field condition of B.
antipoda was low, in terms of size, reproductive condition and health, in denser foliage of the robust
mosses Breutelia affmis. Polytrichum juniperinum , Catnpylopus bicolor and C. introflexus. In
spring, the thin soil and moist substrate of the moss mats present B. antipoda with suitable condi-
tions for germination, sequential flowering and seeding events. Mosses frequently are dry and have
their leaves furled in October and November, allowing B. antipoda seed released at this time to pen-
etrate moss mats more effectively. Moss mat disturbance by foraging White-winged Choughs
Corcorax metanoramphos could generate suitable microhabitats for B. antipoda. The remote loca-
tion of the granitic outcrops provides B. antipoda with a refuge from most disturbances and the com-
petitive effects of larger species of vascular plants. (The Victorian Naturalist 122 (4) 2005, 1 79-188)
Introduction
Biodiversity has become an issue of both
scientific and political concern, primarily
because of a rising public awareness of
increasing extinction rates caused by
human activities (Pausas and Austin 2001).
Southern Shepherd’s Purse Ballantinia
antipoda (Fig. la) is an example of a
species declining rapidly and now close to
extinction. It is a small, cool-season annual
crucifer currently known only from mon-
tane moss mats on granitic outcrops in
Mount Alexander Regional Park. Victoria
(Alexander 1999). Ballantinia antipoda is
listed as endangered under the
Commonwealth Environment Protection
and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999
and listed as Threatened under the
Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act
1988.
Despite its rarity, conservation status and
location within the regional park, there is
only limited information on the ecology of
B. antipoda. The significance of the micro-
habitat provided by the associated moss
mat community is unclear. Ballantinia
antipoda previously occurred at other loca-
tions, including Daylesford, Skipton,
Mount Macedon, Mount Cole, Mount
Buangor and Mount Langi Ghiran in
'Centre for Environmental Management, School of
Science and Engineering, University of Ballarat, PO
Box 663, Vic. 3353
Victoria. The species may have occurred
on basaltic rock near Carisbrook and
Werribee, and has not been located in
Tasmania since the 1800s (Alexander
1999; DSE2002).
Potential reasons for the decline of B.
antipoda include the unknown effect of
wildfire; disturbance from introduced graz-
ing fauna (rabbits, pigs and goats); habitat
destruction resulting from vehicles, bikes,
trampling and abseiling; the presence of
roads, tracks, quarries and tower installa-
tions; and changes in vegetative composi-
tion (weed invasion) (Alexander 1999).
More recently. White-winged Choughs
Corcorax metanoramphos (C’orcoracidae)
have provoked concern. They have been
observed disturbing the moss mat habitat
whilst foraging for invertebrates, mainly
the introduced European Millipede
Ommatoiulus moreleti (Julidae) (Simpson
and Day 2000),
In view of the threatened status of B.
antipoda , this study needed to identify the
current status of this plant and the factors
limiting its distribution and success on
Mount Alexander, Victoria. The study
aimed to: (i) produce large and small-scale
maps of the distribution of B. antipoda
populations on Mount Alexander in rela-
tion to aspect, physical and biological
attributes, (ii) determine the parameters
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
179
Contributions
associated with the occurrence of B.
antipoda , (iii) relate the phenology and
field condition of B. antipoda to microhab-
itat variables, and (iv) apply an under-
standing of the ecology of B. antipoda to
the development of potential initiatives in
habitat management.
Methods
Target species
Ballantinia antipoda is an endemic
Australian species belonging to the Cress
or Mustard family, Brassicaceae (F
Muell.). The sparsely haired, prostrate or
weakly ascending stems grow to 5 cm, or
sometimes up to 10 cm, high (Gray and
Knight 2001). Stems arise from a basal
rosette of stalked, entire or, more common-
ly, spoon-shaped leaves that are often
divided into three parts (Fig. la). The
insect-pollinated flowers are white, small
and petiolate, reaching 4 mm in diameter
(Fig. lb). Flowers occur on indeterminate,
axillary racemes extending above the
foliage. The flowers consist of a corolla of
four shortly-clawed petals and a calyx of
four sepals (2-2.5 mm long) The fruit, a
silicula, is ellipsoid, 3-5 mm long and 1.5-
3 mm wide. It is dry and dehiscent at the
apex, releasing wind-dispersed seeds (Carr
2003). The seed is without endosperm
(Watson and Dallwitz 1992) and therefore
unlikely to be long-lived or to emerge suc-
cessfully if buried deeply. Seeds are pro-
duced from late September to early
October, with a continual release of seeds
until early November.
Fig. la. Habit sketch of Southern Shepherd's
Purse Ballantinia antipoda , showing variable
leaf shape. The hairy leaves form a rosette, but
also climb the stem. Elliptical dry fruits (silicu-
lae) are seen below the white flowers.
Study site
Mount Alexander Regional Park lies
approximately 120 km north-west of
Melbourne and 3 km east of Harcourt,
Victoria (144° 19’ S, 37° 00' E). Mount
Alexander rises above an otherwise flat
landscape in the North Central catchment
region of Victoria. The mountain, with an
elevation of 746 m asl, is a granitic intru-
sion estimated to be 367 million years old
(Parks Victoria 2002). It receives a mean
annual rainfall of approximately 700 mm.
During the 1870s, Mount Alexander was
stripped of most of its vegetation to pro-
vide timber for the goldfields (Parks
Victoria 2002). Sheep and cattle previous-
ly grazed the mountain. Since the release
of myxomatosis in the 1950s for the con-
trol of rabbits, the understorey vegetation
has been able to re-establish (DSE 2002).
The current vegetation consists mainly of
Manna Gum Eucalyptus viminalis wood-
lands, with Messmate E. obliqua occurring
within deeper soils at higher elevations.
Associated tree species include Candlebark
E. rubida , Blue Gum E. globulus , Yellow
Box E. melliodora and Peppermint species
E. radiata and E. dives (Costermans 1994).
The higher elevations of Mount Alexander
consist of igneous intrusive granodiorite
with an estimated age of 416 million years
(LCC 1978). Currently two granite quarries
are in operation.
Mapping
Population locations of B. antipoda were
determined using GPS and recorded on
large-scale maps produced in Maplnfo®.
Scale maps of each site were produced,
documenting the granitic outcrop area,
moss mat patches, location of B. antipoda
within moss mats, watercourses and asso-
ciated over-storey vegetation (Seidel
2004). Scale-accurate computer-generated
maps were produced using the grid system
(nr) in Paint Shop Pro 7®;.
M icroh a bit at an a lysis
Soil moisture was calculated from ran-
dom soil samples at four study sites, taken
over four weeks on three occasions, using
a cylindrical metal corer. An index of
bryophyte desiccation was derived by
recording moss shoot thickness (cm) and
condition (consisting of estimates of moist-
180
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
ness through touch and visual analysis).
Soil samples were weighed before and
after oven drying for 48 hours at 32°C.
Randomly assigned quadrats of 50 cm x
50 cm were assessed at six study sites over
a four-month period. The number of indi-
viduals of B. antipoda and other vascular
plants was recorded for use in density and
species richness values. The 'condition’ or
longevity of B. antipoda plants in each
quadrat was documented and used to deter-
mine a quantitative value for a 'condition
success' index (Table 1).
Cover estimation
Projected foliage cover was recorded for
the dominant bryophyte and vascular plant
species using the Domin-Krajina cover
abundance scale (Brower et at. 1998). This
was determined using a point frame.
Vascular plant species were allocated to
one of five groups according to life- form
and origins: (i) native succulents, (ii) native
grasses, (iii) native herbs and lilies, (iv)
introduced grasses, and (v) introduced
herbs and lilies. The field condition of the
moss mats was allocated to one of five cat-
egories of hydration: desiccated, dry/closed
leaves, moderately dry, moist/squeezable
water and wet/free water with open leaves
(Table 2). At the centre of each quadrat,
soil depth and moss mat depth (cm) were
measured using a metal ruler.
Statistical analysis
Species richness or a-diversity was cal-
culated as the number of species present at
a given site. The density of B. antipoda
plants was recorded as the number of indi-
viduals of the species per square metre.
Coverage of non-vascular and vascular
plants was determ ined as the proportion of
ground covered by a vertical projection of
the aerial shoots of the plant. Relative cov-
erage was calculated as the coverage of an
individual species as a proportion of all
species coverage recorded for a given area
(Brower et ah 1998).
Analysis of variance was performed for
quantitative variables, which met the
assumptions required to perform an
ANOVA. Pair-wise comparisons of statis-
tically significant group variables were
made using Minitab® statistical software
programs to determine within-group varia-
tion. Significant variables were tested for
Type 1 errors using Bonferroni’s correc-
tion Post-Hoc analysis in Minitab®.
Results
Twenty moss species and four liverwort
species were identified across eleven study
sites (the total number of sites containing
B . antipoda) (Appendix 1 ). Lichens, main-
ly squamulose and fruticose species from
the genus Cladonia , were present on rock
surfaces. The richest moss genera were
Campylopus , represented by four species,
and Bryum , represented by three species.
Bryophyte richness of the sites ranged
from three to 1 7 species. Jlypnum cupres-
siforme was abundant as an understorey in
the grassy communities on soil, but was
not observed in the moss mat communities
on granite. The fine moss Brachythecium
rutabulum was uncommon in moss mats
and more abundant in the grassy communi-
ties. Vascular plant species richness com-
prised 1 5 native species and 1 3 introduced
weed species across the eleven study sites.
The number of B. antipoda plants per
study site varied substantially, from 52 to
approximately 500. The density of B.
antipoda varied considerably between
study sites, from 1 . 1 plants per nf at East
Face sub-population 2 to 30.8 plants per nr
at East Face. Moss mat area per study site
ranged from 46 nf at East Face 1 to 569 nf
at East Slope. Site elevation ranged from
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
181
Contributions
Table 1. Field condition success index values
for BaUantinia antipoda.
Index
BaUantinia antipoda
Success
No
Condition Assessment
Value
1
Senescing/Withered/
Small size
Poor
2
Flowering
Insufficient
3
Fruiting
Satisfactory
4
Seeding
Sufficient
5
Flowering/Fruiting/
Large size
Good
6
Fruiting/Seeding/
Flowering/Large size
Excellent
563 m to 729 m asl. BaUantinia antipoda
was found only at sites where aspects were
either easterly or westerly (Table 3).
Substrate data
Soil depth ranged from 0 cm to 4.6 cm and
thickness of moss mat turf ranged from 0
cm to 3.1 cm across the six key study sites.
Soil moisture content varied substantially
between sites and over the sample dates.
The mean soil moisture content was great-
est at Shepherd's Flat (0.98 g) and least at
East Slope (0.74g). Soil moisture content
varied substantially between study sites
and sampling dates (Fig. 2).
Target species phenology
Demographic analysis of B. antipoda
showed individual plants undergoing their
life cycle from July to early November
2003. Plants flowered during spring, from
early September to late October. The annu-
al growth cycle and indeterminate inflores-
cences of B. antipoda resulted in the plants
flowering, fruiting and seeding sequential-
ly over the period observed (Table 4).
Table 2. Bryophyte field condition index val-
ues.
Index
Bryophyte Condition
Success
No
Assessment
Value
1
Desiccated - Brown/red
Poor
2
Dry crumbly -Brown
Insufficient
3
Moderately dry -
Brown/green
Satisfactory
4
Moist/Squeezable -
Green
Good
5
Wet/free water -
Open green leaves
Very good
Cover
The percentage cover by moss species
ranged from i .44% for Btyum caespitici-
um to 47.75% for Breutelia affinis. Three
moss species showed very high relative
coverages: Breutelia affinis (47.75%),
Campy /opus clavatus (38.38%) and
Polytrichum juntperinum (32.44%) (Table
5). The dominant vascular plant group was
the native succulents, notably purslanes
Calandrinia species (family Portula-
caceae). Succulent species showed the
greatest coverage by flowering plants at all
sites, particularly at Shepherd’s Flat
(14.79% per m2) (Table 6).
Each moss species retained similar areas
of cover through the study and the stands
of each became more permeable in
October and November, as the mosses
became desiccated and furled their leaves
around the stems. This coincided with the
period of greatest seed release by B.
antipoda.
Statistical analysis
An analysis of variance was performed
on the dependent variable of B. antipoda
Fig. 2. Soil moisture content at four sites on Mount Alexander, Victoria 2003.
■ Shepherds Flat
□ Middle Park
□ East Slope
□ East Face
182
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Table 3. Site characteristics and Ballantinia antipoda population size and density within the eleven
study sites for the growing season of 2003 at Mount Alexander, Victoria. * These six sites were
designed as key study sites on the basis of their representative nature as habitats and their accessibili-
ty. # Inclination was not determined for non-key study sites.
Site
Total Moss mat
moss mat area
area (nf ) sampled (nf)
No. of Density
B. antipoda (indiv/nf )
per area
sampled
Elevation Aspect Inclination
(m asl)
*East Face
290
10
308
30.8
665
East
23°50’
*East Slope
569
15
345
23.0
729
East
27°26’
* South West
275
15
308
20.5
621
West
20° 1 1 ’
*Shepherd’s Flat
125
15
219
14.6
645
West
19°34’
^Saddle Rocks
52
10
98
9.8
666
West
11 "35’
*Middlc Park
380
15
303
5.1
711
East
13°49'
East Face #1
46
46
180
3.9
587
West
#
South West #1
130
130
-400
3.1
563
West
#
East Track
171
171
-500
2.9
578
East
#
East Face #3
76
76
52
1.5
581
East
#
East Face #2
181
181
165
1.1
566
East
#
size against the independent variables soil
depth and moss mat turf thickness. No sig-
nificant association was found betw een B.
antipoda size and soil depth at the six key
study sites (F = 1.35; P = 0.143). A signif-
icant relationship was found between B.
antipoda size and moss mat turf thickness
(F = 1.87; P = 0.021). Pair-wise analysis
showed that the moss species Breutelia
affinis (P = 0.001) and Campylopus clava-
tus (P = 0.000) were significantly related
to B. antipoda density.
Condition success comparisons for
Ballantinia antipoda and hryophytes
Three-dimensional scatterplots allowed a
visual analysis of possible correlations
between B. antipoda field condition suc-
cess and moss species cover. Seidel (2004)
shows the three-dimensional scatterplot
figures. Projected coverage of B. affinis , P.
juniper in wn, C. introflexus and C. bicolor
exceeding 25% was generally associated
with B. antipoda plants exhibiting smaller
than average basal size and height, prema-
turely senescing or withering and flower-
ing, but not fruiting. Cover exceeding 25%
for C. clavatus and T pap ill at a, and
greater than 10% for Brvum caespiticium
and Ro&ulabryum. billarderi, was associat-
ed with B. antipoda plants that flowered,
fruited and seeded and that were of greater
than average size. Moss field condition
indices of moist, squeezable, free water
with green open leaves were positively
associated with soil depths of 1-2 cm and
moss mat turf thicknesses of 1-2.5 cm.
Discussion
Topography and microhabitat in relation
to Ballantinia antipoda location
The density of B. antipoda varied with
the properties of moss mats within study
sites, which changed with aspect, eleva-
tion, inclination and, in particu-
lar, hydrology. Sites at a greater
elevation and with steeper incli-
nation, such as East Slope and
East Face, supported higher B.
antipoda densities per square
metre of moss mat area. These
sites would experience
increased water availability and
rapid runoff (Hopper et at.
1997).
Ballantinia antipoda was gen-
erally found within the margins
of moss mat patches, where
water accumulated or flowed
Table 4. Flowering phenology of Ballnatinia
the growing season of 2003 on Mt Alexander,
observed, - = not observed.
antipoda for
Victoria. + =
Late
Aug Early
Late
Early
Late
Early
Jul
Sep
Sep
Oct
Oct
Nov
Germinating +
+
-
-
-
-
Flowering
+
+
-
-
-
Flowering/
-
+
+
+
-
Fruiting
Fruiting
-
+
+
+
-
Fruiting/
-
-
+
+
-
Seeding
Seeding
-
-
-
+
+
Senescing
-
-
-
+
+
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
183
Contributions
Table 5. Coverage and relative coverage of the dominant moss species at six study sites at Mt
Alexander, where quadrat analyses were undertaken. Note: densely overlapping stems can exceed 100%
canopy coverage per quadrat. Coverage and relative coverage are defined in the Methods section.
Sites
Species
East
East
South
Shepherds
Saddle
Middle
Relative
Face
Slope
West
Flat
Rocks
Park
Cover
(%/m2)
B rente! ia affmis
47.33
37.00
4.28
59.33
91.10
58.60
47.75
Campvlopus clavatus
20.00
78.00
28.57
41.33
8.00
49.33
38.38
Polytrichum-jimiperinum
26.00
49.67
25.71
3.33
33.10
71.00
32.44
Triquetrella papillata
4.67
16.33
1.43
22.00
6.67
9.43
Campylopus introflexus
4.67
8.00
7.14
27.33
4.00
2.67
8.19
Campy/opus bicolor
7.33
2.66
2.14
18.00
3.33
7.75
Rosuiahryum billarderi
2.00
0.67
5.71
6.00
3.67
2.44
Brvum argenteum
5.71
4.67
1.33
1.62
Bryum caespitichmi
3.33
0.67
3.67
1.44
Table 6. Comparison of'coverage by vascular plant species groups and relative coverage per nr at
the six key study sites.
Sites
Species groups
Middle
East
South
Saddle
Shepherd
East
Relative
Park
Slope
West
Rocks
Flat
Face
Cover
(%/m2)
Native succulents
4.59
6.89
12.97
5.54
14.79
7.43
8.60
Native grasses
1.76
1.76
3.24
0.95
5.67
2.70
2.68
Native lilies/herbs
0.81
1.08
0.41
0.27
3.92
1.62
1.35
Introduced grasses
2.03
0.81
0.81
0.95
0.95
1.35
1.15
Other weeds
0.91
1.08
0.27
0.27
2.16
1.49
1.01
parallel to moss mats. Moss mat patches
accumulated free water and had shallow
soils. Hydrological mapping showed that
surface water flowed mainly within gradi-
ent depressions on outcrops. These depres-
sions most likely formed as a result of the
establishment of pioneer bryophyte
species, vascular plants and soil. The
humic acids plants produce through decay
increase the rates of weathering of the
granitic rock substrate (Campbell 1997).
Sites supporting larger moss mats con-
tained higher densities of B. antipoda. This
was probably a consequence of the moist
microhabitat created by the bryophytes at
patch margins, which were holding water
and acting as sponges. This increased the
water-holding capacity of the surrounding
vegetation (Jarman and Fuhrer 1995). The
retention of water provides B. antipoda
with more extended periods of moist con-
ditions than the surrounding terrestrial
environment.
Moss mats at higher elevations and with
steeper inclination varied considerably in
soil moisture content. The steepest sites
rapidly obtained and lost water in succes-
sion. When water infiltrated into soil
macropores, it would then flow rapidly out
and down the slope (van Asch et al 2001 ).
This study’s results suggest that sites with
a lower inclination have the ability to
retain water for longer periods than the
steep sites. The Shepherd’s Flat site sloped
gently and reached the greatest mean soil
moisture content, which fluctuated less
between sampling dates than at all other
sites.
Phenology and demography of Ballan-
tinia antipoda
The phenology of B. antipoda plants was
correlated with external environmental and
localised nncrohabitat conditions created
by the moss mat community. By
November, all sites contained substantially
less soil moisture than in early spring and
the associated moss mat communities were
dry. This corresponded with the phen-
ology of B. antipoda plants, which were
observed seeding and senescing during that
period, rather than continuing to grow,
flower and produce further seed. This sup-
ports the contention that soil moisture con-
184
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
tent ultimately affects the reproductive
ability and survival of mature plants
(Brouwer and Fitzpatrick 2002).
The sequential production of flowers on
indeterminate inflorescences throughout
September enabled B. antipoda to fruit and
seed over an extended period from late
September to early November. This trait
should increase the chance of successful
insect pollination, since the flowering peri-
od included a range of seasonal variability
in weather conditions. Seeds were also
released over a prolonged period, enhanc-
ing the prospects of seed being released and
dispersed during favourable conditions.
The moist microhabitat provided by the
moss mats may assist the successful germi-
nation of B. antipoda seeds. Seed germina-
tion success has been related to soil mois-
ture and, to a lesser extent, temperature
(Bell 1994; Colling et al. 2002; Brouwer
and Fitzpatrick 2002). Smaller seeds, such
as those of B. antipoda , show a greater ten-
dency to exhibit dormancy, only germinat-
ing when conditions are optimal.
Successful seed germination is positively
correlated with soil moisture (Colling et al
2002; Grundy et al 2003). Dormant seeds
are a feature of plants inhabiting unstable
environments, such as habitats that experi-
ence fluctuations in water content (Kodela
et al 1 994), similar to those encountered at
the Mount Alexander sites.
The dry wind-dispersed seeds of B.
antipoda were observed being explosively
released. The seed is small (approximately
0.8 mm long) and lightweight, aiding in
wind dispersion. The moss mat habitat is
characterised by thin soil (depth on average
<2cm), but of a suitable depth for the small
B. antipoda seeds. The germination rates of
smaller-seeded species are known to
decline when burial depth exceeds one cen-
timetre (Susko and Lovett-Doust 2000;
Grundy et al 2003). Leaf litter affects seed
germination and growth by creating a barri-
er above the soil and altering the soil’s
light, temperature and moisture content
(Xiong and Nilsson 1999; Xiong et al
2003). Moss mat patches were charac-
terised by an absence of leaf litter and tall
vascular plants, which would aid in the suc-
cessful germination of B . antipoda plants
(Thiede and Augspurger 1996; Dalling and
Flubbell 2002). The absence of nearby.
wind-shielding tall plants may also aid in
the dispersal of the explosively released
seeds. Seed dispersal is also likely in water
and via the wet or muddy feet of animals.
Bryophyte species cover and ecology
Bryophyte coverage was greatest at the
margins of soil-based vascular plant envi-
ronments in more exposed areas, often bor-
dering bare rock and creating patches on
granitic surfaces. Such locations can be
attributed to many bryophytes being pio-
neer species. These have the ability to
colonise bare soil and rock, creating condi-
tions suitable for their own establishment
and survival (Jarman and Fuhrer 1995;
Main-York 1997; Downing et al 2002).
The species C. introjl exits, C. clavatus and
P. juniperinum have been found growing
on disturbed or bare soil (Macmillan
1976), indicating they are pioneer mosses
that can grow following disturbances. The
granite substrate is susceptible to weather-
ing by moisture (Campbell 1997), making
granitic outcrops suitable for colonisation
by mosses and other plants (York-Main
1997) In doing so, they can accumulate a
thin layer of soil and retain moisture, pro-
viding a refuge for plants that are relatively
intolerant of competition from larger vas-
cular plants.
Positive correlations were found between
bryophyte cover and water availability.
The study sites supporting the greatest
moss mat area were at the highest eleva-
tion, which would expose the bryophytes
to moister weather conditions. Bryophytes
are recognised as thriving in exposed situa-
tions, with their distribution being con-
trolled mainly by water availability
(Jarman and Fuhrer 1995; Pharo and
Beattie 1997; Downing et al 2002).
The evidence suggests that cover by
some moss species reduced the density of
B. antipoda . Cover by B. affinis or C.
clavatus appeared to reduce B. antipoda
density. This may be a result of B. affinis
and C. clavatus forming dense turfs
(Catcheside 1980: Scott and Stone 1976)
that are relatively tall and accumulate sig-
nificant amounts of soil. Tall dense
foliage could impede B. antipoda seed
penetration, germination or growth.
Dense coverage of the mosses P. juniper-
inum, B. affinis , C. introflexus and C.
Vol. 122 (4)2005
185
Contributions
bicolor were generally associated with B.
antipoda plants of a smaller than average
size that were observed flowering but not
seeding, and prematurely senescing or
withering. Poly trichum juniperinum is a
robust medium-sized plant, usually 1-3 cm
tall, and is ecologically widely tolerant
(Scott and Stone 1976). It has been found
to occupy bare, disturbed sites or grow on
litter (Macmillan 1976; Makipiia and
Heikkinen 2003). Its large robust growth-
form may cause B. antipoda plants to be of
a smaller size by competing with them for
space. The moss may compete with B.
antipoda for water and nutrients or may
prolong moisture retention in the mat.
Campy lopus introjlexus is recognised as
a common moss of dry and wet sclerophyll
forests, such as at Mount Alexander. It is
an aggressive and dense spreading species,
occupying open habitats such as moss
mats. Campylopus bicolor , var. bicolor
(with cucullate leaf tips) also occurs in
small dense turfs on wet ground and rocks
or on open soil (Scott and Stone 1976;
Catcheside 1980; Frahm 1994). Both C.
introflexus and C. bicolor form dense turfs,
which are likely to pose a barrier to the
lodgement of B. antipoda seeds and to
their subsequent germination and growth.
Campylopus clavatus forms large areas
of dense erect turf (Scott and Stone 1976).
However, spaces between the bushy stems
make the turf more permeable and allow
the establishment of larger, vigorous B.
antipoda plants. Stands of T. papillata also
support vigorous B. antipoda plants.
Importantly, it forms soft open cushions
(Scott and Stone 1976; Catcheside 1980).
Triquetrella papillata has a broad niche,
growing beneath other plants, but also
forming large mats in the open where light
levels are high (Eldridge el al. 2000). The
loose open growth-form of T. papillata
would not impede B. antipoda seed pene-
tration, germination or growth and possi-
bly aids in retaining water, therefore pro-
viding a moister habitat than the surround-
ing environment. Campylopus clavatus has
less open foliage, although the spaces
between the bushy stems permit some seed
penetration and the emergence of tall, vig-
orous plants of B. antipoda.
Vascular plant species cover and ecology
The density of B. antipoda was not
affected by vascular plant cover, which
appears consistent with it previously sur-
viving in more soil-based environments.
However, it must be noted that the cover of
vascular plants per metre square was far
less than for non-vascular plants.
Furthermore, the dominant vascular plant
species present were mostly small herbs or
grasses. The most abundant vascular plant
group coexisting with B. antipoda was the
succulents, in particular, the purslanes
Calandrinia spp. These are annuals, grow-
ing 10-30 cm tall (Gray and Knight 2001).
However, within the moss mat community
they were generally smaller, on average 5-
10 cm tall. This is of a comparable size to
B. antipoda and can most likely be attrib-
uted to the shallow soil layer, limiting
available root space.
Effects of disturbance
White-winged Choughs disturb moss
mats, upturning them in search of prey
such as European Millipedes. This is
believed to be happening more frequently
than in the past. Moss disturbance was
quite substantial at the East Face site, yet
B. antipoda density was greatest here. The
moss B. affinis accounted for the greatest
overall coverage at this site. Its stems are
matted with rhizoids, which can Lrap soil to
within a few millimetres of the exposed
shoot tips (Macmillan 1976). This would
provide little cover for millipedes or other
invertebrate prey, and this moss may not
be disturbed as much by the birds if largely
buried. Although B. affinis is regarded as a
soil accumulator, little soil was present
beneath it at East Face. This created larger
spaces under the foliage for invertebrates.
The upturning of moss turfs by the
choughs and the subsequent disturbance
created possibly may shift B. antipoda
seeds around in the soil matrix. Ultimately,
this disturbance may cause dislodgement
and relocation of seeds by wind and water.
In addition, seeds may disperse in soil or
moisture on the feet and beaks of the
choughs. Disturbance by choughs may
favour the survival of B antipoda by open-
ing up dense turfs of moss or fostering pio-
neer bryophyte species that facilitate its
establishment. Moss mat disturbance by
186
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
choughs differs from disturbance resulting
from trampling and off-road vehicles. Soil
tends to remain more intact in chough-dis-
turbed areas. Human disturbance tends to
compact the soil, preventing infiltration of
water.
Recommendations for future management
Batlantinia antipoda previously inhabit-
ed more terrestrial, lowland habitats in
Victoria. Despite this, moss mat refugia
on granitic outcrops offer, through necessi-
ty, more suitable habitats for sustaining
this endangered species. Any proposed
management initiatives will need to focus
on protecting existing B. antipoda popula-
tions and discovering suitable reintroduc-
tion sites. It is essential to census B.
antipoda populations over many seasons to
provide further insight into its competitive-
ness, dispersal, potential inbreeding and
causes of rarity. Furthermore, many seeds
are produced, yet result in low plant num-
bers in the following season. This may be
a consequence of low percentage germina-
tion or low seedling survival rate (Kodela
et at. 1994). Alternatively, many seeds
may be lost through dispersal to unsuitable
microsites or deep burial. The causes need
to be ascertained. Investigations are
required into seed viability, to gain an
insight into the effects of environmental
phenomena such as drought. The collec-
tion of seeds is recommended. This would
allow in situ reintroductions and the estab-
lishment of ex situ viable herbarium popu-
lations. These would aid the continued sur-
vival of B. antipoda plants in light of fur-
ther decline or uncontrollable events such
as wildfire.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Mary Camilleri from the Department
of Sustainability and Environment, Huntly, for
field assistance with the existing site locations.
Thanks to Bruce Fuhrcr and David Meagher,
School of Botany, University of Melbourne, for
help with bryophyte identification and Cameron
Hurst and Peter Martin, University of Ballarat,
for statistical help and analysis. We would also
like to thank Martin Deering for assistance with
fieldwork.
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Received 18 November 2004 ; accepted 26 May 2005
Appendix 1. Bryophyte species discovered in
the eleven study sites on Mt Alexander,
Victoria, (a) - moss species exhibiting acrocar-
pous (erect) forming habit, (p) - moss species
exhibiting plcurocarpous (spreading habit).
DIVISION HEPATOPHYTA
Family
Codoniaceae
(Fossonibroniaceae)
Marchantiaceae
Ricciaceae
Frullaniaceae
Liverworts
Fossombronia
intestinal is
Ltmularia cruciata
Riccia bifurca
Riccia crystallina
Frut/ania rostrata
DIVISION BRYOPHYTA
Family
Bartramiaceae (a)
Bryaceae (a)
Dawsoniaceae (p)
Dicranaceae (a)
Ditrichaceae (a)
Fissidentaceae (p)
Funariaceae (a)
Gigaspermaceae (a)
Grimmiaceae (a)
Hedwigiaceae (a)
Pottiaceae (a)
Polytrichaceae (p)
Mosses
Breutelia affinis
Phi/onotis tenuis
Sty uni australis
Btyum argenteum
Bryum caespiticium
Rosulabryum billarderi
Dawsonia longiseta
CampyJopus bicolor
Campy/opus clavatus
Campylopus introflexus
Ditrichum difficile
Fissidens I ay lor ii
Pleuridium nervosum
Funaria hygrometrica
Gigaspermum repens
Grim mia laevigata
Grimmia pulvinata
Hedwigia cillata
Acaulon integrifolium
Barbula imguiculata
■Tor tula muralis
Triquetrellu papillata
Polytrichum
juniperinum
One hundred years ago
NOTES ON PHOSPHORESCENCE IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS
By Miss Freda Bage.
... In the vegetable world instances of phosphorescence are perhaps not so generally
known as those which occur among animals, yet many cases of the radiation of light
from plants have been recorded.
Among flowering plants, sometimes the flowers themselves have been seen giving out
light on dark, dry nights. In 1762 the daughter of Linnaeus saw light coming from
some orange-coloured nasturtiums. Later, Professor Haggern, in Sweden, drew atten-
tion to the phosphorescence of some marigolds in July and August - i.e., in summer.
He carefully examined the flowers, and, satisfied that no animal organisms were pre-
sent, attributed the phenomenon to the ejection of the pollen caused by the rupture of
the anthers.
From The Victorian Naturalist 21 (1904-5 ), p. 93.
188
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Observations of the ecological impacts of
Sambar Cervus unicolor in East Gippsland, Victoria,
with reference to destruction of rainforest communities
Bill Peel1, Rohan J Bilney23* and Roger J Bilney3
Abstract
Damage caused by Sambar, particularly browsing, antler rubbing and physical removal of particular
plant species, is resulting in serious ecological consequences. Threatening processes instigated or
maintained by Sambar include: loss of individual taxa, altered vegetation structure and massive
widespread removal and prevention of regeneration, which is now resulting in the loss of plant com-
munities in some areas. These observations are particularly disturbing, as it is apparent that Sambar
are yet to reach their full ecological and population potential in south-eastern Australia. The destruc-
tion documented in this article is now so widespread and so severe that in places it represents an eco-
logical disaster for specific plant and animal species, ecological vegetation classes and floristic com-
munities. We strongly recommend that Sambar in particular, and feral deer in general, should no
longer be protected under the Wildlife Act 1975, so that control methods can be devised and imple-
mented. It now appears that such measures will be essential for the long-term survival of some frag-
ile plant species and communities in Victoria. (The Victorian Naturalist 122 (4) 2005, 189-200)
Introduction
Sambar Cervus unicolor were introduced
into Victoria during the 1 860’s, and have
since become the most successfully estab-
lished deer species in Australia (Bentley
1978; Moriarty 2004). In Gippsland they
occur throughout most habitats ranging
from coastal to alpine areas, and their pop-
ulation and distribution is still increasing
(Moriarty 2004). Sambar were first report-
edly seen on the VVonnangatta River in
1951, and soon appeared in East Gippsland
as they continued to move further east
(Bentley 1978). In 1983, Sambar were still
considered uncommon in the Gippsland
Lakes Catchment (Norris et al. 1983).
Currently, large numbers of Sambar are
seen throughout East Gippsland, with their
population increasing particularly in
coastal and foothill country and they are
now seen all year round (pers. obs. all
authors). Up to 20 individual animals have
been seen grazing at night on farmland
adjacent to forest in the Mitchell River
Catchment and on a property adjacent to
the Colquhoun State Forest north of Lakes
Entrance (Names withheld, pers. comm, to
the authors). At Clifton Creek north of
Baimsdale, a dairy farmer shot more than
'PO Box 840, Lakes Entrance, Vic. 3909.
'School of Ecology and Environment, Melbourne
Campus, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway,
Burwood, Vic. 3125. ^(Corresponding author: Email:
rjbil(«)deakin. cdu.au)
TO Box 988, Baimsdale, Vic. 3875.
100 Sambar on his property, under permit
during 2003, 18 of which were shot in one
night (G Bowden pers. comm.).
Even though Sambar have been well
established in Victoria for over 100 years,
there have been few studies examining eco-
logical impacts of this species (Stockwell
2003). However, the impacts of deer on the
environment have been well documented
overseas where introduced and native deer
species are severely damaging the environ-
ment (e.g. Fuller and Gill 2001; Gill and
Beardall 200 1 ; Rooney 2001; Russell et a!.
2001 ; Coomes et al. 2003 ). In early 2005 in
New South Wales, the Scientific
Committee made a final determination to
list feral deer as a key threatening process
under the Threatened Species Conservation
Act ( 1 995) (Scientific Committee 2005). In
Victoria, a preliminary recommendation to
list 'degradation and loss of terrestrial habi-
tats caused by feral deer’ as a threatening
process under the Flora and Fauna
Guarantee (FFG) Act 1988 (SAC 2004) has
recently been rejected by the Scientific
Advisory Committee (SAC in press) due to
the lack of scientific evidence to validate
such claims for all deer species across all of
Victoria.
The purpose of this article is to highlight
some observations by the authors on the
severe impacts that Sambar are having on
the environment in East Gippsland.
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
189
Contributions
Methods
Study area
Sambar damage was noted in 74 sites (gul-
lies, creeks and coastal areas) visited by the
authors between 2002-2005 in East
Gippsland, Victoria. These sites ranged from
the Mitchell River National Park in the
West, to the Victorian border in the East.
Observation at rationale
The following rationale was used to dis-
criminate between the effects of different
browsing animals in East Gippsland, with
height ranges for various types of damage
listed in Table 1. This was achieved by
sourcing literature on the relevant animals
as well as by observing animal signs in the
field (see Triggs (1984) for identification
of scats and footprints). The distinction
between the effects of Sambar and Hog
Deer Axis porcinus (see Table 1) was
determined from locations where only one
species occurs (Hog Deer Maringa
Creek, Nyerimilang: Sambar - Mitchell
River National Park).
When damage to a certain individual
plant was identified as being caused by
Sambar, the species and particular type of
damage, including the extent and severity
were noted, along with the plant communi-
ty in which it was growing.
Results and Discussion
Sambar damage to individual plants
Effects of browsing
Sambar are known to incorporate a wide
range of native plant species into their diet
(Bentley 1978; Burke 1982; Stockwell
2003), with almost all available species
being consumed (Stockwell 2003; pers
obs. all authors) up to a height of 2.5 m.
The effects of browsing can be devastat-
ing, as Sambar have prodigious appetites,
so much so that concentrated grazing and
browsing can easily be seen in many dif-
ferent vegetation types. Browsing in the
lowlands by Sambar is concentrated on
particular communities, usually those of
gullies, lake shores and river flats where
reliable food supplies are most abundant,
and elsewhere on particular species.
The most severe and obvious impacts of
Sambar are related to browsing, causing
death or reducing the fitness of individual
plants. This is usually done by removing
Table 1. Height (m) of various types of damage
caused by Hog Deer, Sambar, and Black
(Swamp) Wallabies Wallabia bicolor in East
Gippsland. N/A = Not applicable.
Damage Hog
Sambar
Black
Deer
Wallaby
Antler damage
Average <0.5
height
Max.
0.3 -1.7
N/A
height 0.8
2.1
Browsing damage:
Max. 1.10
*Stockwell (2003)
2.5
0.75-
0.85m*
stems, shoots and leaves (see Fig. 1),
which reduces the plant’s growth rate,
resulting in shorter plants that remain
reachable to Sambar for longer periods,
eventually leading to understorey stunting
and elimination. Reproductive output of
certain species can also be reduced due to
consumption of flowers, fruits, seeds and
seedlings (e.g. Yellow Milk Vine Mars-
denia flavescens* Prickly Currant-bush
Copras ma quadrifida and Mutton wood
Rapanea ho wi ttiana ) .
Browsing can lead to the physical
removal of shallowr-rooted species (partic-
ularly ferns and epiphytes) and vegetation
in general, creation of paths, removal of
vine or shrub thickets that act as regenera-
tion refuges, and prevention of natural
regeneration. Such browsing comes with a
range of other behaviours that is also
destructive and very effective at getting
foliage within reach. These include,
pulling down (vines) and pushing over
(tree-ferns and shrubs), and once the
plant’s foliage is within reach it is often
browsed to death. This behaviour is partic-
ularly damaging during drought periods,
especially for species such as tree-ferns
which rely on the first new Hush of
crosiers to begin photosynthesis. It is at
this point that the damage by Sambar
becomes critical, as these shoots are highly
favoured. Once eaten, the fern has insuffi-
cient reserves to re-shoot, and dies. Many
rainforest species are subject to increased
browsing pressure during drought condi-
tions, putting the entire rainforest under
increased stress, as many plants are less
able to recover in dry conditions.
190
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Fig. 1. Damage to Muttonwood by Sambar
browsing from the Mitchell River National
Park.
Antler Rubbing
Antler rubbing is a major problem
because particular species are targeted (see
also Bentley 1978) and literally rubbed to
death, and with those still alive their fit-
ness can be severely affected (Bilney
unpublished data). It should be noted that
trees, shrubs and vines are attacked in this
manner. Antler rubbing may not complete-
ly ringbark the tree, but many trees are
subject to Ribbing over many years: com-
plete ringbarking is usually the end result,
and the tree is unable to heal. So wide-
spread and ubiquitous is the damage that at
the current rate of attrition, several species
are under threat just from antler rubbing
alone. Over 100 individual rub trees have
been recorded in one patch of the rare
Yellowwood A cro nych ia obi ongifo lia
within East Gippsland Coastal Warm
Temperate Rainforest. This can seriously
affect not only the health of the individual
plant, but the community in which it is
growing. Antler rubbing often occurs in
close proximity to heavily browsed areas.
Antler rub marks have been noted as high
as 2.1 m.
Plant species affected by Sambar
One endangered species, Buff Hazel-
wood Symplocus thwaitsii, is adversely
affected by Sambar. Saplings of S. thwait-
sii up to 5 m in height arc at risk from ring-
barking because of antler rubbing, whilst
those less than 3 m in height are being
severely browsed and some have already
died. A rescue of some seedlings for
removal to a deer-free environment is cur-
rently underway in co-operation with Parks
Victoria.
As noted previously, there are few native
species (if any) that are not browsed by
Sambar. Those from East Gippsland that
are the most adversely affected (primarily
from observations in Warm Temperate
Rainforests and wetlands) are listed in
Table 2.
Of these, one is listed as endangered,
four are rare, and three are vulnerable
(Department of Sustainability and Enviro-
nment 2005a). Two (Symplocus thwaitsii
and Prickly Tree-fern Cyathea leichard-
tiana) are listed as Threatened under the
FFG Act 1988.
It appears only a matter of time before
Sambar totally eliminate some species
from an area, due to preferential browsing
and grazing, and concentrated effort at par-
ticular sites and within specific plant com-
munities (e.g. Muttonwood, Fig. 2). This is
having a profound impact on the survival
of several plant communities in the short to
medium term (Table 3). Some rare species
that have limited habitat, sparse distribu-
tion, small individual population numbers
and occur in preferentially browsed habi-
tats are under immediate threat (e.g.
Yellowwood and Sandfly Zieria Zieria
smithii). Continued attention from Sambar
on these species will soon see them threat-
ened in the wild.
Sambar damage to plant community
processes and plant communities
Destruction of regeneration refuges, lead-
ing to the failure of regeneration
Perhaps the most severe damage caused
by Sambar browsing is the destruction of
regenerating plant species, which alters
regeneration dynamics in plant communi-
ties. With the destruction of regeneration
refuges, particularly in rainforest commu-
nities, regeneration is failing to occur.
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
191
Contributions
Table 2. Some of the more noticeable plant species severely and adversely affected by Sambar in
East Gippsland. r - rare, v - vulnerable, e - endangered, FFG - Listed as Threatened under the Flora
and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988.
Plant Species Notes Observed consequences
Canopy species
Black Wattle
Browsing, antler
Acacia mearnsii
rubbing
Blackwood
Browsing, antler
Acacia melanoxylon
rubbing
Lily Pily
Browsing, antler
Acmena smithii
rubbing
Yelloww'ood
Browsing, antler
r Acronvchia
rubbing
oblongifolia
Sweet Pittosporum
Browsing, antler
Pittosporum undulatum
rubbing
Mutton wood
Browsing, antler
Rapanea howittiana
rubbing
Shrub and tree species
Coast Banksia
Browsing
Banksia integrifolia
Blanket-leaf
Browsing
Bedfordia arborescens
Sweet Bursaria
Browsing
Bursaria spinosa
Prickly Currant-bush
Browsing, antler
Coprosma quadrifida
nibbing
Cherry Ball art
Browsing, antler
Exocarpos cupressiformis
nibbing
Gippsland Hemp
Browsing, antler
r Gvnatrix macrophvlla
rubbing
Tree Violet
Browsing
Hvmenanthera dentate
Yellow Loosestrife
Browsing,
v Lysimachia japonica
Tree Broom-heath
Browsing
Monotoca elliptica
Common Boobialla
Browsing, antler
Myoporum insulare
rubbing
Snow Daisy-bush
Browsing
Olearia lirata
Hazel Pomaderris
Browsing, antler
Pomaderris aspera
rubbing
Kangaroo Apple
Antler rubbing,
Solanum crviculare
browsing
Buff Hazelwood (FFG)
Browsing, antler
e Symplocus thwaitsii
rubbing
Sandfly Zieria
Browsing
r Zieria smithii
Vines
Staff Climber
Browsing, antler
Celastrus australis
rubbing, pull
down
Saplings browsed to death, lack of regeneration,
opening up of rainforest margins, increased risk of
fire entering rainforest
Saplings browsed to death, lack of regeneration,
opening up of rainforest margins, increased risk of
fire entering rainforest
Saplings browsed to death, lack of regeneration,
opening up of rainforest margins, increased risk of
tire entering rainforest
Saplings browsed to death, lack of regeneration
opening up of rainforest margins, increased risk of
fire entering rainforest
Saplings browsed to death, lack of regeneration,
opening up of rainforest margins, increased risk of
fire entering rainforest
Saplings browsed to death, lack of regeneration,
opening up of rainforest margins, increased risk of
fire entering rainforest
Lack of regeneration
Plants browsed
Plants browsed
Low' plants decimated, old shrubs pulled down and
rubbed
Saplings browsed to death, lack of regeneration
Saplings brow sed to death, lack of regeneration
Plants browsed
Plants browsed, physically removed, populations
declining
Saplings browsed to death, lack of regeneration,
opening up of rainforest margins, increased risk of
fire entering rainforest
Saplings browsed to death, lack of regeneration,
opening up of rainforest margins, inreased risk of
fire entering rainforest
Plants brow sed
Saplings browsed to death, lack of regeneration,
opening up of rainforest margins, increased risk of
fire entering rainforest
Crowns decimated, frosts kill weakened plants in
the following winter
Saplings browsed to death, lack of regeneration
Saplings browsed to death, lack of regeneration
Mature vines antler rubbed and pulled from the
canopy, mature plants browsed, regeneration
browsed to death
192
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Table 2. Continued.
Plant Species Notes Observed consequences
Jungle Grape
Browsing, antler
Cissus hypoglauca
rubbing
Forest Clematis
Browsing, antler
Clematis give ino ides
rubbing, pull
down
Wombat Berry
Browsing, pull
Eustrephus latifolius
down
Scrambling Lily
Browsing, pull
Geitonoplesium cymosum down
Yellow Milk Vine
Browsing, pull
r Marsdenia flavescens
down
Milk Vine
Browsing, antler
Marsdenia rostrata
rubbing, pull down
Queensland Bramble
Browsing,
Rubus mollocanus
trampling
Small-leaf Bramble
Browsing,
Rubus pannflorus
trampling
Rose-leaf Bramble
Browsing,
Rubus rosifolius
trampling
Pearl Vine
Browsing
Sarcopetalum harveyanum
Austral Sarsparilla
Browsing, pull
Smilax australis
down
Tree-fern & Ferns
Black-stemmed
Browsing,
Maidenhair
trampling
v Adiantum formosum
Austral Lady-fern
Browsing,
Athyrium aiistrale
trampling
Gristle Fern
Browsing
Blechnum cartilagineum
Fishbone Water-fern
Browsing,
Blechnum nudum
physical removal
Rough Tree-fern
Browsing
Cvathea australis
Prickly Tree-fern
Browsing
v Cvathea leichardtiana (FFG)
Lacy Ground- fern
Browsing
Dennstaedtia davallioides
Soft Tree-fem
Browsing
Dicksonia antarctica
Prickly Rasp-fern
Browsing,
Doodia aspera
physical removal
Downy Ground-fern
Browsing
Hypolepis glandulifera
Shiny Shield-fern
Browsing,
Lastreopsis acuminata
physical removal
Mother Shield-fern
Browsing
Polystichum proliferum
Others
Stinging Nettle
Browsing
Urtica incisa
Butterfly Orchid
Browsing
Sarchochilus australis
Vine curtains destroyed, opening up of rainforest
margins, loss of humidity homeostasis, increased
risk of fire
Mature vines antler rubbed and pulled from the
canopy, mature plants browsed, regeneration
browsed to death
Mature vines pulled from the canopy, plants
browsed, regeneration browsed to death
Mature plants browsed, regeneration
browsed to death
Foliage and seed pods consumed, whole plants
destroyed
Prevention of regeneration
Colonies declining, previously such colonies
acted as regeneration sites for palatable gap and
mature canopy species
Colonies declining, previously such colonies acted
as regeneration sites for palatable gap and mature
canopy species
Colonies declining, previously such colonies acted
as regeneration sites for palatable gap and mature
canopy species
Lack of regeneration
Mature plants browsed, regeneration browsed to
death
Colonial species quickly destroyed by concentrated
effort
Plants trampled and killed
Plants browsed
Foliage browsed, whole plants physically pulled
from the soil
Browsing leading to death, pushing over, popula-
tions declining
Browsing leading to death, populations declining
Plants browsed
Both young plants and the tallest ferns are browsed,
browsing becomes critical during drought years and
the death of many tree-ferns occurs at this time
Foliage browsed, whole plants physically pulled
from the soil
Foliage browsed, swards trampled, regrowth fol-
lowing drought immediately removed: at present
browsing levels, whole swards likely to be destroyed
Foliage browsed, whole plants physically pulled
from the soil
Plants browsed, bulbils eaten, vegetative reproduc
tion prevented
Plants browsed
Removes habitat (Sweet Pittosporum branches) viz
consumption of leaves removes shaded habitat and
branches and orchids by breaking limbs
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
193
Contributions
•' rV .
imt?
,
gp'&ryti { ■ TirhiH; • f ^
fi t’ *&>'■'
i ‘ ifcp
; ■ v
m
MRK
4 i'.dSfc
Fig. 2. Muttonwood heavily browsed by Sambar, located in Dry Rainforest from the Mitchell River
National Park.
Regeneration refuges include those in the
form of thickets of thorny (Burs aria spin-
osa , Coprosma quadrifida , Ifymenanthera
dentata, Rubus nwllocanus, R. parvijlorus,
R. rosifotius and Smilax australis) and
stinging species (Urtica incisa), as well as
tree-falls. Even plants unpalatable to most
herbivores (such as Solatium aviculare)
would normally act as a barrier and can
hide more palatable species (e.g. Acniena
smith'd , Acacia melanoxylon).
Regeneration refuges are significant and
effective barriers to native browsing
species, particularly Black Wallabies, that
seem to be ‘effectively blind' to palatable
species if they are hidden in a matrix of
refuge species. In addition. Black
Wallabies are particularly uncomfortable
on uneven surfaces that are provided by
tree-falls. As a consequence, these natural
regeneration refuges have in the past been
effective barriers to browsing of regenera-
tion and have allowed natural regeneration,
to occur in rainforests where small minor
scale disturbances such as landslips or
tree-falls can be quickly repaired.
Sambar seem impervious to thorns and
stinging plants and can literally wipe them
out over a number of weeks or months of
concerted effort. This facilitates grazing
and browsing by other species such as wal-
labies. Rabbits Oryctnlagus cuniculus and
Hog Deer, which are usually unable to
access palatable species growing within
regeneration refuges. In some cases in East
Gippsland, Sambar damage has led to the
contraction of specific plant communities
from some sites and their replacement with
grasslands dominated by exotic annuals,
and even worse, bare ground. Areas of
Littoral Rainforest are already being lost
due to this process (Fig. 3).
In Rainforests, when a canopy tree falls,
vine species entangled within the canopy
usually ride with the tree to the ground.
These vine species are quick to regrow,
forming barriers around the tree head and
form a regeneration refuge, where regener-
ating plants can establish in protection
from native browsers. However, prior
removal of vines by Sambar means such
tree-fall regeneration refuges fail.
194
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Table 3. Some plant communities that are severely and adversely affected by Sambar in East
Gippsland.
Floristic Community or Ecological
Vegetation Class
East Gippsland Foothills Warm
Temperate Rainforest
Alluvial Terraces Warm Temperate
Rainforest (Threatened, FFG Act
1988)
East Gippsland Coastal Warm
Temperate Rainforest (Threatened,
FFG Act 1988)
Littoral Rainforest
Riparian Shrubland
Riparian Forest
Estuarine Wetland
Sand Sheet Grassland
Salt Marsh
Swamp Scrub
Observed consequences
Loss of species, loss of structure, loss of vegetation, loss of
fauna refuges from predation
Loss of species, loss of structure, loss of vegetation, loss of
fauna refuges from predation
Loss of species, loss of structure, loss of vegetation
loss of fauna refuges from predation
Loss of species, loss of structure, loss of vegetation, loss of
fauna refuges from predation
Loss of species, loss of structure, loss of vegetation
Loss of species, loss of structure, loss of vegetation, loss of
fauna refuges from predation; erosion
Loss of species, loss of structure, loss of vegetation, loss of
fauna refuges from predation; erosion
Loss of species, loss of structure, loss of vegetation, loss of
fauna refuges from predation
Loss of species, loss of structure, loss of vegetation, loss of
fauna refuges from predation; erosion
Heavy browsing of species including shrubs, tree-ferns,
herbs and grasses; wallows leading to loss of ground-layer
plants; alteration of drainage patterns; and loss of predator
refuges for ground mammals
In addition, the size of Sambar also means
that tree-falls are quickly trampled and the
otherwise protective branch structure is
broken down, so that physical barriers to
native herbivores are also lost. Therefore
growth of adult vines does not occur, and
Sambar remove the potential for communi-
ties to regenerate, leading to loss of com-
munity structure, diminution of reproduc-
tion and loss of regeneration and regenera-
tion potential. Sambar also cause the loss of
seed store for gap repair and regeneration.
Habitat regenerating after fuel reduction
bums is creating feeding grounds for graz-
ing and browsing species such as Sambar,
which are devastating regrowth after fire.
This is also altering natural regeneration,
particularly in drought conditions when the
only fresh green pick is this regrowth.
Logging coupes also create ideal condi-
tions for Sambar, which graze and browse
the regrowth (Bentley 1978).
Plant communities affected by Sambar
Those plant communities most severely
affected by Sambar in the lowlands of East
Gippsland are listed in Table 3. The impact
of Sambar on these communities signifi-
cantly increases the risk to their long-term
survival. Two communities are listed as
Threatened under the FFG Act 1988 (see
Table 3).
Impacts of Sambar on rainforest commu-
nities
Rainforest communities are sparsely scat-
tered in small pockets along gullies in East
Gippsland, being restricted to certain
geologies and fire-protective landforms, in
areas with adequate rainfall (Peel 1999).
Consequently they are often no larger than
a few hundred metres long, often less than
100 m wide. Being relatively small in the
context of other plant communities, and
containing a large proportion of palatable
species, rainforests provide preferred liv-
ing environments for Sambar, and as a
consequence are suffering severe damage
mainly due to browsing and antler rubbing.
Several rainforest communities occurring
in East Gippsland and southern New South
Wales are therefore under serious threat as
a direct result of Sambar damage (see
Table 3).
Serious threats include alteration and
deflection of rainforest successional
dynamics at all levels, with pioneer to
mature phase species killed or prevented
from regenerating. With a lack of regener-
ation, soils can become degraded due to
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
195
Contributions
Fig. 3. Failed gap regeneration and loss of Littoral Rainforest as a result of Sambar damage.
exposure to the sun (negative feedback
loops, as seen in Fig. 3). This can lead to a
disruption of internal rainforest moisture
homeostasis through loss of vine thickets
and curtains, canopy tree curtains, loss of
understorey shrubs and regeneration,
expansion of gaps due to destruction of
regenerating plants; all of which lead to
increased risk of fire and loss of rainforest.
In many circumstances, browsing can lead
to the loss of all regenerating individuals in
an area, leaving only dead stalks of once
healthy plants. Regeneration is failing in
many rainforest stands across East
Gippsland, and in areas that are regularly
occupied by Sambar, this regeneration
process is not occurring. In concert with
antler rubbing, it seems certain that major
tracts of rainforest are under threat of soon
being lost from Victoria due to Sambar
damage.
This threat upon rainforest in East
Gippsland is also likely to affect fauna
dependent on this habitat type, be it for
roosting, nesting or foraging. The occur-
ring of Warm Temperate Rainforest in
Gippsland is at the edge of its biogeo-
graphical range (Peel 1999), and is also the
most southerly limit of some migratory
bird species, that rely on nectar and fruit
resources mostly found in rainforest (e.g.
Topknot Pigeon Lopholaimus cmtarcticus
(Blakers et al. 1984; Barrett et ai. 2003)).
Other ecological implications of Sambar
occupation
Creation of paths
Sambar develop regularly used paths
through even the thickest vegetation.
Whilst the physical damage is not spatially
large, paths serve to concentrate Sambar
activity in the most favoured environments
(particularly gullies). Perhaps the biggest
impact is the fact that paths created by
Sambar essentially become highways
through the bush for introduced predators
which use paths as movement corridors
(May and Norton 1996; Claridge 1998).
This fragmentation of the understorey
allows introduced predators to gain access
into areas of previously dense scrub or
ground cover. These factors, along with
the destruction of refuges, are likely to
have a major impact on native animal pop-
196
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Fig. 4. A Sambar wallow in Salt Marsh from Lake Tyers.
ulations, particularly small terrestrial mam-
mals which rely on dense vegetation as a
refuge from predators (Catling and Burt
1995; Claridge and Barry 2000).
When contemplating accessing a steep
gully, gorge, or crossing a creek normally
impassable because of dense vegetation,
all you need to do is look for a Sambar
trail and follow it to your destination.
Access into areas of difficult terrain has
become far easier in recent years primarily
due to the presence of Sambar. Sambar are
known to keep existing tracks open
(Bentley 1978).
Wallows
Sambar choose areas of shallow water with
a muddy base, often in a secluded position,
to wallow. Wallows also provide a focus for
Sambar activity, and physical damage to
plants is more severe in the vicinity of the
wallow (also see Bentley 1978). Vegetation
is usually physically removed from around
wallows rather than by browsing. Wallows
have been noted in Swamp Scrub, Warm
Temperate Rainforest, Salt Marsh (Fig. 4)
and Estuarine Wetland.
Rutting areas
These areas are most likely related to rut-
ting males during the breeding season. At
these sites vegetation is completely
cleared, mainly by trampling and physical
removal, resulting in bare ground. Patches
of bare soil up to 7 m in diameter have
been observed on gully floors of Alluvial
Terraces Warm Temperate Rainforest (Fig.
5), with surrounding vegetation also being
rubbed and browsed. Along floodplains of
small creeks, areas over 15 m long have
been completely cleared amongst bracken
fern, resulting also in bare ground. Such
areas in the core of rainforest become sites
for weed invasion and degradation of oth-
erwise healthy and intact rainforest stands.
Weed invasion is a well documented threat
to the survival of many communities of
Warm Temperate Rainforest.
Erosion
Erosion is becoming an issue as Sambar
move down into the lowlands and begin to
graze wetlands, with or without the pres-
ence of Hog Deer. The removal of swamp
or riparian vegetation by these species is
leading to bank exposure and erosion.
Sambar, being much larger than Hog Deer,
are able to wade out further and destroy
plants in deeper water or mud. Those areas
that are suffering the most from erosion are
Estuarine Wetlands ( Phragmites/Bolbo -
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
197
Contributions
Fig. 5. A Sambar rutting area in Alluvial Terraces Warm Temperate Rainforest from Lake Tyers.
schoenus dominated) whose position along
lake shores makes them more vulnerable to
wave action once these fringing species are
wiped out. The loss of these fringing wet-
lands is also degrading habitat of fish and
other aquatic species and is mobilizing
phosphorous-rich sediments. The sediment
mobilization is likely to lead to more fre-
quent and severe blue green algal blooms in
these estuaries (Boulton and Brock 1999;
Price and Lovett 2002). Much of the fring-
ing wetlands around the Gippsland Lakes
have been removed through domestic stock
grazing. Significant efforts are now under-
way to fence stock out of such waterways.
However, Sambar are capable of easily
jumping over standard stock fences.
Increased erosion is also likely in Riparian
Shrublands, w hich are a focus of significant
browsing attention from Sambar.
Wallows and rutting areas also create
increased erosion, as they are usually in
low lying areas such as in creek beds
which are vulnerable to gully erosion dur-
ing rainfall events.
A food source for predators
Although it is unlikely that wild dogs
Can is Jam i Haris kill many adult Sambar,
they will kill juveniles and scavenge car-
casses left behind by hunters (Bentley
1978; pers. obs.). From April to September
there is significant Sambar hunting in many
catchments of the Gippsland Lakes, with
increased hunting effort now occurring
(especially within the past decade) east of
the Snowy River, as Sambar’s range
expands inexorably eastward and north-
ward. This hunting is in the form of stalk-
ing, hound teams and spotlight shooting.
Many hunters who seek a trophy head, or
select cuts of venison, leave behind most of
the carcass after a successful kill. Some
hound teams will also dump multiple car-
casses that are of little value to them in the
one location (one author observed five car-
casses in three dumps, in the winter of
2003, in the Bairnsdale area). Carcasses
that are dumped are generally completely
scavenged by wild dogs. As of April 2004,
the number of licensed deer shooters in
Victoria was approximately 12 000, with in
198
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
excess of 8500 Sambar being harvested per
year (Department of Sustainability and
Environment 2005b), Although there is no
data on the proportion of each Sambar car-
cass that is left behind in the forest, it
seems reasonable to assume that several
hundred tonnes of Sambar remains are left
behind per year, resulting in a substantial
and reliable food resource for wild dogs.
The height of Sambar hunting also corre-
sponds with the birth and weaning of wild
dog pups (Menkhorst 1995), and this pro-
vides a significant food source at a crucial
time for the survival of juvenile wild dogs.
A peak in Sambar calving also occurs dur-
ing winter (Bentley 1978; Menkhorst
1995), providing wild dogs with easily
killed prey. Anecdotal evidence from wild
dog trappers from the 1940’s to 1960's (E
V Ellis and L Lees) strongly suggests that
in the past, many young dogs perished at
the end of winter/early spring due to a lack
of food. Increased access to reliable food
supplies during critical reproductive peri-
ods for wild dogs may be leading to
improved survivorship and larger numbers
of wild dogs in these areas. This may have
devastating effects, particularly on small
mammal populations and livestock. From
faecal pellet counts in the Upper Yarra
Catchment, it has been estimated that
Sambar were 100 times more abundant
than Black Wallabies (Houston 2003;
Slockwell 2003), which may be due to
competition from Sambar as well as preda-
tion by wild dogs. From 30 wild dog scats
collected during late spring and early sum-
mer in the Yarra Ranges National Park,
Sambar were recorded in six scats all col-
lected in late spring (Anon. 2001).
Hunters in North America are required
by law to completely salvage remains of
all large game animals (other than visceral
contents) that are shot ( Alaska Department
of Fish and Game 2004). One justification
for this law is to avoid artificially affecting
the population balance of predators (Wolf
Bear, etc.) over prey. This suggests that
one of the prime reasons that we have
large numbers of wild dogs in eastern
Victoria may be due to the lack of regula-
tions requiring hunters to remove carcasses
from the forest.
Conclusion and Recommendations
Damage caused by Sambar on the
Australian environment will spread far
beyond those areas mentioned in this
paper, as this species is yet to reach its full
ecological or population potential. Even at
current population levels and geographic
extent, a large number of ecological
processes in forested ecosystems are in
decline, being disrupted or destroyed.
Sambar are not only capable of damaging
and killing individual plants, they are capa-
ble of significant, severe and possibly last-
ing alteration to vegetation structure,
including negative feedback loops that lead
to destruction of particular vegetation
types such as rainforest and wetlands. With
such destruction, Sambar are currently a
major threat to many plant species and
communities in East Gippsland, and are
likely to adversely affect many native ani-
mals associated with such habitats.
With the Sambar population still increas-
ing, and yet to reach its full ecological
potential, appropriate immediate action is
of the upmost importance. In order to con-
trol Sambar, they need to be regarded as a
pest species, and should no longer be pro-
tected under the Wildlife Act 1975, so con-
trol methods can be readily implemented
without permit and at any time of year. We
stress the importance for long-term Sambar
control across all land tenures as well as in
vulnerable areas, including National Parks,
to try to reduce this direct threat to fragile
habitats. It is imperative that the manage-
ment of Sambar be updated to try to
increase the number of animals harvested
per year, instead of allowing them to reach
high population densities. Current restric-
tions on hunting methods are contributing
to an overabundance of Sambar, and sig-
nificantly impeding sound ecologically-
based feral deer management in Victoria.
One method of increasing the number of
Sambar killed is to legalise spotlight hunt-
ing. Spotlight hunting is currently prohibit-
ed because it is seen by traditional hunters
as being unethical, potentially 'reducing
hunting opportunity for law-abiding
hunters' (Department of Sustainability and
Environment 2005b). Consequently it is
also recognized that reputable and ethical
hunters and hunting organizations are an
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
199
Contributions
integral part of the solution for controlling
these alien and pest species in the
Australian landscape.
Another recommendation is that legisla-
tion allowing hunting for trophy animals
be changed, so that all remains are
removed, except for visceral remains, to
try and reduce a possible imbalance of
wild dog populations in many areas.
It is essential that long-term ecological
studies be conducted into the damage that
Sambar, and other species of deer, are hav-
ing on the environment. It has been a
major failing of our governments not to
have recognised, or even assessed, the
impact that Sambar have had on the envi-
ronment. Land managers including the
Department of Primary Industries (DPI).
Department of Sustainability and
Environment (DSE), Parks Victoria and
landholders need access to the full suite of
control methods for these species, so they
can be implemented as soon as possible,
before Sambar populations reach their
potential, and before irreversible damage is
done to larger areas of forest and wetland
ecosystems.
References
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Hunting Regulations No. 45. (Alaska Department of
Fish and Game: Alaska)
Anon. (2001) Scat analysis - Yana Ranges National
Park 200 1/2002.
Harrell G, Sileoeks A, Barry S. Cunningham R and
Poulter R (2003) The New Alias of Australian Bn As.
(RAOU: Melbourne)
Bentley A (1978) An Introduction to the Deer of
Australia with special reference to Victoria.
(Forests Commission Victoria: Melbourne)
Blakers M, Davies SJ.II and Reilly PN (1984) Atlas of
Australian Birds (Melbourne University Press:
Melbourne)
Boulton AJ and Brock MA (1999; Australian
Freshwater Neology: Frocesses and Management.
(Glen Eagles Publishing: Glen Osmond)
Burke P (1982) Food plants utilised by Sambar.
Australian Deer 7, 7 - 1 2.
Catling PC and Butt RJ (1995) Studies of the ground-
dwelling mammals of eucalypt forests in south-east-
ern New South Wales: the effect of habitat variables
on distribution and abundance. Wildlife Research 22,
271-281.
Claridge AW ( 1998) Use of tracks and trails by intro-
duced predators: an important consideration in the
study of native ground-dwelling mammals. The
Victorian Naturalist 1 15, 88-93.
Claridge AW and Barry SC (2000) Factors influencing
the distribution of mediunvsDcd ground-dwelling
mammals in southeastern mainland Australia. Austral
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Coomes DA, Allen RB, Forsyth DM and Lee WG
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Conservation Biology 17, 450^459.
Department of Sustainability and Environment (2005a)
Advisory List of Rare or Threatened Plants in
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Game Management FAQ's, www .dse.vic.gov.au
Fuller RJ and Gill RMA (2001) Ecological impacts of
increasing numbers of deer in British woodland.
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Gill RMA and Beardall V (2001) I he impact of deer
on woodlands: the effect of browsing and seed dis-
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Houston E (2003 ) The use of faecal counts to estimate
Sambar Deer [Cervus imirolor) population abun-
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Monash University)
May SA and Norton TW ( 1996) Influence of fragmen-
tation disturbance on the potential impact of feral
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M e n k h o r s t P W (1995) Ma m rn a Is of Vi ctoria:
Distribution, Ecology and Conservation. (Oxford
University Press: Melbourne)
Moriarly A (2004) l he liberation, distribution, abun-
dance and management of wild deer in Australia.
Wildlife Research 3 1.291 -299.
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Tembv ID and Walsh NG ( 1983) Vertebrate Fauna of
the Gippsland Lakes Catchment Victoria. (Fishers
and Wildlife Division. Ministry for Conservation,
Occasional Paper Series Number I: V ictoria)
Peel B (1999) Rainforests and Coo! Temperate Mixed
Forests of Victoria. (Department of Natural
Resources and Environment: Melbourne)
Price P and Lovett S (2002) Improving water quality,
Fact Sheet 3 (Land and Water Australia: Canberra)
Rooney TP (2001) Deer impacts on forest ecosystems:
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Russell FI., /.ippin DB and Fowler Nl. (2001) Effects
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Received 7 April 2005 ; accepted 30 June 2005
200
The Victorian Naturalist
Tribute
Robert Graham Taylor
5 June 1941 - 17 May 2005
With the passing of Bob Taylor, who died
suddenly from a heart attack on 17 May
2005, the FNCV has lost an enthusiastic
and popular member. Bob joined the
FNCV in 1992 and had been a regular par-
ticipant with the Fauna Survey Group, at
meetings, surveys, and in particular, assist-
ing in running the stagwatches for many
years. He was also a regular at equipment
days and club working bees.
His main love of nature was with the
fauna of the night. Finely honed skills of
observation, gained in the hunting and
fishing days of his younger years, were
used to the maximum to seek some of our
more elusive possums, gliders and owls, in
the Yarra Valley and Dandenong Valley,
which he knew so well. He had an intimate
knowledge of Powerful Owls, their pre-
ferred habitat and how to find these birds.
Over many years, he monitored the breed-
ing success of a number of Powerful Owl
pairs in the nearby hills east of Melbourne.
From Bob’s point of view the Powerful
Owl was the embodiment of the untamed
wild beauty of nature.
Yellow-bellied Gliders and Sugar Gliders
were also among his favourites, and he spent
many hours searching for them and their
nest trees, either alone or with a small group
of naturalists. These surveys were some-
times with residents who were surprised to
be shown what was living on their patch. At
other times. Parks Victoria Rangers would
accompany him as he surveyed at night in
metropolitan and nearby State Parks.
He also took time to introduce many
beginners to spotlighting and the ways of
the animals. From showing us how to spot-
light for Feather-tail Gliders and Pygmy
Possums in flowering Banksia at
Gembrook, or counting a remnant popula-
tion of Sugar Gliders in Heathmont, to
searching for Yellow-bellied Gliders at
Macclesfield, Bob was eager to share his
knowledge and the wildlife experience. He
was a long-term participant in the Fauna
Survey Group’s Stagwatches for
Leadbeater’s Possum, and made a large
Bob Taylor with a Bearded Dragon. Photo Sally
Bewsher.
contribution to the surveys, including plan-
ning. With his wide circle of naturalist
friends he always managed to ring around
and find a few more participants so we
could cover the trees fully.
At meetings he featured in members’
reports with detailed wildlife observations,
often of the behaviour of possums and
gliders, and of Powerful Owls and their
breeding success.
Bob was a long-time active member of
the Friends of the Helmeted Honeyeater,
and a participant in surveys with the Trust
for Nature. He also spoke to suburban field
naturalist clubs, conservation groups and
groups of school children. After his retire-
ment from 40 years in insurance he used
his skills working in environmental consul-
tancy.
Bob will be sadly missed by the many
people wrho got to know him well over the
years and had a close personal relationship
with him. He is survived by his wife Anne,
children Robert and Julie, and his mother
Eleanor.
Raymond Gibson, Russell Thompson
Fauna Survey Group
Field Naturalists Club of Victoria
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
201
Naturalist Notes
Unusual ‘outbreaks’ of a diatom ( TabelUtria flocculosa)
in the Australian Alps
Diatoms are found in all of the world’s
waterways, both fresh and saline. As a
group they are amongst the most important
life forms on earth. In recent times they
have been used as indicators of the health
of freshwater systems (John 2000). Whilst
changes in water quality also may have an
impact on terrestrial vegetation, a direct
link between diatoms and terrestrial plants
does not appear to have been reported.
This is not surprising as the two would sel-
dom meet.
In January 2004, a thick white substance
covering plants (Fig. 1) next to Cope
Creek on the Bogong High Plains of north-
eastern Victoria (1660 m asl) was noticed
(KLIM). The material was confined to a
short, continuous section of creek, its
upper margin apparently planar, suggesting
that the substance had been deposited dur-
ing a higher water level. In December
2004 the same phenomenon was observed
on the banks of Betts Creek, in Kosciuszko
National Park (1770 m asl), over a distance
of about 1 00 m between Guthrie Creek and
Spencers Creek. Both sites are in subalpine
treeless valleys, which are generally cov-
ered in snow during winter. The vegetation
bordering both perennial creeks is a low
open heathland (dominated by Epacris
glacialis in Cope Creek and by Grevillea
australis and Cass in ia sp. a IT. uncata in
Betts Creek) containing herbaceous
species more commonly found in wetland
vegetation (e.g. Carex gaudichaud/ana and
Empodisma minus). The tussock grass Poa
costiniana provides most ground cover at
both sites.
At the Betts Creek site, a piece of the
shrub Grevillea australis , which was cov-
ered in the substance, was removed for
identification. The substance was identi-
fied as the lfustule of the pennate diatom
Tabellaria flocculosa (Roth) Kutzing.
Apart from the stark contrast of the dense
white patches against the surrounding
green vegetation, the phenomenon was
notable because of the apparent poor
health of the plants covered. At the Cope
Creek site, shrubs of Epacris glacialis
Fig. 1. The dense covering of Tabellaria flocculosa frustule on heathland vegetation beside Cope
Creek on the Bogong High Plains, Victoria.
202
The Victorian Naturalist
Naturalist Notes
were shedding their leaves and, when the
white substance was removed from herba-
ceous plants, most appeared to be pallid
and some appeared to be dead (at least
above the ground). At Betts Creek, the
shrub of Grevillea australis , from which
the material was collected for identifica-
tion, was shedding leaves.
The Betts Creek site was re-inspected in
March 2005. The plant of Grevillea aus-
tralis had shed most of its leaves and all
remaining leaves had lost their green
appearance. Since this species does not
resprout following destruction of above
ground parts, the plant was probably dead.
It is uncertain if it died because of the
white covering, as there was a healthy
plant of G. australis within a few metres at
a similar level above the river. The white
covering was still evident on the leaves of
Carex gaudichaudiana but was otherwise
obscure. A narrow line of dead tillers of
Poa costiniana plants was evidence of
where the deposits had been, but all of the
plants of this species were apparently alive
and had produced new' tillers. The damage
to vascular plants from the Tabellaria
coating appears to be negligible and hardly
of concern. It is curious though and we can
find no reference to a similar phenomenon
in the literature.
KL McDougall has worked in the
Australian Alps since 1978 and had not
seen the Tabellaria patches before 2004.
Philibert et al. (2003) found, by examining
sediment cores, that diatom populations
increased for about five years after wild-
fires in late Holocene forest in Canada.
The ‘outbreaks’ in the Australian Alps
may thus be a further consequence of the
January 2003 fires, the first major fire
event in the Australian Alps since 1939.
The catchments of both sites where it was
observed were partly burnt. Changes in
water properties are likely to have
occurred following the fires, as a large
amount of ash was washed into waterways.
The vegetation of both affected sites will
be monitored over the coming years.
Although the impact appears to be negligi-
ble at present, further ‘outbreaks’ causing
death of plants could make stream banks
unstable and lead to erosion.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Stephen Skinner (Royal
Botanic Gardens Sydney) for assisting with
identification of the mysterious white substance.
References
John, J (2000) A guide to diatoms as indicators of
urban stream health. Occasional Paper 14/99 (Urban
Sub Program, Report No. 7). Land and Water
Resources Research and Development Corporation:
Canberra.
Philibert, A, Prairie, YT, Campbell, I and Laird, L
(2003) Effects of late Holocene wildfires on diatom
assemblages in Christina Lake, Alberta, Canada.
Canadian Journal of Fores! Research 33, 2405-2415.
Keith L McDougall'
and Brett A Summered2
'NSW Department of Environment and Conservation,
PO Box 21 15, Queanbeyan, NSW 2620
:Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney, Mrs Macquaries
Road, Sydney 2000
One hundred years ago
FOXES
Mr AE Kitson, FGS
...said that the Geological Survey party, in charge of Mr. W. Baragwanath, jun.,
recently working in the ranges to the north of Mt. Baw Baw, had noticed English
foxes in the locality, which, besides destroying the Lyre-birds in great numbers, had
developed a liking for grasshoppers. The animals seemed to show a slight variation
from the ordinary fox, being smaller and greyer in colouring.
From The Victorian Naturalist 22 (1905), pp.55.
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
203
Naturalist Notes
Bush creatures:
animals observed on a Thryptomene shrub
Introduction
The Thryptomene growing near the north-
facing wall of our house in the Melbourne
suburb of Notting Hill, Victoria, is a low,
spreading shrub approximately 2.4 m
across and 1.2 m high. It has dainty pink
flowers and blooms for most of the year.
When I bought it in 1995 it was labelled
‘Grampians Thryptomene Thryptomene
calycina\ but I think it is probably the
‘Payne’s Hybrid’ form of T. saxicola , a
popular garden plant. With its beautiful
long-lasting floral display, this shrub seems
to attract more insects than any other plant
in our garden. In the spring of 2003 I decid-
ed to find out what types of creatures live
on or visit it. I had little idea of the fasci-
nating experience that awaited me.
Animals seen
1 began my observations (about 1 hour per
week) in September 2003 and kept a record
of each animal I saw on the shrub for the
first time. In order to facilitate subsequent
identification, I aimed to photograph each
creature I could find, but many were too
quick, too shy, too small, or so well camou-
flaged that I couldn't see them once they
landed on the shrub. By the end of August
2004 I had listed over 90 kinds of arthro-
pods and two species of passerine birds.
Arthropods
As expected, arthropods were the most
common animals observed. These included
Arachnida, in particular Araneae (spiders)
and Acarina (mites); while in Insecta, the
dominant Orders included Mantodea,
Orthoptera. Phasmatodea, Hemiptera,
Thysanoptera, C'oleoptera, Lepidoptera.
Diptera and Hymenoptera, with the latter
two Orders together accounting for more
than half the species seen.
Araneae
Flower spiders (Thomisidae) were
numerous. One of these was a creamy
colour (Fig. 1), easy to see on the pink
flowers; but there were also many smaller,
better-camouflaged individuals dressed in
varying patterns of cream, green and
brown, looking just like part of the shrub.
Late one afternoon I watched one of these
crab spiders climb straight up into the air
until it was so high that it disappeared
from view ! There must have been a spider
web ‘highway' up there, connected to the
treetops several metres away. The distance
seemed vast for so small a creature, and
the journey hazardous with birds and
wasps in the vicinity.
Jumping spiders (Salticidae) explored the
shrub and nearby plants, while what
looked like a scrap of dead leaf hanging
motionless between the Thryptomene and
Grevillea ‘Robyn Gordon’ turned out to be
a humped spider (Uloboridae) on its long
strand of web. In January a leaf-curling
spider Phonognatha sp. (Argiopidae)
anchored its web to the Thryptomene and
adjacent Correa ‘Dusky Bells’. There was
also a lynx spider (Oxyopidae) with very
spiny legs; an unidentified very small shiny
black spider; and a minute, almost black
spider (possibly Linyphiidae), identifiable
as such only with a xlO hand lens. Its glo-
bose abdomen was streaked with short light
brown hair-like lines, while its legs were
striped light and dark brown. Miniscule
insects were caught in its tiny web.
Fig. 1. Creamy coloured flower spider
204
The Victorian Naturalist
Naturalist Notes
Acarina
In the first week of October one predatory
mite, orange in colour and very fast mov-
ing, was seen scurrying along the twigs.
Mantodea
Several green Praying Mantids Tenodera
sp., and also a few robust-looking brown
individuals were present. During
December at least a dozen mantids were on
the shrub. When the weather remained hot
and dry for an extended period they
appeared dehydrated, so I gently sprayed a
little water on the leaves near them. They
drank immediately: desperation evidently
dispelled any fear of predators noticing
their movements. I was fortunate enough
to find a green Praying Mantid just after it
had shed its skin, and also watched one of
these insects eat a blowfly. As far as I
could tell, they all disappeared from the
shrub before reaching adulthood.
Orthoptera
One nymph and one adult form of a long-
homed grasshopper (Tettigoniidae), green
with a dark reddish colour on the upper
surface, were seen in spring and summer
respectively. I don’t know if there were
any more. Some mornings I watched an
adult half walking, half hopping from the
Thiyplomene to the Grevillea , but I didn’t
see it return.
Phasmatodea
A beautiful brown female stick insect
Ctenomorphodes tessulatus (Phasmatidae)
arrived in the shrub on the afternoon of 23
January 2004. With a body about 18 cm
long, this was the largest arthropod I saw. I
watched it for a considerable time without
seeing it move, except for swaying occa-
sionally as if in a light breeze. Next morn-
ing it had gone.
Hemiptera
Bugs seen on the plant included a green
psyllid (Psyllidae); aphids (Aphididae);
white fly (Aleyrodidae); ‘Greengrocer’
cicada Cyclochila australasiae (Cicadi-
dae); planthopper Siphcwta acuta
(Flatidae); a small green bug (Lygaeidae);
a minute leafhopper and a grey leafhopper
(Ricaniidae); Passion Vine Hopper Scoly-
popa australis (Ricaniidae); and the intro-
duced Green Vegetable Bug Nezara
viridula (Pentatomidae).
Thysanoptera
At just 1 mm in length, thrips were
among the smallest creatures 1 could see
on the shrub. They looked yellow when
caught in a spider web but brown when on
my hand or in the flowers. What sorts of
images do they see with their minute eyes?
Coleoptera
Although almost one third of insect
species in Australia are beetles (Zborowski
and Storey 2003), I found.only five, and all
were less than 3 mm long. Two were round
and three were oval in shape, and they
came in a variety of colours including
black, grey, red and shades of brown.
Diptera
An amazing variety of flies accounted for
approximately one third of the arthropods
seen on the shrub. Species recorded includ-
ed cranefly (Tipulidae); moth fly
(Psychodidae); mosquito with striped legs
(Culicidae); two species of fungus gnat
(Mycetophilidae); robber fly (Asilidae); a
bluish-green, black-striped long-legged fly
Austrosciapus sp. (Dolichopodidae); hover
fly Melangyna sp. and bee-like hover fly
Eristalis tenax (Syrphidae); a dark-
coloured fly (Platystomatidae) that ‘exer-
cised’ its wings when resting; a small fly
( Lauxaniidae) with speckled wings and
green eyes; bush By Musca vetustissima
(Muscidae); blowflies Calliphora stygia
(Fig. 2) and Chrysamya spp. (Calliphor-
idae); and Grey-striped Flesh Fly Sarcoph-
aga aurifrons (Sarcophagidae). Blowflies
were regular visitors, but some others, such
as the robber fly, were seen only once.
Several other flies, resembling blowflies
and bush flies in shape, came in a range of
sizes and colours. For example, one was
small and pale brown, one small and grey,
and another shiny blue-black with orange-
brown wings. One blowfly had an emerald
green (not shiny) thorax, while another
w as brow nish with a pale thorax.
There were also many different small
flies that folded their wings back over their
bodies when resting. Some show ed distinc-
tive features: one had a large head, another
a glossy black thorax, and yet another a
shiny brown thorax.
It was fascinating to observe the way a
cranefly with a body about 7 mm in length
managed to shift its long legs into position
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
205
Naturalist Notes
Fig. 2. Blowfly CaUiphom stygiu.
when it landed, and to witness the exagger-
ated up-and-down movements of its head
as it fed on nectar in the flowers. When at
rest this insect was very well camouflaged.
It lay along a twig with its front and back
legs stretched out and its middle legs fold-
ed back then forward from the first joint.
In this position the species I saw occupied
a 3.7-cm length of twig.
Lepidoptera
Larval stages present included those of
casemoths (Psychidae) and three species of
looper caterpillars (Geometridae). Adult
individuals visiting the plant included
Painted Lady Vanessa kershawi , Australian
Admiral V ilea (Nymphalidae), Common
Grass Blue Zizina labradus labradus
(Lycaenidae), White-banded Grassdart
Taractrocera papyria papvria
( Hesperiidae) (Fig. 3), a yellow moth
(Oecophoridae), and several unidentified
moths in various shades of grey or brown.
When I saw a White-banded Grassdart for
the first time I raced outside with my cam-
era and approached the insect very slowly.
As I did so a Red Wattlebird Anthochaera
carunculata swooped overhead, and it was
wondrous to see the Grassdart instantly
close its wings and - from the bird’s view-
point - effectively disappear.
Perhaps most interesting of all were the
casemoth Clania sp. larvae (Fig. 4). Being
slow-moving, relatively large and resident
in the plant, they were easier to observe
than the speedy visitors. Over a period of
about half an hour I had the pleasure of
watching one cut off a piece of twig, deftly
manoeuvre it with its feet, apply caterpillar
silk to it, then stick it to the top of its case.
I didn't see it attach the far end, but
according to Common (1990) these crea-
tures withdraw into their cases, make a
hole at the point where the stick is to be
attached, put out their heads and ‘glue’ the
stick down, then repair the hole!
I had often wondered why many of these
larval cases have one long twig which pro-
jects past the rest. Then 1 saw a larva rest-
ing the long stick on one twig while it ate
leaves on another twig. Was it taking a
short cut or taking the weight off its feet?
Days later I saw a larva apparently defying
gravity! While its head end munched on
young leaves at the tip of a fine, thin twig,
its encased body lay horizontally in the air
with no obvious means of support. Close
examination revealed that the long stick
was held by a loosely constructed web.
Had the larva made the web, or had it used
a spider web that happened to be there?
During November several of the casemoth
larvae migrated from the shrub to the eaves
of the house to pupate. Others stayed on the
shrub. Some of these were small, had no
long stick in their cases, and may have been
dormant, but two larger ones also stayed. I
think one of these might have died, because
I saw two species of fly feeding from the
bottom of the case. One was a small shiny
Fig. 3. Grassdart
206
The Victorian Naturalist
Naturalist Notes
blue-black fly v/ith orange-brown wings,
which 1 haven’t seen before or since, and
the other was the larger Grey-striped Flesh
Fly that is common in our garden. I didn’t
see any flies on the other cases.
On 2 January I had the good fortune to
watch a casemoth larva climb the brick
wall of our house and attach itself to the
eaves. It had started ascending the wall
when I found it, but 1 estimate that the
entire journey of approximately 3.4 m
must have taken at least two hours. Flow I
admired the larva's strength and tenacity
as it climbed, constructing a ‘silken ladder’
as it proceeded, in the manner described by
Broadberry (1999) for the Saunders
Casemoth Oiketicus elongatus. The 'rungs’
were each about 4 mm long and 7 mm
apart. The larva did not climb straight up,
but took a wavy diagonal route (Fig. 5).
Faint remnants of older ‘ladders’ on the
wall indicated that other larvae had done
likewise. At the time of writing (19
September 2004) the case is still hanging
there, but I don’t know if an adult has
emerged from it.
Hymenoptera
The wide variety of wasps and bees sur-
prised me, particularly since I had previ-
ously noticed only the introduced Honey
Bee Apis meUifera (Apidae) and European
Wasp Vespula germanica (Vespidae) on
the plant.
A small reddish-brown wasp Hetero-
pelma sp. (Ichneumonidae) looked ‘angry’,
constantly waving its long antennae as it
ran along the twigs. A larger reddish-
brown wasp, belonging to the same family,
had iridescent wings and was extremely
wary. There were two types of Braconid
wasp (Braconidae), one very handsome
with a reddish-brown head and thorax and
black eyes, and the other much smaller,
with a black head and thorax and a red-
dish-brown abdomen. Three different sizes
of the slender gasteruptid wasps
(Gasteruptiidae) had me puzzled for a long
time: at first all 1 could see were creamy-
coloured dots and fuzz flying around. A
cuckoo wasp (Chrysididae) with a greenish
gold metallic sheen, spider wasps
(Pompilidae) and a small male black wasp
(Tiphiidae) (the female is wingless) were
also present. The above-mentioned
European Wasp was often seen. There
were other wasps too, including two tiny
parasitic wasps, one black and one yellow,
each less than 2 mm long. In February
black wasps (probably Odynerus sp.)
rather smaller than the Honey Bee, with
two yellow (or sometimes orange) stripes
on the abdomen, visited many of the
cocoons on the plant. After careful inspec-
tion, each insect would insert its ovipositor
into cocoons of its choice, I don’t know the
outcome of this activity.
Small ants (Formicidae), some black and
some brown, fed on nectar. The black ants
also ran along the branches to the Correa
bush, but because of the density of the veg-
etation I didn’t locate their destination.
There were several species of bees,
including two belonging to the family
Colletidae and three to the Halictidae.
Mason bees (Megachilidae), grey and
black with orange-brown tipped abdomens,
came to the flowers in summer. Sometimes
up to four would arrive and attempt to
drive each other away. Being solitary bees
they were no doubt competing for the food
source, but I didn’t see them attack any
other species. There was also a small black
bee with two yellow stripes, and another
small bee Exoneura sp. (Apidae) with a
black-striped reddish-brown abdomen. The
Honey Bee, already mentioned, visited the
shrub w henever the flowrers were blooming
(i.e. in all months except November) and
when weather conditions were suitable.
This bee was definitely the boss, dismiss-
ing any other species that happened to be
in its way.
Fig. 4. Casemoth larva feeding
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
207
Naturalist Notes
•x,
Fig. 5. Casemoth larva climbing wall. Part of
the ‘silken ladder' is visible on the left.
Arthropods in cocoons
During September and October many tips
of the twigs were joined together by a sub-
stance resembling spider- or caterpillar
silk, so that the plant appeared to be cov-
ered in knots of various sizes and shapes. I
opened one of these ‘knots’ but found no
animal inside. Flowering ceased at the
beginning of November and the ‘knots’
‘unravelled' soon afterwards. By mid
December flowering had resumed, and by
the end of December new' cocoons were
appearing. Again 1 missed seeing which
animals constructed or emerged from
them. Oh for video surveillance! In
February I noticed that the leaves encasing
some of the cocoons were dead. I opened
one of these cocoons but found nothing
inside. A dead leaf at the entrance to one
small cocoon had fallen off, and the dark
speck I saw there turned out to be a minute
spider (see Araneae, above). One other
cocoon I examined with a hand lens had
caterpillar frass in the silk, as though a
miniature webworm had been there.
Birds
Passeriformes
On 31 January a House Sparrow Passer
domestieus paid several visits to the shrub.
The bird appeared to be feeding on some-
thing but I couldn't see what: I just hoped
it would leave the Praying Mantids alone.
On the mornings of 26 and 27 August a
Red Wattlebird flew into the shrub a num-
ber of times and seemed to be tugging at
something. 1 could not see whether it was
feeding or collecting dry thin twigs for
nesting material.
Conclusion
It is astonishing how much happens on
just one garden plant. Observing the ani-
mals on this shrub has been immensely
rewarding, though I am left with more
questions than ever. Having experienced
the thrill of discovery, I shall continue to
‘shrub-watch’ and marvel at what I see.
Acknowledgements
My grateful thanks go to Cuong Huynh, of
Deakin University Burwood, for generously
donating his time to identify the insects and spi-
ders from my photographs and specimens. My
thanks also go to Dr Ken Walker of Museum
Victoria, who identified many creatures from
my photographs and also made several helpful
comments and suggestions.
References
Broadberry, J (1999) A Diary of the Saunders
Casemoth Oiketicus elongatus. The Victorian
Naturalist 116, 175-178.
Common, I F B (1990) Moths of Australia. (Melbourne
University Press: Melbourne)
Zborowski, P and Storey, R (2003). A Field Guide to
Insects in Australia . 2 ed. (Reed New Holland:
Sydney)
Virgil Hubregtse
6 Saniky Sy, Notting Hill, Vic 3168
208
The Victorian Naturalist
Naturalist Notes
Observations of movements of Water Rats
Hydromys chrysogaster on Cat Island,
Furneaux Group, Bass Strait, Tasmania
Introduction
There appear to be few recent or detailed
studies of the Water Rat Hydromys chryso-
gaster in Australia (e.g. Brazenor 1936;
Troughton 1941; McNally 1960, but see
Gardner and Serena 1995). This may
reflect its apparent abundant status, with its
overall range thought not to have altered
much since European Settlement (Olsen
1995). The Water Rat is a native rodent,
restricted to Australia, New Guinea and
adjacent islands (Olsen 1995). The Water
Rat has been recorded in many different
habitats from temperate and tropical rain-
forests (Hocking and Guiler 1983;
Laurance 1 994). rivers, swamps and irriga-
tion areas, to some marine beaches
(Peterson 1965; Woollard et al . 1978;
Olsen 1995). Woollard et al. (1978) stud-
ied the ecology, food and feeding habits of
the Water Rat at a swamp in New South
Wales, and found fish to be the most
important food item. The biology of the
Water Rat is discussed by McNally (1960)
and Fanning and Dawson (1980).
This note reports on the movements of
Water Rats that were observed opportunis-
tically on Cat Island, Bass Strait (39° 57’
S., 148° 2V E). While the Water Rat is
known to occur on some marine beaches,
and has been recorded on Cat Island previ-
ously (Whinray 1971). there do not appear
to be any studies of the Water Rat in a
marine habitat, and this note aims to pro-
vide some insights and inspire interest.
Site description
Cat Island is located about 7 km from the
eastern coast of Flinders Island, and forms
part of the Babel group which in turn is
part of the Furneaux Group (Fig 1). Cat
Island is a Wildlife Sanctuary managed by
the National Parks and Wildlife Service,
Tasmania. The island is about 0.8 km by 1
km and approximately 49 ha. in size
(Warham 1979). The island is wholly
granitic and rises to approximately 32 m
above sea level (Warham 1979). There is
no permanent fresh water (Warham 1979).
Most of the coastline is rocky, except for
two sandy bays (North Bay and South
Bay) (Fig. 1).
Most of the island is covered in low veg-
etation growing over sandy soil. To the
west of the hut (Fig. 1), the vegetation is
dominated by Poa poiformis with a few
areas of bare ground or rock. The area east
of the hut is dominated by saltbushes
Atriplex cinerea and Rhagodia haccata,
and an Australian Hollyhock Lavatera ple-
heia. The eastern area is more sparsely
vegetated than the western side of the
island.
Cat Island once supported an extensive
gannetry for Australasian Gannets Moms
s err a tor, which has disappeared through
overexploitation (Warham and Serventy
1978). Little Penguins Eudyptula minor ,
Short-tailed Shearwaters PufJ'inus
tenuirostris and Tiger Snakes Notechis sp.
are common. Whinray (1971) records the
Water Rat as ‘common’.
Observations
Water Rats were observed on Cat Island
during November, 1994. For three weeks,
some mornings and most evenings were
spent recording movements of some of the
island's Water Rats. Movements of the
Water Rats were mapped through sight-
ings, tracks, scratching^ distinctive scats
and odour. The number of Water Rats on
the island at the time is not known.
Movement patterns
Olsen (1995) states that the Water Rat is
unusual among Australian rodents in that it
is not entirely nocturnal, with most activity
taking place around sunset. Woollard et al.
(1978) reported that Water Rats could be
seen feeding at any time of the day, but
particularly in the evenings. Gardner and
Serena (1995) report that most activity
takes place two to three hours immediately
after sunset. Water Rats will move in and
out of the water regularly to avoid
hypothermia, as they cannot maintain their
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
209
Naturalist Notes
body temperature in cold water (Gardner
and Serena 1995).
Water Rats on Cat Island often were
observed to emerge from the water at dusk
but also w'ere sighted to emerge in the
early morning. Upon emerging, the Water
Rats were seen to scratch the sand vigor-
ously, then disappeared among the rocks,
and either went back into the water or were
not seen again (Fig. 1). Scats, scratchings
in the sand and feed ‘tables' were found
amongst the rocks to the west of the bay
(see hatched area in Fig. 1). It is unknown
where the Water Rats went after emerging
from the w'ater as the grass tussocks behind
the rocks were very thick and no tracks
inland could be found.
Water Rats were observed going into the
water in the mornings (after dawn) and late
at night (at around 9-10 pm, approximately
one to two hours after sunset). This sug-
gests that feeding by the Water Rats on Cat
Island can occur at any time, day or night.
The regular route from the island to South
Bay, for at least one group of Water Rats,
included passing under the accommodation
hut, which was situated between the two
bays (Fig. 1). In the mornings, one to usual-
Fig. 1: Cal Island, Bass Strait Tasmania.
Approximate locations are given for Water Rat
observations. X marks the location of the bur-
row of the Water Rats; the dashed line repre-
sents the approximate location of the tracks
found. The hatched area to the west of South
Bay, shows the area where the Water-rats were
observed to emerge from the water amongst
rocks and tussocks.
ly three sets of tracks would lead under the
hut and down the man-made path to the
middle of the beach at South Bay, and into
the water (Fig. 1). Wc knew when the
Water Rats were moving under the hut as
these were accompanied by raucous cries
from the penguins and Shearwaters that
nested under the hut. The birds under the
hut did not make burrows, but had scrapes
in the sand in which they nested, the hut
presumably providing adequate shelter.
Water Rats moved independently down to
the beach at various time intervals, but
times were at least half an hour apart.
Water Rats appeared to go into the water
at a different location from where they
emerged. Tracks going into the water were
seen only in the middle of the beach, and
they were seen moving only in a southerly
direction along the man-made path associ-
ated with the hut (Fig. 1). However, no
tracks were seen going out of the water in
the middle of the beach and animals were
only seen emerging from the water
amongst the rocks and tussocks at the
western edge of the beach (Fig. 1 ).
Other records tend to suggest that Water
Rats live very near the edge of water
(Gardner and Serena 1995 (within 2 m of
waters edge); Olsen 1995). However, on
Cat Island this was not the case. After the
Water Rats had emerged from the water at
dusk or in the morning, their tracks were
followed. The tracks leading away from the
beach went under the hut and lead to a bur-
row, approximately 100 metres inland (Fig
1), on a rising dune. The burrow had two
entrances amongst the roots of L. pie beta.
There was nothing unusual about the vege-
tation or look' of the area surrounding the
burrows, and without following the tracks
they would not have been found easily. The
burrows were approximately 20 cm wide,
of an elongated shape, and approximately
one metre apart in the same clump of
Hollyhock bushes. The roots of the
Hollyhock supported the 'roof of the bur-
rows.
Olsen (1995) suggests that individual
Water Rats may be territorial. However, on
Cat Island many tracks appeared to lead in
the direction of the burrow , suggesting that
there may. be some communal living. (The
constant wind would cover any ‘old’ tracks
with sand). Gardner and Serena (1995)
210
The Victorian Naturalist
Naturalist Notes
report two juvenile females sharing a den.
The location of the burrow in the middle
of the east part of the island may be a
response to the threat of predation. Young
Water Rats can be preyed upon by snakes
(Olsen 1995), which are numerous on Cat
Island. The Tiger Snakes feed on the eggs
and chicks of the Shearwaters by going
into their burrows in the sand. The Water
Rats' burrows were away from the main
area where the majority of Shearwater
nests occurred. The Shearwaters' nests
seemed to be in greater densities amongst
the grass tussocks, where a few scattered
rocks provided launching platforms.
Therefore, the Water Rats' burrow was pre-
sumably located in an area where Tiger
Snakes were in lower densities. Another
explanation may be the threat of storms
and high tides. However, the bay in which
they entered the water is quite sheltered
and the threat of storms and high tides may
not adequately explain the location of the
burrows.
The adaptive nature of the Water Rat has
been noted (Woollard et at. 1978) and it
may be this adaptive nature that leads to
Water Rats observed on Cat Island to dis-
play some different behaviour from that
reported for those occurring elsewhere.
This note, however, is based on casual
observations rather than a scientific study.
It is clear that there is more to learn of this
adaptable animal. Detailed studies of
Water Rats in a range of environments
would provide further insights.
References
Brazenor CW (1936) Muridae recorded from Victoria.
Memoirs of the National Museum of Victoria 10, 66.
Fanning I D and Dawson TJ (1980) Body temperature
variability in the Australian Water-rat, Hydromys
chrvsogaster, in air and water. Australian Journal of
Zoology 28, 229-238.
Gardner JL and Serena M ( 1995) Observations on
activity patterns, population and den characteristics
of the water rat Hydromys chrvsogaster along Badger
Greek, Victoria. Australian Mammalogy ■ 18, 71-75.
I locking GJ and Guiler ER (1983) The mammals of the
Lower Gordon River region southwest Tasmania,
AustjfaJia, Australian Wildlife Research 10. 1-24.
Lauranee WF (1994) Rainforest fragmentation and the
structure of small mammal communities in tropical
Queensland. Biological Conservation 69, 23-32.
McNally .1 (1960) The biology of the Water-rat
Hydromys chrvsogaster (icoffroy (Muridae:
Hydromyinae) in Victoria. Australian Journal of
Zoology 8, 170-180.
Olsen PD (1995) Water-rat Hydromys chrvsogaster. In
The Mammals of Australia pp 628-629 Ed. R.
Slrahan. (Australian Museum/Reed New Holland:
Sydney)
Peterson J (1965) Eastern Water-rat. The Victorian
Naturalist 82, 206.
Troughton E (1941) Australian Water-rats: their origin
and habits. Australian Museum Magazine 1941, 377-
81
Warham J (1979) Seabird Islands Cat Island,
Tasmania. Corella 3, 42-45
Warham J and Serventy DL (1978) Decline of the gan-
netry on Cal Island. Tasmania. Corella 2, 69-70.
Whinray JS (1971) The present distribution of some
mammals in the Furneaux group, Bass Strait,
Tasmania. The Victorian Naturalist 88, 270-285.
Woollard P, Vestjens WJM and MacLean L (1978) The
ecology of the Eastern Water-rat Hydromys chryso-
gaster at Griffith, N.S.W: Food and feeding habits.
Australian Wildlife Research 5, 59-73.
Jenny A Wilson and
Andrew R. Duffell
Department of Sustainability and Environment
35 Sydney Road, Benalla, Vic 3672
One hundred years ago
NOTES ON PHOSPHORESCENCE IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS
By Miss Freda Bage.
The light emitted by flowering plants is not, however, limited to the flowers them-
selves Gardner records the phosphorescence of the sap of a Brazilian plant. Euphorbia
phosporea; and in a certain palm the rupture of the spathe or shield covering the flow-
ers is accompanied by a noise and spark.
Perhaps the cases of vegetable phosphorescence best known to us are those shown by
certain luminous fungi. Some of these - Rhizomorphae - light up coal mines, and, in
England, they occasionally show a light bright enough to read by.
From The Victorian Naturalist 21 (1904-5 ), p. 93.
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
211
Naturalist Notes
A road-killed exotic snake in a Melbourne suburb
The keeping of exotic reptiles by amateur
herpetoculturalists is a popular practice in
many countries. This practice (along with
the import or procurement of such ani-
mals) is illegal in Victoria. Despite this,
there is an apparently thriving ‘under-
ground' trade in these animals, exempli-
fied by declarations by some people during
a recent amnesty held by the Victorian
Department of Sustainability and
Environment, and the periodic prosecution
of people found to be holding such rep-
tiles. Here I report the discovery of a road-
killed exotic snake in suburban Melbourne.
In early December 2004 Mr Malcolm
Doreian noted a road-killed snake in the
Melbourne suburb of Rosanna. With
knowledge of snake species that naturally
occur in that area, he noted that this speci-
men was unusual, collected the snake and
tentatively identified it as a North
American Corn Snake ( Elaphe guttata gut-
tata). He subsequently delivered the speci-
men to me and I was able to confirm his
identification. The specimen was a male,
measuring approximately 615 mm in total
length, with a tail length of approximately
108 mm. These dimensions are within
those known for the species (Conant and
Collins 1998). The specimen has been
lodged at Museum Victoria (specimen
number D72919).
The discovery of this snake highlights
some of the issues surrounding the illegal
importation and keeping of exotic reptiles.
Whilst many of the people who keep these
animals undoubtedly exercise great care
with the husbandry and security of their
animals, this incident demonstrates that
these animals can and do enter the wild,
although it is not known whether this par-
ticular snake was released or had escaped.
The introduction to the wild of individual
animals beyond their natural range is a
concern for several reasons. Such occur-
rences pose an unacceptable risk of intro-
ducing disease and/or parasites to indige-
nous wildlife. Indigenous species are fre-
quently naive to these foreign pathogens,
and lack immunity and other defences that
may be present in the original host. Whilst
there is valid concern about known dis-
eases and parasites, even greater concern is
perhaps warranted regarding diseases of
which we are not currently aware. This
point is demonstrated by the inadvertent
introduction to many parts of the world of
the amphibian fungal pathogen that causes
the disease Chytridiomycosis. This dis-
ease, believed to have been the primary
agent of devastating declines and losses of
amphibians on several continents (e.g.
Berger et a/. 1998), probably entered
Australia several decades ago, via infected
frogs imported from South Africa (Weldon
et at. 2004). This case exemplifies the
extreme risk that currently unknown dis-
eases can pose to naive wildlife exposed to
exotic transplants.
The consequences of exotic species
becoming established beyond their natural
range can be devastating, and can range
from competition with local species to ele-
vated rates of predation that may threaten
the future of some prey species or perturb
local predator-prey relationships. An
example of the devastation that may be
caused by the introduction of a snake to
areas beyond its natural range is the exten-
sive damage to the avifauna of Guam
caused by the Brown Tree Snake Boiga
irregularis (Savidge 1987).
Several herpetofauna that do not natural-
ly occur in the Melbourne area have
become established there. These include
Marbled Geckos Christ inns marmoratus ,
Water Dragons Physignalhus lesueurii ,
Common Long-necked Tortoises Chelo-
dina longicollis and Eastern Dwarf Tree
Frogs Litoria fallax. The ecological conse-
quences of the establishment of these ani-
mals are unknown. However, the natural
geographic range of each of these taxa
includes south-eastern Australia (just so
for the frog), and their potential to intro-
duce novel pathogens is considerably less
than that of animals from overseas.
The natural geographic range of the Com
Snake encompasses the eastern and south-
eastern states of the United States of
America (Conant and Collins 1998).
Consequently, this species is likely to be
212
The Victorian Naturalist
Book Reviews
able to survive in southern Australia’s cli-
mate. Similarly, the Corn Snake is found in
a variety of terrestrial habitats (and also
climbs well) (Conant and Collins 1998),
suggesting that it may cope well in local
environments.
The introduction and potential establish-
ment of exotic species such as the Corn
Snake poses unacceptable ecological and
conservation risks. Although several gov-
ernment agencies continue to try to prevent
occurrences such as that documented here,
this case demonstrates the need for greater
responsibility amongst those who keep
reptiles.
Acknowledgements
1 thank Malcolm Doreian for collecting the
snake and delivering the specimen to me, and
Dianne Bray (Museum Victoria) for processing
the specimen. Geoff Brown provided a critique
of this note.
Where river meets sea:
Exploring Australia’s
estuaries
by Lynne Turner, Dieter Tracey,
Jan Tilden and William C. Dennison
Publisher: Cooperative Research Centre
for Coastal Zone, Estuary and Waterway
Management, Indooroop illy, 2004. 278
pages, paperback; colour photographs.
ISBN 0957867883. RRP $49.95
It’s good to see one of our CRCs writing
to inform the general reading public, rather
than confining its output to science and
industry. While river management, river
health (or condition) and river restoration
are currently big ticket issues at State and
Federal level, it is well to remember that
the river many of us think we live near
may actually be an estuary. The post-
References
Conant R and Collins T (1998) A Field Guide to
Reptiles & Amphibians: Eastern and Central North
America. The Peterson Field Guide Series.
(Houghton Mifflin Company: USA).
Berger L, Speare R. Daszak P. Green D, Cunningham
A’ Goggin L, Slocombe R. Ragan M, Hyatt A,
McDonald K, Hines IF Lips K, Marantelli G and
Parkes H. (1998) ChyUidiomycosis causes amphib-
ian mortality associated with population declines in
the rain forests of Australia and Central America.
Proceedings of the National Acadamy of Science.
95, 9031-9036.'
Savidge JA (1987) Extinction of an island avifauna by
an introduced snake. Ecology 68, 660-668.
Weldon C\ du Preez LH, Hyatt AD, Muller R, Speare
R. (2004) Origins of the amphibian chytrid fungus.
Emerging Infectious Diseases 1 0, 2 1 00-2 1 05.
Nick Clemann
Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research
Department of Sustainability and Environment
PO Box 137, Heidelberg Victoria 3084
glacial sea level rise onto this low-relief
continent created many estuaries (over
1000 according to this book) and the low
rates of sediment delivery from our catch-
ments has determined that most of them
have infilled very little in the 6000 years
since they were created.
This book is about more than just estuar-
ies in the strict meaning of that word. It
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
213
Book Reviews
deals with six different kinds of coastal envi-
ronment - wave dominated estuary, strand-
plain, tide dominated estuary, tidal flats,
wave dominated delta and tide dominated
delta - in an attractive, well written and
beautifully illustrated format. The authors
aim to 'enhance estuary literacy' (page v) in
14 chapters, after reminding their readers
that most of the things we do in catchments
will have impacts in estuaries. Throughout
the book, the interactions between people
and estuaries arc highlighted.
Chapter 1 defines the six estuary types,
explains their basic dynamics and maps
their distribution around Australia, con-
cluding with a discussion of the manage-
ment implications of this classification. An
overview of Australia's estuaries is provid-
ed by drainage basins in Chapter 2 with an
interesting synthesis of their condition,
population, major features, threats and
management arrangements. The general
association between high population in the
drainage basins and condition of the estu-
aries is clear but there are some real sur-
prises, notably, in the South West and the
Pilbara. Despite tiny populations, these
estuaries arc among the most stressed in
the country.
A general discussion of estuary habitats
in a distributed Australian context follows
in Chapter 3, and the interactions between
people and estuaries are reviewed in
Chapter 4. Chapter 5 provides an overview
of methods for assessing estuary health.
The remaining half of the book is devoted
to a state-by-state assessment of estuaries,
arranged by coastal regions. Here we are
provided with an exposition of the way the
overall drivers of estuary type - climate,
wave regime, tidal range, topography -
interact with catchment land uses and spe-
cific activities in the estuary to produce
outcomes in terms of estuary condition and
ecosystem stress levels. To most of these
regional surveys is added one or more spe-
cific case studies. Read the one on the
Peel-Harvey Estuary in the South West
and see how a specific set of natural condi-
tions can combine to create a fragile estu-
arine environment easily damaged by
catchment agricultural practices that in
another location would have inflicted far
less damage. Each state chapter concludes
with an overview of estuary management
arrangements for that state as well as rele-
vant community initiatives.
If you get to the end of Chapter 12 (estu-
aries of Queensland) and are still in any
doubt about the central message of this
book, then Chapter 13 will set you straight.
Entitled ‘Looking Back - Moving
Forward', this chapter describes eight
examples from history (and mostly recent
history at that) of estuarine disaster stories.
One of the most pertinent to us is the case
of the Colorado Delta in Mexico. The
United Sates takes 90% of the water before
it gets into Mexico and Mexican farmers
use the remaining 10%. The result? A dead
delta. If this has a familiar ring to it, go
back to Chapter 9 where the Murray mouth
is discussed as one of the estuaries of
South Australia. At least in the case of our
largest river system, the jurisdiction
boundaries within it are between states and
not international.
The book provides a list of contact
details for organizations with responsibili-
ty for estuaries nationally and by state, a
glossary, and a comprehensive bibliogra-
phy and index. At $49.95 it is good value.
Brian Finlayson
School of Anthropology, Geography and
Environmental Studies
The University of Melbourne
For assistance in preparing this issue, thanks to Virgil Hubregtse (editorial assistance),
Dorothy Mahler (administrative assistance) and Mimi Pohl (labels).
214
The Victorian Naturalist
Book Reviews
This book lives up to its title, being the
culmination of a nine month Internet con-
ference in 2003, culminating in a face-to-
face meeting of 200 people in Canberra.
The result was 34 recommendations to gov-
ernment for action. These are contained in
the appendix of the report. The full content
of the conference is available at:
www.isosconference@org.au
The book came about when speakers
from the conference were each offered the
opportunity to expand their message, in a
chapter, within a printed volume. The
authors are all national leaders in their
respective fields. Professor Peter Cullen
AO of the Wentworth Group, for example,
writes about water, and Dr Clive Hamilton,
from the Australia Institute about the tran-
sition to a post-growth society.
Being a collection by different writers,
the book varies in style; this is both a
In search of sustainability
Edited by Jenny Goldie, Bob Douglas
and Bryan Furness
Publisher: CSIRO Publishing,
Collingwood, Victoria, 2005. 187 pages
ISBN 06430906202. RRP $29.95
blessing and a curse. I found some authors
engaging, whilst others were so dry that I
lost interest in trying to follow their direc-
tion. On the other hand, one likeable aspect
of having different authors was that I could
dip into the book at any chapter that took
my fancy.
The second-last chapter in the book, on
population, was written by one of the edi-
tors, Jenny Goldie, so she was able to draw
on the previous writers to highlight how all
the issues are in fact interrelated.
The focus of the book and the final re-
commendations are big picture directions
for our society. The idea is to set a new
agenda for government policy, to give a
direction to take Australia closer to sus-
tainability
I was a little frustrated by a lack of ways
to implement the reforms suggested; how-
ever, the book is a great resource. It covers
the issues in all areas, to a level of detail
that will leave the reader informed enough
to want to do something about seeing the
uptake of the recommendations as soon as
possible.
Bill Pemberton
Sustainable Building Consultant
SCARAB Solutions
18 Main St, Blackburn, Victoria 3130
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
215
Book Reviews
Fungi Down Under , written by Pat and
Ed Grey and published by Fungimap,
includes photographs, descriptions and dis-
tribution records of the 100 Fungimap 'tar-
get’ species, as well as other information
relevant to the study of larger fungi.
This field guide had its genesis in the
Fungimap project, a scheme to map 100 eas-
ily identifiable species of mushrooms and
other fungi using information sent in by vol-
unteer recorders. Thus far, the Compendium
of Fungimap Target Species (CD-ROM) has
been the only resource that contains infor-
mation about all the target species.
The immediate appeal of this book lies in
its design and layout, and full credit should
go to Leon Costerinans for overseeing its
production. Each species is assigned a
page, with one photograph indicating the
diagnostic features of the fruit body and
another showing typical habitat. Detailed
descriptions of the fungus, typical sub-
strate, habit, habitat, main fruiting period
and look-alikes’ are also included.
The maps are a first for a fungi book in
Australia. To some extent they will, like
any other mapping project which relies on
information sent in by volunteers, reflect
the distribution and favourite foraying sites
of fungi mappers. However, these maps,
based on over 20 000 records, are valuable
for a number of reasons.
Firstly, anyone contributing to the project
will appreciate seeing that their record
lodged at Fungimap central (housed at the
Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne) has
Fungi Down Under
by Pat and Ed Grey
Publisher: Fungimap, Royal Botanic Gardens,
Melbourne, 2005, 146 pages.
Paperback ISBN 064644674-6
RRPS29. 95
resulted in a red dot on the map. It is also
useful to know if a species is often or
rarely seen, and if it is likely to occur in a
particular location. For instance, fungi
recorded in southern Tasmania would
probably also occur in the north of the
state - am I simply overlooking them?
Appendices include a glossary of techni-
cal terms, which in this book have been
kept to a minimum, a list of alternative
names of species, and the pronunciation of
scientific names. Appendix 4, which
includes the derivation of scientific names,
is my favourite. Knowing the meanings of
the Latin, Greek and the one Aboriginal
name invariably stimulates interesting dis-
cussion in the field and is a useful
mnemonic. Appendix 5 lists books, field
guides, specialised literature, general arti-
cles about fungi and fungi-related web
sites. The colour chart is useful for people
wanting to describe fruit bodies and the
ruler on the end page is invaluable - every
field guide should have one!
The two pages of credits encapsulate so
much about the Fungimap project and this
beautifully presented book is testament to
the generosity of its many contributors.
These include senior mycologist at RBG,
Melbourne, and convenor of Fungimap, Dr
Tom May, the mycologists who proofread
the text, the various coordinators, volun-
teers and the many photographers who
contributed their work. 1 have no hesitation
in recommending this book to any keen
field naturalist, and feel proud to be associ-
ated with Fungimap.
Sarah Lloyd
999 Denmans Rd, Birralee, Tasmania 7303
216
The Victorian Naturalist
Book Reviews
A Field Guide to
Australian Fungi
by Bruce Fuhrer
Publisher: Bloomings Books, Melbourne 2005. Octavo,
paperback, 360 pages., colour photographs. ISBN I -
876473-5 1-7RRP $ 49.95
It’s currently peak fungus season in
northern Tasmania and since receiving
Bruce Fuhrer's beautiful new book, I have
consulted it daily.
A Field Guide to Australian Fungi is an
ambitious project. It is the culmination of
many decades of field work and study and
includes descriptions and photographs of
over 500 species. Many of the photographs
have appeared previously in A Field
Companion to Australian Fungi (Fuhrer
1993) and Rainforest Fungi of Tasmania
and South-east Australia (Fuhrer and
Robinson, 1992), but there are additional
species and much of the text has been
revised and extended to include descriptions
of some of the microscopic features of fungi.
Many Australian fungi were originally
named because of their resemblance to
northern hemisphere species, but recent tax-
onomic work has found them to be distinct.
This has resulted in name changes that l
know many naturalists II nd exasperating.
For me, however, it reflects an important
scientific process and a growing knowledge
of these organisms. Nonetheless, a new
book on Australian fungi should help to
clarify identification, not lead to more con-
fusion. While it would be nearly impossible
to include all previous names ascribed to a
species ( Melanotus hepatochrous , for
example, has 14 synonyms) one would
expect the inclusion of those names used in
the author’s previous books. These omis-
sions, the occasionally confusing layout and
the misidentification of the fungus on the
front cover suggest a hasty production.
I was disappointed that the book does not
assign each species to a family. When 1 first
‘discovered' fungi, being able to place a
genus in a family enabled me to make sense
of the overwhelming number of fungi I was
encountering. I also found the brief descrip-
tions of the sub-genera of the Cortinariaceae
family, the Hygrophoraceae family and the
genera Entojoma and Mycena in Rainforest
Fungi of Tasmania and South-east
Australia particularly useful. It may have
been more helpful to include this informa-
tion rather than many pages of photographs
of yet to be named species.
Technical terms are used throughout the
text, and drawings of spores, cystidia and
basidia are included on the end papers. I
find such information invaluable. Every
taxon has its jargon and learning this lan-
guage is, for me, part of the journey
towards further understanding.
There are numerous field guides to the
birds or plants of Australia, but no defini-
tive field guide to fungi, primarily because
many species are yet to be formally identi-
fied and named. For amateur mycologists,
this can be both frustrating and challenging
and most recognise the need to have as
many books as possible. This is the most
comprehensive photographic field guide to
have been published so far in Australia and
thus is an extremely worthwhile addition
to any natural history library.
Sarah Lloyd
999 Denmans Rd. Birralee Tasmania 7303
References
Fuhrer, BA (1993) A field companion to Australian
fungi. (Field Naturalists Club of Victoria:
Melbourne)
Fuhrer, BA and Robinson, R ( 1 992) Rainforest fungi of
Tasmania and South-east Australia fCSIRO and
Forestry Commission, Tasmania: Melbourne)
Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne:
http://www.rbg.vic.gov.au/plant_science/fimgi
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
217
Book Reviews
The Complete Field Guide to Butterflies of Australia
by Michael F. Braby
Publisher: CS1RO Publishing, Melbourne, 2004. 339 pages,
paperback; ISBN 0 643 09027 4
' This eagerly-awaited field guide to
Australia’s 416 butterfly species (including
more distant islands) complements Braby’s
(2000) superb two volume book.
Butterflies of Australia. Their Identifi-
cation, Biolog}' and Distribution. This A 5
size field guide is the first comprehensive
popular guide to Australian butterflies
since the Common and Waterhouse's 1982
version of their 1981 hardcover edition of
Butterflies of Australia.
The introduction to the guide covers an
overview of the structure of adult butter-
flies, their higher classification, distribu-
tion and habitats, with notes on the behav-
iour and typical life cycles. Six Families
are now recognised within Australia, the
single representative of the Riodinidae (the
Harlequin Metalmark), previously being
considered a subfamily of Lycaenidae
(Braby 2000).
The major part of the book comprises
adult species' descriptions ordered system-
atically and reflecting the higher classifica-
tion of butterflies. Species notes are under
the headings: similar species, variation,
adult behaviour, habitat, status, larval food
plants and larval attendant ants. There are
no descriptions of the immature stages.
Recently described subspecies and species
are included, and distribution maps with
flight periods have been updated. The
maps are small, within the text on the left-
hand pages and near the spine, making
them a little difficult to examine without
straining the spine. The choice of yellow to
illustrate the distribution of some sub-
species is inappropriate for showing
restricted distributions on a yellow back-
ground. The right-hand pages are quality
colour images of set specimens (male,
female, upper and lower), the images being
adjacent to the relevant species text.
Generally there are three species per page.
Most, but not all subspecies/forms are
illustrated and, unlike in Braby 2000, there
are spaces on many pages where additional
images could have been added.
Some new preferred common names have
been added, some from a previous list of
common names (Braby 2000) and others
completely new . This, at least in the short
term, will cause some confusion. Errors
from Braby (2000) have been corrected;
however, some new errors have appeared.
The distribution map for the Dusky Knight
(Dusky Night under the image) is incorrect
with no occurrence shown in Victoria
where it is found in east Gippsland as far
west as Nowa Nowa.
A major fault occurs in the checklist of
species at the back of the book. All species
that have more than one recognised sub-
species in Australia are listed with their
author and date, but where a species was
described from a location outside Australia,
and a single different subspecies was sub-
sequently described from Australia, these
subspecies are not listed. This has resulted
in more than 80 recognised Australian sub-
species not being listed.
Despite the minor errors and few short-
comings, the guide is an excellent, up-to-
date, affordable publication for anyone,
amateur or professional, interested in
studying adult butterflies in the field.
References
Braby MF (2000) Butterflies of Australia: Their
Identification. Biology and Distribution. (CSIRO
Publishing: Melbourne)
Common 1FB and Waterhouse DF ( 1982) Butterflies of
Australia. (Angus and Robertson Publishers: Sydney)
Ross Field
Department of Primary Industries
1 Spring Street, Melbourne 3000
218
The Victorian Naturalist
Book Reviews
The Darling River is an important part of
the Murray-Darling Basin, and this book
documents and celebrates this river sys-
tem. The Darling River is an impressive
river with a catchment area vaster than that
of the Murray River, but its flow is spo-
radic and volume considerably less. The
inland catchment includes areas that were
inhabited for a long time by Indigenous
Nations before undergoing a short but
intense period of European occupation,
characterised by rapid change in water and
land use.
The Darling is the companion volume to
The Murray , published in 1990 by the
Murray-Darling Basin Commission.
Thirty-seven authors, all experts in their
own fields, contributed on a voluntary
basis to this comprehensive and accessible
book. It starts with four chapters exploring
the social and land use systems of the
Darling River and its catchment, present-
ing attitudes and issues of the region, and
their influence on the river’s future.
The second set of chapters examines the
biophysical environment, the species that
live in the vicinity of the river and its
catchment, including mammals, reptiles,
amphibians, birds and fish. These chapters
describe the past and present condition of
the ecosystems and examine the changes to
the species and habitats associated with the
Darling River. The authors also highlight
what is required for continued growth and
The Darling
edited by Roland Breckwoldt, Robert
Boden and Jenny Andrew
Publisher: Murray-Darling Basin
Commission, Canberra, 2004.
486 pages, paperback
ISBN 1 876830 93 X. RRP $79.95
survival of these ecosystems. The macroin-
vertebrates are the only group that isn’t
covered in detail (only two pages are dedi-
cated to them), which is surprising given
their importance in aquatic ecosystems.
The third set of chapters addresses the
issue of the sustainability of the system.
Environmental flows, water quality and the
river’s responses to differing land use and
other changes are documented. The con-
servation of terrestrial environments is also
investigated.
The final chapter - The way ahead for
the Darling , examines the future of the
river and its catchment, emphasising the
need for integrated management. A six
point plan is presented, identifying the
need for nature conservation and biodiver-
sity protection.
There are many tables and graphs pre-
senting scientific data/information on a
wide range of topics including water stor-
age, discharge, nutrient concentrations,
distribution and habitat requirements of
reptiles, vegetation communities - to name
just a few. The page layout is clean and
attractive, with well-chosen, high quality,
colour photographs. It provides the reader
interested in seeking further information
with an extensive list of references for
each chapter at the end of the book. The
Darling is a readable and well illustrated
book suitable for managers, scientists, or
anyone with an interest in this river’s past,
present and future.
Anneke Veenstra-Quah
School of Ecology and Environment
Deakin University, 221 Burwood Hwy
Burwood Victoria 3125
Vol. 122 (4) 2005
219
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Natural!
Volume 122 (5)
October 2005
Published by The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria since 1884
From the Editors
The wide-ranging interests of members of the FNC.V, as well as that of contributors to
The Victorian Naturalist , is once again well illustrated by the papers published in this
issue. This feature of the journal was noted by a number of the speakers at the recent
History Symposium, and is an indication of the high regard with which this journal is held.
Another reason for the standing this journal has is the variety and range of books that are
reviewed in its pages. In this issue, for example, one of the reviews draws attention to the
topical themes of the state of the environment, and the need for its conservation. The
book, as well as the review, is a worthwhile read.
Common Wildflowers of
Girraween and Bald Roc k
National Parks
. 'JE.vv* - F .. i ,
This small book comprises photographs
of wildflowers found in Girraween and
Bald Rock National Parks. The photos are
excellent, presenting each subject very
clearly. They are variously grouped
according to families, such as wattles,
daisies or peas; by colour, e.g. whites or
yellows; or locality e.g. swamp and aquat-
ic. Ferns are also included, as are rare and
threatened, and insectivorous or parasitic
plants. Even the ubiquitous weeds and
aliens rate a mention.
In all 138 species appear out of the 700+
that have been recorded here. These two
National Parks are in different states but
share a common boundary that is the bor-
der of Queensland and New South Wales
respectively.
Common Wildflowers of
Girraween and
Bald Rock National Parks
by Peter Woodall and Leith Woodall
Publisher: Taita Publishers, Brisbane, 2005.
40 pages, paperback, colour photographs.
ISBN 0975682407. RRP $6. 95
There is a caption with each photograph,
which includes information on common
name, height, leaf size, previous names
and when the flowers might be seen. As
well, general information about each
grouping is given at the top of the page.
According to the Introduction, Girraween
means ‘place of flowers1 and the display of
spring flowers is among the best in eastern
Australia. All of which makes me keen to
visit there, particularly in spring. That
brings me to the only flaw in the publica-
tion - there is no map to show you where
to go.
Anne Morton
10 Rupicola Crt
Rowville, Vic 3 178
The
Victorian
Naturalist
Volume 122 (5) 2005
October
Editors: Anne Morton, Gary Presland, Maria Gibson
From the Editors 222
Research Reports Wetland vegetation of the Ewing Morass and eastern Lake Tyers
Reserves, East Gippsland, by Alexander B Pollock and
Jeanette E Kemp ..... 224
Pediastrum wintonense sp. nov. (Chlorophyceae, Neochloridales,
Hydrodictyaceae) from Lake Mokoan, north-east Victoria, and
Lake Elphinstone, Queensland, by Roger Croome and
Larelle Fabbro 231
Cloacal microbes in wild birds: implications for conservation,
by Mamie Archhold, A Ido Poiani and Glenn Browning 236
Contribution Diet of a Barn Owl Tyto alba at Snake Island, Victoria, including
Eastern Pygmy-possum Cercatetus nanus , by Edward McNabb,
Brian Walters and Jason Bingham * 244
Tribute Bary Dowling, 18 June 1933-30 May 2005,
by Cecily Falkingham 246
Naturalist Notes A modem peat deposit at Rosebud, by Noel Schleiger 247
Utilisation of man-made telephone pits as winter hibemacula,
by Raymond Hoser ,. 249
Book Reviews Common Wildflowers of Girraween and Bald Rock National
Parks, by Peter Woodall and Leith Woodall, reviewed by
Anne Morton 222
The Little Green Handbook: a guide to global trends, by
Ron Nielsen, reviewed by Peter Beech 250
ISSN 0042-5184
Cover: Lowland Copperhead Austrelaps superbus from Gisborne, Victoria. Photograph
by Raymond Hoser. See article on p. 249.
Web address: http://www.vicnet.net.au/~fncv/vicnat.htni
Email vicnat@vicnet.net.au
Research Reports
Wetland vegetation of the Ewing Morass and eastern Lake
Tyers Reserves, East Gippsland
Alexander B Pollock12 and Jeanette E Kemp12
Abstract
Six wetland communities of the Ewing Morass and eastern Lake Tyers Reserves were identified and
described in detail. Ewing Morass is a nationally significant, but often overlooked, wetland complex.
Wetlands of the Ewing Morass were undisturbed within a landscape context, and contained large
populations of native herbaceous wetland plants. The salt marshes ot the Nowa Nowa Arm were
floristically simple, appeared intact, and formed part ol the saline Lake Tyers wetlands. Ewing
Morass contained few plants of conservation significance in Victoria. Its value lies in its relatively
undisturbed slate, free from alteration that characterises similar systems further west. It is currently
protected within the Ewing Morass Wildlife Reserve. (The Victorian Naturalist 122 (5) 2005, 224-230)
Introduction
Most wetlands of the lower Snowy River
have been studied intensively, particularly
eastern areas such as the lower Brodribb,
Snowy River and Lake Curlip, occurring
close to the settlements of Mario and
Orbost (Timms 1973; Corrick and Norman
1980; Hull 1996), Its western extent, how-
ever, is much less well known and com-
prises the relatively inaccessible coastal
wetlands of the Ewing Morass. This
marshland occurs east of the Nowa Nowa
Arm of Lake Tyers, and extends east to
Corringle Creek, due southwest of the
township of Newmerella (Fig. 1). It is
located on the far western edge of the East
Gippsland natural region (Conn 1993).
Ewing Morass was formed by a series of
depositional and erosional processes where
Quaternary sand dunes of the Ninety-mile
Beach blocked the south-flowing Hartland
River and Hospital and Simpsons Creeks
(Fig. 1). Alluvial deposition subsequently
occurred and, as this stream network
became enclosed, resulted in the develop-
ment of dense swamp vegetation (McRae-
Williams et al. 1981). Similar processes
have resulted in a network of freshwater
lakes along the southern coastal fringe of
East Gippsland (Timms 1973).
Nowa Nowa Arm is located within the
significant Lake Tyers wetlands, a set of
flooded incised valleys with a well-devel-
oped tidal delta (Hull, 1996), and occurs
immediately west of the Ewing Morass.
‘Formerly Department of Conservation and Natural
Resources, Orbost, Victoria 3888
'Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland
Herbarium, Toowong, Queensland 4066
Comprising some 1200 ha, the Morass
forms a significant part of the freshwater
wetland complexes adjacent to the lower
Snowy River (Corrick and Norman 1980).
The vegetation of the Morass has been out-
lined briefly by Woodgate et al. (1994),
but not described in detail. Similarly, the
saltmarsh vegetation of the Nowa Nowa
Ann has not been described.
This paper defines the floristic communi-
ties of Ewing Morass and the adjacent
Nowa Nowa Arm of Lake Tyers.
Methods
Twenty-two wetland quadrats were sam-
pled between 9 November 1992 and 27
February 1993, during a wider study of the
vegetation of the Hartland-Tildesley Forest
Block (Kemp et at. 1994). Most locations
were accessed on foot. Plant identifications
were confirmed by comparison with refer-
ence specimens from the National
Herbarium of Victoria (MEL). Where
specimens were of good quality, or repre-
sented important range extensions within
Victoria, they were lodged within MEL as
voucher specimens. Plant nomenclature
follows Ross (2000), with the exception of
Potamogeton tricarinatus. which follows
Walsh and Entwistle (1994), and is proba-
bly referable in this locality to form IT (H
Aston pers. comm.). Introduced taxa are
denoted by an asterisk (*).
Standard sampling methods of the Flora
Survey groups of the Department of
Conservation and Natural Resources (now
Department of Sustainability and
Environment) were used. This involved
224
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
Fig. 1. Location of the Ewing Morass-Nowa Nowa Arm study area, East Gippsland.
placing 30 x 30 m (900 nr) quadrats across
stands of uniform wetland vegetation. All
vascular plants within each quadrat were
recorded, and each species assigned a visual-
ly assessed cover/abundance value (Gullan
1978). This value was an estimate of the
foliage cover. These values were: h cover
< 5% (few individuals); 1 cover < 5% (many
individuals); 2 cover 5-25%; 3 cover 25-
50%; 4 cover 50-75%; 5 cover 75-100%.
Sites were chosen with the aim of sam-
pling the floristic and structural range of
wetland vegetation across the Ewing
Morass, and within the Nowa Nowa Arm.
Sites were selected using a draft vegetation
map (Woodgate et al. 1994), aerial photos,
perceived homogeneity during a reconnais-
sance traverse, and ease of access. As most
sites were sampled only once, some
ephemeral, annual or seasonally dormant
wetland plants have probably been over-
looked.
The Ewing Morass was traversed exten-
sively through use of waders, canoe or
surf-ski in deeper areas. Two full traverses
across the Marsh from north to south were
made near the southern mouths of Hartland
River and Hospital Creek.
While systematic observations of artifi-
cial disturbances (grazing, tracking, physi-
Vol. 122 (5) 2005
cal erosion) were made during the course
of the overall floristic survey, there was no
obvious evidence of gross physical distur-
bance by ruminants or vehicle use in the
wetland sites visited.
Water depth was recorded informally,
e.g. ‘shallow’ refers to areas between ankle
and knee-depth (approx. 0.5 m or less),
‘moderate’ depth was approximately
between 0.5 m and 1.3 m depth, while
‘deep’ refers to areas able to be measured
safely or comfortably only by watercraft
such as canoe or surf-ski (greater than
about 1.3 m deep). References to water
depth in the floristic descriptions used the
above classification, which is consistent
with the earlier classifications of ‘shallow’
and ‘deep’ by Corrick and Norman (1980).
The collected data were analysed with a
nearest neighbour classification procedure
(NEAR), using the Jaccard similarity coeffi-
cient (Gullan 1978). Character species sub-
sequently were identified and used to deter-
mine vegetation communities (Gullan 1978).
Results
Between late 1992 and early 1993,
Ewing Morass was generally of ‘moderate’
depth , allowing a full north-south traverse
in two locations. At least three areas close
225
Research Reports
to the mouth of feeder streams were consid-
ered ‘deep’ during the period of observa-
tion, as were several areas in the centre of
the Morass, and within the centre of adja-
cent smaller lakes (of Lake Beatle and Lake
Little Beatle). Sampling occurred during
and immediately after rainfalls (recorded at
Nowa Nowa) of up to 1 .6 times the month-
ly means (Bureau of Meteorology,
unpubl.). Thus sampling was conducted
when the Morass was at or near capacity,
All of the freshwater communities sampled
within Ewing Morass and surrounds
occurred on Quaternary peals or sands over-
lying impermeable clays (Newell and
Woodruff 1962), and were associated with
the gently sloping edges or interior of the
Morass. Three communities of Wet Swale
Herbland/Sedgcland (communities WSHSI -
3), one of Aquatic Sedgeland/Grassland
(community ASGL) and two of Coastal
Saltmarsh (communities CSM1 and CSM2)
were identified (Table 1 ).
A total of 93 vascular plant species was
recorded. Total species richness per
quadrat ranged from a high of 25 to a low
of six species (Table 2). 'Deep-water’ sites
recorded the fewest species, for both saline
and freshwater habitats. Sites with ‘shal-
low' water depths recorded the greatest
total numbers of species, although they
also recorded the highest numbers and
greatest cover of exotics. These were typi-
cally along the northern or southern mar-
gins of the Morass.
Freshwater wetland communities of
Ewing Morass and adjacent lake systems
Wet Swale Herb lands / Sedge lands (WSHS-
1-3)
WSHS1 was differentiated from other
freshwater communities by its high rich-
ness and abundance of herbaceous semi-
aquatics, most of which grew in ‘shallow’
water. These included species such as
Agrostis avenacea , Aspenda subs implex
and Myriophyllum Simula ns (Table 1).
WSHSI also contained a consistent pres-
ence and cover of mat-forming grasses tol-
erant of inundation, such as Hemarthria
uncinata and Pseudoraphis paradoxa. The
structure of this association varied from a
dense herbfield to a tall emergent herb-
land/sedgelatid, with the latter associated
with extended rainfall events causing
longer periods of inundation.
WSHS1 contained a significant percent-
age (12%) of exotic species (Table 2),
which may have been a result of previous
pastoral activity. The Ewing Morass area
has had a long grazing history (Land
Conservation Council 1985). although it
apparently was not grazed at the time of this
study. Weed propagules also may have been
carried by stream flow into the Morass from
farmland further east and north.
In contrast to WSHSI , WSHS2 was asso-
ciated with water of ‘moderate’ depth, and
supported a greater cover of some deep-
water plants, such as Ludwig ia peploides
subsp. montevidensis and Ranunculus
amphitrichus , which were confined to this
community. Rumex bide ns. Persicaria
praetennissa and Alisma plantago-aquati-
ca also were frequent. WSHS2 was floris-
tically distinct through an absence of cer-
tain species present in both WSHSI and
WSHS3 (Table 1 ).
Community WSHS3 contained a suite of
species withiri an environment apparently
intermediate between WSHS2 and
WSHSI, such as Centella cordifolia and
Villarsia reniformis. This was also within
water of ‘moderate’ depth.
A qua tic sedge lands/grass lands ( ASGL )
Sites classified as ASGL were charac-
terised by a predominance of species asso-
ciated with ‘deep’ water, and were very
species-poor in comparison to the other
aquatic communities. This association was
strictly confined to the deeper parts of
small lakes and lagoons separate from the
Morass, and within deeper central sections
of the Morass itself. Tall sedges or grasses,
in contrast to the herb-rich, shallower
water plant communities, always dominat-
ed this association. The dominant species
in Ewing Morass and Lake Beatle were
either Eleocharis sphucelata or
Phragrniies australis, w hile in other loca-
tions Baumect ntbiginosa predominated.
Other tall sedges/rushes occasionally pre-
sent included Baumea art icu lata, Typha
dam ingens is and Car ex oppress a.
Sites identified as ASGL represented the
‘deep-water’ element of both Wet Swale
Ilerbland and Coastal Lagoon Wetland as
described by Woodgate et al. (1994). All
sites sampled appeared undisturbed.
226
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
Table 1. Character species of Ewing Morass/Lake Tyers vegetation communities, their frequency
(%FQ) and cover abundance (C/A). WSHS, Wet Swale herbland/sedgeland; ASGL, Aquatic sedge-
land/grassland; CSM, Coastal saltmarsh. * denotes introduced taxa.
SPECIES
WSHSI
(n=4)
%FQ C/A
Vegetation community
WSHS2 WSHS3 ASGL
(n=3) (n=4) (n=7)
%FQ C/A %FQ C/A %FQ C/A
CSM1 CSM2
(n=2) (n=2)
%FQ C/A%FQ C/A
Agrostis avenacea
100
1
25
-f
_
_
_
_
_
_
50
+
As pern la subs implex
100
2
67
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Eleocharis sphacelata
100
2
100
2
100
2
57
3
-
-
-
-
Hemarthria uncinata
75
2
-
-
H ydrocotyle sibthorpioidcs
100
2
100
2
75
2
-
-
-
-
-
-
Isolepis fluitans
75
2
33
+
100
1
15
+
-
-
-
-
*Juncus articidatus
75
1
Myriophyllum simulans
100
1
Persicaria praetenn issa
25
+
67
+
25
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
Potamogeton tricarinatus
75
2
100
1
100
2
43
2
-
-
-
-
Pseudoraphis paradoxa
100
3
-
-
75
2
29
+
-
-
-
-
Triglochm procerum
100
2
-
-
100
2
85
1
-
-
-
-
A lisma p lun tago-aquatica
25
+
67
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
*Jwicus bulbosus
25
+
100
1
100
2
-
-
-
-
-
-
Ludwigia peploides
-
100
1
Ranunculus amphilriclms
-
-
100
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Rumex bidens
50
+
100
2
25
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
Centella cordifolia
-
-
-
-
75
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
Juncus procerus
-
-
67
+
75
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
Persicaria decipiens
-
-
67
1
75
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
Utricularia australis
-
-
67
+
75
1
57
-
-
-
-
Villarsia reniformis
-
-
-
-
75
2
-
-
-
-
-
Baumea rubiginosa
-
-
-
-
-
-
43
2
-
-
-
-
Juncus kraussii
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
100
+
100
3
Samolus repens
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
100
2
100
1
Sarcocornia quinqueflora
100
4
50
+
Selliera radicans
100
2
100
+
Wilsonia backhouse i
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
100
1
100
1
A Ipium prostratum
100
1
Disph vma eras si folium
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
50
+
100
+
*Festuca arundinacea
100
1
Isolepis cernua
25
+
100
4-
Isolepis nodosa
100
2
*Plantago coronopus
25
4-
100
1
Senecio glomeratus
100
+
Spergularia species
1
100
+
Percentage frequency (% FQ) refers to occurrence within a community, e.g. 75% for a community of
four sites means the species was recorded three times out of four. Cover abundance (C/A) refers to
the averaged cover of a given species within a community, e.g. C/A = 2 refers to a species with an
average cover across a community of between 5-25 % foliage cover (see Gullan 1978).
Table 2. Mean species richness and mean weed composition of Ewing Morass/Lake Tyers vegeta-
tion communities WSHS, Wet Swale herbland/sedgeland; ASGL, Aquatic sedgeland/grassland;
CSM, Coastal saltmarsh
WSHS1 WSHS2 WSHS3 ASGL CSM1 CSM2
Mean species richness 25 20 18 6 7 22
Mean % weed species 12 10 11 0 0 27
Mean % weed cover (FPC) 9 6 1J 0 0 1 0
Vol. 122 (5) 2005
227
Research Reports
Saltmarsh communities of Lake Tyers
All of the saltmarsh communities (CSM 1
and CSM2) sampled were confined to the
eastern shores of the Nowa Nowa arm of
Lake Tyers. C'SMl occurred on low broad
estuarine flats on wet unconsolidated grey
sands exposed to periodic tidal inundation.
The vegetation of this community was dis-
tinctly zoned, each zone usually consisting
of only one or two main species.
Sarcocornia quinqueflora subsp. quinque-
flora was the dominant small shrub of this
community (Table 1). This species, togeth-
er with Samolus repens , appeared on the
wettest areas of this environment, such as
drainage lines, micro-depressions or low'
areas closest to the lake. In contrast, the
small shrub Wilsonia backhouse i and the
prostrate Sel/iera radicans occurred on the
drier margins of this wetland, while the
driest, most elevated zones were dominat-
ed by Juncus kraussii.
CSM2 occurred on elevated estuarine
flats and sand lenses. Substrates included
fine shallow white to grey beach sands and
silts over coarse saline peaty sands or
wind-blown siliceous sands, above regular
tidal influence. Sedges and rushes domi-
nated CSM 2 (Table 1 ). Juncus kraussii
was the most frequent of these, with
Isolepis nodosa subdominant. In one
example of this community, Gahnia ftlum
formed tall dense clumps, excluding other
plants. Erect shrubs included Wilsonia
hackhousei and Senecio glome rat us, gener-
ally in areas of low J . kraussii cover.
Fleshy prostrate herbs were frequent and
included Sel/iera radicans, Disphymu
eras s if o Hum subsp. clave flat urn and
Spergularia species I, while Apium pros-
tration var. prostration was a common
twiner in the ground layer. Grasses were
regularly present in CSM2, with the
weedy, clump-forming *Festuca arundi-
nacea the largest of these. The smaller
native Distichlis distichophylla was less
frequent.
The number of weed species within
CSM2 was high, although of low' cover
(Table 2). Common species included
flatweeds such i\s* Plant ago coronopus
subsp. coronopus, * Leontodon taraxa-
coides subsp. taraxacoides and *Hypoch-
aeris glabra. Their abundance was proba-
bly due to disturbances associated with
close proximity to farmland, historical
sand mining for glass making, and walking
trails for beach access.
Discussion
The limited observations of this study
suggest that Ewing Morass is relatively
shallow (between 1-2 m) even when full,
as noted for most other coastal dune lakes
studied in southern NSW and East
Gippsland (Timms 1973; Corrick and
Norman 1980; Timms 1997).
The vegetation of the Ewing Morass is
dominated by herbaceous taxa, justifying
its classification as Wet Swale Herbland/
Sedgeland (Woodgale et al. 1994). It has
clear affinities with the freshwater marshes
of the Gippsland Plains further west
(Corrick and Norman 1980; Conn 1993).
This study found that marginal sites were
the richest in species, a pattern also
observed by Kirkpatrick and Harwood
(1983) for similar communities across
Tasmania.
Wet Swale Herbland/Sedgeland would be
broadly classified as a herb-dominated, shal-
low freshwater marsh, under the categories
of Corrick and Norman (1980). The species-
poor communities of wet swale
herbland/grassland and aquatic sedgeland/
grassland in ‘deep’ water would be included
in ‘reed or rush-dominated deep freshwater
marshes’ (Corrick and Norman 1980).
As in Kirkpatrick and Harwood (1983),
our results suggest a lack of clear floristic
zonation. We attribute this partially to the
large-sized quadrats used in this study
(more generally used for terrestrial forest
ecosystems). We also believe some of the
patterns in WSHS are probably due to the
ability of free-floating aquatics (e.g.
Hvdrocotyle sihthorpioides , Isolepis jlui-
tans, Pseudoraphis paradoxa) to form
mats in either deep-water (sometimes
entangled in colonies of emergent macro-
phytes) or shallow- water habitats. In some
instances these species formed roots on
drying sand-flats. In addition, apparently
immobile taxa such as Triglochin pro-
cerum and Eleocharis sphacelata have
floating seeds and seedlings that are able to
rapidly colonise suitable habitats (Nicol
and Ganf 2000), or produce seeds able to
germinate or remain viable under a wide
range of water levels (Bell and Clarke
228
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
2004). Macrophytes such as Eleocharis
sphacelata may also compensate for some
variations in water depth by increasing
culm height (Sorrell et al. 2002).
The saltmarsh community CSM1 best fits
the descriptions of ‘semi-permanent salt
meadows’, while CSM2 can be categorised
as intermediate between a ‘salt flat’ and a
‘sea rush-dominated saline wetland’
(Corrick and Norman 1980).
The patterns of species occurrence within
saltmarsh vegetation at Lake Tyers appear
strongly related to local drainage.
Kirkpatrick and Glasby (1981) have
described the environmental relations of
analogous communities in coastal
Tasmania, and noted that drainage and
salinity appeared to be the major influ-
ences in species composition.
Saltmarsh communities dominated by
Juncus kraussii (similar to CSM2), occur
in sheltered sites within the major estuar-
ine inlets of East Gippsland, and also with-
in the Tidal River area further west
(Corrick 1981; Conn 1993). These com-
munities tend to occur in landward situa-
tions on gently sloping accreted muds,
generally well beyond tidal influence
(pers. obs.; Conn 1993). In contrast, com-
munities dominated by Sarcocornia quin-
queflora (such as CSM 1 ) are widespread
along coastal Victoria, particularly around
the Anglesea River, Corner Inlet, Western
Port and Port Phillip Bays (Corrick 1981;
Corrick 1982), occurring as more seaward
communities regularly subject to tidal
inundation for 3-5 months per year
(Corrick and Norman 1980; Conn 1993;
Hull 1996). They are of limited occurrence
within East Gippsland.
Plants of conservation and hiogeographi-
cal significance
Two plants of conservation significance
were observed. One of these. Woolly
Waterlily Philydrum lanuginosum , is high-
ly localised within Victorian coastal wet-
lands, and considered extinct in a number
of previously recorded coastal locations
near Melbourne. This species is listed as a
vulnerable taxon in Victoria (Ross 2000),
although widespread in wetlands along the
New South Wales and Queensland coasts.
Ewing Morass is an important known
locality for Slender Mud-grass
Pseudoraphis paradox a, endangered with-
in Victoria (Ross 2000). This species was
recorded at nine separate locations across
Ewing Morass. Like the previous taxon,
this grass is widespread interstate, espe-
cially within slow-flowing freshwater
riverine and oxbow wetlands in New South
Wales and Queensland.
The Ewing Morass has biogeographic
significance for the wetland flora of
Victoria. Here, a number of taxa approach
their eastern limit in Victoria, including
Chorizandra australis , Star Fruit
Damasonium minus , Clove-Strip Ludwigia
peploides subsp. numtevidemis , Short-fruit
Nardoo Marsilea hirsuta , Mud Dock
Rutnex bidens, Floating Bur-reed
Sparganium subglobosuny Narrow-leaf
Cumbungi Typha do min gen sis and
Narrow-leaf Wilsonia Wilsonia backhousei
(Walsh and Entwistle 1994; Walsh and
Entwistle 1996; Walsh and Entwistle
1999).
Conservation and natural values
No weeds of national significance (Thorp
and Lynch 2000) were noted during the
survey. The most frequent non-native taxa
recorded were small introduced rushes such
as * Juncus articulatus and *J. bulbosus.
*Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum was
recorded incidentally from one site along
the Hartland River, but was clearly absent
from most surveyed areas of the Morass in
1993. This species may be potentially prob-
lematic, as suggested by Carr et al. (1992).
Ewing Morass is fully reserved within
the Ewing Morass Wildlife Reserve. Its
future appears secure, given that there are
currently no gross physical disturbances
such as earthworks or native vegetation
clearing occurring along its margins, and
the Morass catchment is also largely pro-
tected under various tenures of public land.
Efforts should be made to ensure potential-
ly problematic aquatic weeds already
observed in this system, such as *Rorippa
nasturtium-aquaticum, do not increase and
spread. Limiting future sources of artificial
nutrient input into the rivers and creeks of
the Morass may help achieve this (Sainty
and Jacobs 1994).
Because of the absence of intensive mod-
ification to the marsh and its upper tribu-
taries, the Ewing Morass provides a good
Vol. 122 (5) 2005
229
Research Reports
example of a coastal wetland in a highly
intact state, a comparative rarity in Victoria.
While other non-riverine, coastal freshwater
wetlands occur in Cast Gippsland (Timms
1973), the Ewing Morass appears the
largest in this region. Ewing Morass
remains in stark contrast to similar wetlands
within the Gippsland Lakes and other sys-
tems further west, which have suffered from
the effects of artificially high nutrient run-
off from urban and agricultural sources and
have been extensively altered, drained or
grazed (Corrick 1981; Corrick 1982).
Ewing Morass was one of 53 significant
wetlands (>100 ha) in the greater Snowy
River/Gippsland Lakes Catchment, record-
ed by Corrick and Norman (1980). For the
above reasons, the Ewing Morass is proba-
bly rightly considered a nationally signifi-
cant wetland (Environment Australia 2001).
The saltmarshes of the Nowa Nowa Ann
occur as floristically simple but intact
associations, unlike some saltmarsh com-
munities elsewhere in Victoria, e.g.
Yugovic (1984). They form part of the
nationally significant Lake Tyers wetlands
(Hull 1996), and are fully conserved within
Lake Tyers Coastal Reserve.
Acknowledgements
Bill McDonald and two anonymous referees
commented on and improved earlier drafts of
this report.
References
Bell DM and Clarke PJ (2004) Seed-bank dynamics of
Eleocharis : can spatial and temporal variability
explain habitat segregation? Australian Journal of
Botany 52, 119-131.
Carr GW, Yugovic JV and Robinson KE (1992)
Environmental Weed Invasions in Victoria :
Conservation and Management Implications .
Department of Conservation and Natural Resources
and Ecological Horticulture, Melbourne
Conn BJ (1993) Natural regions and vegetation of
Victoria. In Flora of Victoria Volume I. Eds DB
Foreman and NG Waish. (Inkata Press: Melbourne)
Corrick AH (1981) Wetlands of Victoria II. Wetlands
and walerbirds of South Gippsland. Proceedings of
the Royal Society of Victoria 92. 1 87-1 98.
Corrick AH (1982) Wetlands of Victoria 111. Wetlands
and waterbirds between Port Phillip Bay and Mount
Emu Creek. Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Victoria 94, 69-87.
Corrick AH and Norman FI (1980) Wetlands of
Victoria I. Wetlands and waterbirds of the Snowy
River and Gippsland Lakes catchment. Proceedings
of the Royal Society of Victoria 91. 1-15.
Environment Australia (200 1 ) A Directory of Important
Wetlands in Australia. 3 ed. Environment Australia.
Canberra.
Gullan PK (1978) Vegetation of the Royal Botanic
Gardens Annexe at Cran bourne, Victoria. Proceedings
of the Royal Society of Victoria 70, 225-240.
Hull G (1996) Victoria, in <A Directory > of Important
Wetlands in Australia. 2 ed. Australian Nature
Conservation Agency: Canberra.
Kemp JL. Ma/./er TM. Pollock AR, McIntyre AD.
Mitchell AT and Murray AR (1994) Ecological
Survey Report So. A 9. Flora and Fauna of the
Hart/and and 1 ildeslex Forest Blocks. Fast
Gippsland. Victoria. (Unpublished Department of
Conservation and Natural Resources report: Orbost
Victoria)
Kirkpatrick .IB and Glasby J (1981) Salt marshes in
Tasmania: Distribution, community composition and
conservation. Department of Geography. University
of Tasmania Occasional Paper No. 8.
Kirkpatrick JB and Harwood CK (1983) Plant commu-
nities of Tasmanian Wetlands. Australian Journal of
Botany 31, 437-451.
Land Conservation Council (1985) East Gippsland
Area Review. (Land Conservation Council:
Melbourne)
McRac-Williams MS, Rosengren NJ, and Kracmcrs
SM ( 1981 ) Sites of geological and geomorpholugical
significance in East Gippsland, Victoria.
Environmental Studies Division Report No. 320,
Ministry for Conservation, Victoria.
Newell JW and Woodruff BJ (1962) Soils and vegeta-
tion in the Hartland area. (Unpublished Soil Survey
Report No. 34, Department of Agriculture: Victoria)
Nicol JM and Ganf GO (2000) Water regimes, seedling
recruitment and establishment in three wetland plant
species. Marine and Freshwater Research 51, 305-
309.
Ross JH (2000). A Census of the Vascular Plants of
Victoria . 6 ed. (Royal Botanic Gardens: Melbourne)
Sainty GR and Jacobs SWI. (1994) Waterplants in
Australia (Sainty and Associates: Sydney)
Sorrell BK. Tanner CC and Sukias, .IPS (2002) Effects
of water depth and substrate on growth and morphol-
ogy of Eleocharis sphacelata: implications for culm
support and internal uas transport. Aquatic Botany 73
(2). 93-106.
Thorp JR and Lynch R (2000) The Determination of
Weeds of National Significance. (National Weeds
Strategy Executive Committee. Launceston).
Timms BV (1973) A limnological surv ey of the fresh-
water coastal lakes of East Gippsland, Victoria.
Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater
Research 24, 1 20.
Timms BV (1997) Study of coastal freshwater lakes in
southern New South Wales. Marine and Freshwater
Research 48, 249-256
Walsh NG and Entwistle TE (1994) eds Flora of
Victoria Volume 2 (Inkata Press: Melbourne)
Walsh NG and Entwistle TE (1996) eds Flora of
Victoria Volume 3 (Inkata Press: Melbourne)
Walsh NG and Entwistle TE (1999) eds Flora of
Victoria Volume 4 (Inkata Press: Melbourne)
Woodgate PW, Peel WD. Ritman KT, C'oram JE,
Brady A and Rule AJ (1994) A Study of the Old-
Growth Forests of East Gippsland. (Department of
Conservation and Natural Resources: Victoria)
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halocnemoides ) in coastal Victoria and implications
for the Orange-bellied Parrot. The Victorian
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Received 21 August 2003; accepted 2 September 2005
230
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
Pediastrum wintonense sp. nov. (Chlorophyceae,
Neochloridales, Hydrodictyaceae) from Lake Mokoan,
north-east Victoria, and Lake Elphinstone, Queensland
Roger Croome1 and Larelle Fabbro2
Abstract
Pediastrum wintonense sp. nov. (Chlorophyceae, Neochloridales, Hydrodictyaceae) is described
from turbid Lake Mokoan, north-east Victoria, and recorded also from Lake Elphinstone in the
north-west of the Fitzroy River catchment in Queensland. The occurrence of P. wintonense as a
minor component of the plankton within the two lakes is documented, and it is described from a
shoreline accumulation of up to 900 000 colonies/ml in Lake Mokoan. {The Victorian Naturalist 122 (5),
2005,231-235)
Introduction
The genus Pediastrum occurs widely in
the plankton of surface waters in Australia
and elsewhere. Indeed, Melkonian (1990)
asserts that Pediastrum and Scenedesmus
are probably the most commonly occurring
green algae in freshwater phytoplankton.
The most recent review of Pediastrum
lists 24 species (Komarek and Jankovska
2001).
Pediastrum is also listed as one of the
members of the Chlorococcales that is
often involved in algal blooms (Melkonian
1990). One bloom of Pediastrum (species
unknown) has been recorded from
Australia, albeit simply as a photograph of
the surface of a pond (Mitrovic 1995), and
several species of Pediastrum were co-
dominant within a midstream phytoplank-
ton bloom in the lower Fitzroy River fol-
lowing major flooding in 1991 (Fabbro
1999). Discrete blooms of Pediastrum
have occurred in a lake in the Canadian
arctic (H Kling 1997, pers. comm., 13
February) and in small cement cisterns in
India (Jyothi et at. 1992).
Lake Mokoan and Lake Elphinstone are
two shallow lakes in eastern Australia (Fig.
1 ). Both have a history of being markedly
affected by drought, and substantial
blooms of Microcystis have occurred in
each storage.
1 Department of Environmental Management and
Ecology, La Trobe University, PO Box 821, Wodonga,
Victoria, Australia 3689.
2 Centre for Environmental Management, Central
Queensland University, Rockhampton, Queensland,
Australia 4702
Lake Mokoan
Lake Mokoan was formed as an off-river
storage in 1971 by the construction of a 7
km long impounding wall which flooded
Winton Swamp. Water quality within the
lake was good until the early 1980s, when
a drought led to the storage being almost
emptied. A decline in water quality then
occurred due to the colloidal suspension of
clays. Since 1990 turbidities have routinely
been in excess of 100 Nephelometric
Turbidity Units (NTU), and often above
200 NTU, with Secchi transparencies of
0.17 m or less.
Lake Elphinstone
Lake Elphinstone is, by contrast, a natu-
rally occurring water body that dried com-
pletely in 1995. Rapidly declining water
quality was noted in 2000 and early 2001.
This coincided with increased abiogenic
turbidity during the rainy season (January
and February) followed by sedimentation
of suspended clays giving increased water
clarity in the dry season. By October 2001
the euphotic depth had extended to the sed-
iment surface of this shallow lake.
In this paper, an accumulation of a new
species of Pediastrum , P. w intonense, is
described from the shoreline of the turbid
Lake Mokoan, far better known for its nui-
sance blooms of Microcystis (O’Brien et
at. 1996). Also, the new species is formal-
ly described.
Materials and methods
Lake Mokoan
The phytoplankton population of Lake
Mokoan was sampled monthly from
September 1992 to June 1995 using a stan-
Vol. 122 (5) 2005
231
Research Reports
Fig. 1. Map showing locations of Lake Mokoan
and Lake Elphinstone.
dard three-metre flexible hosepipe sam-
pler. Samples were preserved in Lugol’s
Iodine and counted using a Zeiss Jena
Sedival microscope and an Utermohl
chamber. A 2-3 minute phytoplankton tow
was also made using a net of 35 ptn pore
size. The pH of surface water samples was
determined using a portable Metrohm
E588 meter, conductivity was measured
using a portable Orion Model 126 meter,
and turbidity was determined in the labora-
tory using a Model 2100A Hach
Turbidimeter. A Secchi disc was used to
assess light penetration within the lake. On
15 December 1992, an accumulation of
Pediastrum was discovered during an
inspection of the shoreline. Samples were
collected in an open-mouthed jar and pre-
served in 5% formaldehyde and measured,
photographed and drawn using a Zeiss
Axioskop microscope.
Lake Elphinstone
The phytoplankton of Lake Elphinstone
was sampled in November 2000, February
2001 and then weekly between June and
November 2001 using a standard three-
metre flexible hosepipe sampler. Samples
were preserved in Lugol's Iodine and
counted using a Zeiss Axioskop micro-
scope and glass Sedgewick-Rafter
Counting Chamber. A 2-3 minute phyto-
plankton tow was also made using a net of
25 pm pore size and a discrete surface grab
sample was taken from the shoreline and
examined fresh with a Zeiss Axioskop
microscope prior to preservation in 3%
formaldehyde. Detailed monitoring of
physical and chemical conditions was
undertaken on 12 June, 5 September, 10
October, and 6 November 2001 using a
YSI 6600 multi-parameter water quality
meter. A Secchi disc was used to assess
water clarity on these occasions.
Results
The phytoplankton sampling conducted in
Lake Mokoan between September 1992
and June 1995 showed the presence of a
small (maximum < 0.1 mm'L1) and rela-
tively constant standing crop of cryptomon-
ads, with occurrence each summer of the
cyanoprokaryotes Anabaena spp. and
Microcystis aeruginosa (Kutzing) k iitzing.
Pediastrum wintonense was a constant
member of the phytoplankton over this
period, but never in sufficient numbers to
be included in the counts. Rather, it was
usually observed as a few colonies (usually
less than 10) in the phytoplankton net
tows. The only exceptions to this were
samplings on 13 January 1994 and 18
February 1994 when an array of differently
sized colonies was observed in the net tow
(but the organism was still not present in
sufficient numbers to be recorded in the
cell counts). Very few colonies of P. wit i-
tonense were observed in the net tows over
the 1992/1993 summer (10 November, 15
December, 19 January).
On 15 December 1992 a cursory exami-
nation of the shoreline of Lake Mokoan
revealed an algal accumulation some 10 m
long, 2 m wide and 2-3 cm deep, of a con-
sistency such that it could be scooped up in
solid handfuls. The accumulation consisted
almost entirely of P. wintonense , although
other algae such as Euglena , Cosmarium ,
Closterium and Aulacoseira were also pre-
sent. Stream-lines of colonies of P. winto-
nense were sampled from the water surface
adjacent to the accumulation. There were
886 000 colonies/m L in a representative
sample of the shoreline accumulation. The
measurement of 1000 colonies (Fig. 2)
showed that maximum colony diameter
ranged from 50 to 525 pm , with most
colonies having a maximum diameter of
75 to 200 pm. The pH of Lake Mokoan on
15 December 1992 was 7.7, the electrical
conductivity (K75) 190 pS cm1, and the
turbidity 125 NTU.
Phytoplankton sampling at Lake
Elphinstone between November 2000 and
The Victorian Naturalist
232
Research Reports
July 2001 showed dominance of Cylindro-
spermopsis racihorskii (Wolosz.) Seen-
ayya & Subba Raju in the centre of the
lake, and Microcystis panniformis
Komarek et at., Microcystis botrys Teiling
and Microcystis aeruginosa in near-shore
areas. This was followed by the dominance
of Ceratium hirundinella (O Mueller)
Dujard and then Spirogyra spp. with
increasing water clarity in the spring and
early summer of 200 1 .
Pediastrum wintonense was continually
present in the nearshore samples taken from
Lake Elphinstonc (albeit in low densities)
and yet absent from the hosepipe samples
taken from offshore regions of the lake.
Increased numbers of P. wintonense were
present in nearshore samples taken on 17
July 2001. On 12 July the recorded temper-
ature of the lake water was between 19.6
and 22.2 °C\ electrical conductivity (K25)
between 709 and 716 p$> cm ', pH between
7.4 and 8.1 and Secchi depth 45 cm.
Description
Pediastrum wintonense Croome et Fabbro
sp. nov.
Diagnosis: Coenobia plana, irregulariter
ovata, perforata, 32-, 64- vel 128-cellular-
ia. Cellulae multiangulares ad rectangu-
lares. Paries cellulae distincte reticulatus.
Cellulae externae lobus conicus duobus
minus longis quam dimidio cellulae latitu-
dinis, cum processibus distinctis paulo
minus longis quam lobis, cum sinu inter
lobos profundo amploquc.
Coenobia irregularly oval in outline and
flat (Figs. 3-6), perforated by small holes
at the outer sides of the inner cells, and
with 32-64-128 cells concentrically
arranged. Cells polygonal to rectangular in
outline, thick-walled and joined together at
their sides. A distinct net-like sculpturing
is present on the surface of the cells.
Marginal cells with two conical lobes less
than half the width of the cell, and in the
same plane as the coenobium. Processi
distinct, length slightly less than that of the
lobes, ending abruptly in formaldehyde
preserved material. Between the lobes is a
deep and wide U-shaped incision.
Dimensions: coenobia to 525 pm in length,
cells 7-34 x 9-55 pm.
Type locality: Lake Mokoan, Victoria,
Australia, 146° 5' E, 36° 25’ S.
Holotype: R Croome s.n.. Lake Mokoan,
Victoria, 15 xii 1992 (National Herbarium,
Melbourne MEL 2101365).
The specific epithet “wintonense” refers to
the original Winton Swamp, flooded to
form Lake Mokoan.
Colony diameter um
Fig. 2. Distribution of maximum colony diameter of Pediastrum wintonense , from accumulation
beside Lake Mokoan 15 December 1992. 1000 colonies measured.
Vol. 122 (5) 2005
233
Research Reports
Figs. 3-6. Line draw ings of P. wintonense
colonies from accumulation at Lake Mokoan.
Fig. 3. Relatively large colony with cell con-
tents shown for 7 cells, and 3 cells showing pat-
terning observed on empty cells. Figs. 4-6.
Smaller colonies showing usual colony shape,
perforations, and cell arrangement.
Material of a similar description (colony
diameter 86-180 pm, cells 6-24 pm x 7-27
pm) was obtained from Lake Elph instone,
Central Queensland, Australia. Unpres-
erved material from this site showed a bul-
bous extension beyond the tips of the pro-
cessi of the marginal cells (Fig. 7). This
structure is lost in the preservation process.
Comment:
The relatively large coenobia of P. winto-
nense are irregularly oval and perforate, and
the marginal cells have two conical lobes
separated by a deep U-shaped incision. Of
the 24 species of Pediastrum currently
described, P. wintonense is most similar to
P. angulosum (Ehrenb.) ex Menegh. Indeed,
a drawing and photograph of P. wintonense
from Lake Mokoan was provided for the
recent taxonomic review of Pediastrum by
Komarek & Jankovska (2001), in which it
was included as ‘ Pediastrum angulosum
forma from Australia’.
Pediastrum angulosum has previously
been reported from Australian freshwaters
as P. angulosum (Ehren.) Meneghini by
Playfair (1917), McLeod (1975) and
Thomasson (1986); as P. horyanum var.
Fig. 7. Drawing of three marginal cells of a live
specimen of Pediastrum wintonense from Lake
Elphinstone, included to show' bulbous exten-
sions beyond tips of cell processl.
australe Playfair and P. horyanum var. hay-
rtaldi (Istvanffy) Playfair by Playfair
(1918); as P. horyanum var ntgulosum GS
West by Bailey ( 1913) and McLeod (1975);
as P. araneosum (Racib.) Smith by Ling
and Tyler (1986); and as P. araneosum var.
ntgulosum GS West by Cheng and Tyler
(1973). Pediastrum angulosum var. as pe-
rn m Sulek was also reported from Australia
by Thomasson (1986) but this taxon was
synonym ised with P. duplex var. as pent m
(A. Braun) Hansgirg by Parra (1979).
None of these observations accords with
the description herein of P. wintonense.
Moreover, the characteristics of P. winto-
nense do not conform to those of any of
the varieties of P. angulosum currently
described: most similar are P. angulosum
var. laevigatum Racib. (but the coenobia of
var. laevigatum are usually more circular,
and its marginal cells have incisions which
are narrower and more shallow) and var.
araneosum Racib., which has a similar
moqihology of the marginal cells and cell
sculpturing, but has an imperforate coeno-
bium (Komarek pers. comm.).
While it is closely related to P. angulo-
sum, we consider that the distinct size,
colony form and cell morphology of P.
wintonense separate it sufficiently from P.
angulosum to justify its description as a
new species. Its occurrence with consistent
morphology at two geographically remote
sites further supports this conclusion.
While not unknown, the occurrence of
large accumulations of Pediastrum is
unusual, and the collection of P. winto-
nense at the side of the turbid and eutrophic
234
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
Lake Mokoan, in which it is present within
the water column in insufficient numbers
to be recorded in the phytoplankton counts,
is doubly intriguing. The size distribution
of 1000 coenobia (Fig. 2) suggests the
presence of a single clone, and the relative-
ly large dimensions for a Pediastrum
(coenobium length up to 525 /im, cell
length up to 55 pm) make the observation
of P. wintonense even more striking.
Acknowledgements
We thank Prof Juri Komarek of the University
of South Bohemia, Czech Republic, for his taxo-
nomic advice and encouragement, and Pierre
Compere for assistance with the Latin descrip-
tion of P. wintonense .
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Received 20 January 2005; accepted 12 July 2005
One hundred years ago
NATIVE BREAD Under the title of “Native or blackfellows’ Bread” Mr D. McAlpine con-
tributes to the Agricultural Journal of Victoria for November, 1904, an exhaustive article on the
fungus Polyporous mylittae , C. and M., known as “Native Bread” which is particularly well illus-
trated. It is just seventy years since the first account of this fungus was written by J. Backhouse
in an article descriptive of the roots and other indigenous esculents of Van Dieman’s Land. He
remarks that its taste somewhat resembles boiled rice, but that like theheart of the tree-fern and
the root of the native potato, - the orchid Gas l rod la sesamoides - cookery produces little change
in it. It has been doubted whether the fungus was ever used as food by the aboriginals. However,
definite evidence is given by two gentlemen who had charge of aboriginal stations for many
years that it was so used, hut apparently, beyond creating a feeling of fulness, il could not have
been very satisfying, for Mr. J.H. Maiden, F.L.S. Government Botanist of New South Wales,
who tested the substance in a variety of ways, says that it does not contain nitrogen in any form,
and is practically unalterable in water or reagents. When cut into pieces and placed in liquid no
swelling takes place, the cut edges lose none of their sharpness, nor does Ihe substance soften.
When boiled in a dilute alkaline solution, only a small proportion of pectic acid is dissolved, and
this is thrown down when the solution is rendered acid. It is immaterial whether it is eaten raw or
cooked, as hot or cold water are equally ineffective in acting on it. It can therefore be of only
infinitesimal value as a source of food. He considers the native bread to consist mainly of a mod-
ification of cellulose, most probably fungin.
From The Victorian Naturalist 21 (9) p. 132
Vol. 122 (5) 2005
235
Research Reports
Cloacal microbes in wild birds:
implications for conservation
Marnie Archbold1, Aldo Poiani2 and Glenn Browning3
Abstract
A total of 129 birds from seven species was sampled in order to determine the prevalence of
Chlamydophila psittaei and Salmonella in the South-eastern suburbs of Melbourne (Victoria,
Australia). Polymerase Chain Reaction analyses indicated that none of the cloacal swabs or faecal
samples ( Menura novaehnllandiae only) contained either C. psittaei or Salmonella. Comparison ol
these results with those obtained in two previous years indicated that Chlamydophila has declined in
the area. ( The Victorian Nuturalist 122 (5), 2005, 236-243)
Introduction
Cloacal microbes are transmitted easily
between susceptible individuals through
either faecal contamination of the environ-
ment or sexual contact (or both) (Lockhart
et al. 1996). Many microorganisms that
can infect the avian cloaca may be patho-
genic and cause mortality or decreased
reproductive output in the hosts (Simpson
2002; Williams et al. 2002). Chlamyd-
ophilav for instance, has been found in
more than 460 species of birds, some of
them classified as endangered or threat-
ened (Kaleta and Taday 2003). The capaci-
ty of cloacal microparasites to cause dis-
ease is related to the virulence of the strain,
immunocompetence of the host, and vari-
ous ecological factors relating to the risk of
exposure (Wobeser 1997).
Within the genus Chlamydophila (for-
merly Chlamydia ) (Everett et al. 1999;
Everett 2000), C. psittaei is the most com-
mon species found in birds (Wobeser
1997; Everett 2000). Brand (1989) report-
ed chlamydial infections in 159 species of
birds, of which 1 14 were studied in the
free- living state.
Salmonella is another genus of bacterium
that can cause disease in free-living birds
(Wilson and MacDonald 1967; Faddoul et
al. 1966; C'izek et al. 1994; Pennycott et
al. 1998; Morishita et al. 1999; Hudson et
at. 2000; Fallacara et al. 2001; Pennycott
et al. 2002; Reche et al. 2003). It belongs
to the family Enterobacteriaceae and con-
' Department of Zoology, University of Melbourne,
Parkville, Victoria 3010.
: Faculty of Science, Technology and Engineering, La
Trobe University, Mildura. Victoria 3502.
'Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of
Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010.
tains two species, S. enterica and 5. bon-
gori. Salmonella enterica consists of six
subspecies (Clarke and Gyles 1993). Most
salmonellae belong to S. enterica subsp.
enterica.
Transmission of cloacal microparasites
can occur in a number of ways including
sexual activity, ingestion and inhalation of
infectious aerosols, when chlamydiae and
salmonellae are cast off in cloacal excre-
tions (semen, faeces) by infected birds
(Brand 1989; Wobeser 1997). Dried excre-
ment can stay infectious for weeks or
months. Faecal microorganisms are more
likely to be transmitted under host crowd-
ing conditions and where feeding areas are
more contaminated, especially for ground-
feeding species (Brand 1989).
The pathogenicity of C. psittaei' s ranges
in severity from the bird being a carrier of
the pathogen but exhibiting no symptoms
to the bird having severe, acute, or chronic
disease (Everett 2000). Symptoms include
excessive lacrimation, conjunctivitis, trem-
bling. ataxia and cachexia with quite
severe muscular atrophy, and watery and
greenish excreta (Wobeser 1997).
The pathogenicity of salmonellae also
varies, with the carrier state providing the
most significant source of infection for
animals including humans (Wray and
Sojka 1977). There are several factors that
influence whether an animal is a earner or
not, including the age of the animal, the
serovar and the number of bacteria ingest-
ed (Clarke and Gyles 1993). General
symptoms of salmonellosis include lethar-
gy, diarrhoea, and anorexia, with more
severe forms showing conjunctivitis,
236
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
enteric fever, bacteremia, and gastroenteri-
tis (Goldberg and Rubin 1988).
Chlamydophila psittaci is also a hazard
to humans, and is recognized as an occupa-
tional disease of people working with birds
(Palmer 1981; Hinton et at. 1993; Wobeser
1997). While wild birds are known to intro-
duce and spread the disease to domestic
and pet birds, it is also likely that C.
psittaci can be spread from domestic fowl
to wild populations (Sobeslavsky 1965).
This pathogen has been associated with
dead lyrebirds in the Dandenong Ranges
National Park (DRNP) in the past.
Salmonella also has been known to pose
a health threat to humans when zoonotic-
bacteria are shed through faeces. This pol-
lution of the environment is of special con-
cern in areas where humans congregate,
such as picnic grounds (Simpson 2002).
Zoonotic bacteria are quite persistent in the
environment, which can facilitate cross-
transmission of the pathogen (Fallacara et
al 2001).
The aim of this work was to determine
the distribution and prevalence of poten-
tially pathogenic microorganisms such as
C. psittaci and Salmonella among seven
species of Australian birds common in the
DRNP and surrounding areas.
Data gathered will be used to develop a
management plan for the control of poten-
tially pathogenic microorganisms, espe-
cially in the Superb Lyrebirds Menu r a
novaehollandiae . The results from this
research will also determine if Crimson
Rosellas Platycercus elegans that are fed
daily by tourists present a health risk, and
if guidelines should be put into place to
prevent any transmission of disease to
human populations,
Materials and Methods
A glossary of technical terms used in the
text is provided in Table 1.
Study area
Field work was conducted between mid
September and mid December 2002, in the
DRNP, Victoria, Australia, and other loca-
tions in the South-eastern suburbs of
Melbourne (Table 2 ), Data obtained from a
previous study of four species (Bell Miner
Manor ina melanophrys, Superb Fairy-
wren Malurus cy uncus , White-browed
Scrubwren Seri corn is frontalis , and the
Red-browed Finch Neochmia temporalis)
were collected during two consecutive
breeding seasons from November 1998 to
February 2000 from Jells Park in the
Melbourne south-eastern suburb of Glen
Waverley (Poiani and Wilks 2000a; 2000b;
Poiani and Gwozdz 2002).
Data collection
Field data were gathered on individuals
from seven of the most common avian
species in the area: Crimson Rosella
Platycercus elegans , White-browed
Scrubwren Sericornis frontalis. Superb
Lyrebird Menu r a novaehollandiae , Superb
Fairy-wren Malurus cyaneus , European
Starling Sturnus vulgaris , House Sparrow
Passer domesticus and European Black-
bird Turdus rnerula. Only adult birds were
used in the sample; immature birds were
released immediately. Adult birds were the
main focus because this work is part of a
larger project on the study of sexually
transmitted cloacal microbes and, in the
bird population, only the adults are sexual-
ly active. Individuals of all species (except
for Menura novaehollandiae) were trapped
by mist-netting and metal banded for
future identification. A cloacal swab was
Table 1. Glossary of some technical terms used in the text
Polymerase Chain reaction (PCR)
Molecular genetics technique used to amplify selected
sections of DNA.
RNA Lysis Tissue (RLT) buffer
Lysis buffer used to break up cell membranes and release
genetic material.
Oligonucleotide primer
A short nucleic acid molecule used in PCR.
Ataxia
Decrease in the ability to move.
Cachexia
Loss of weight and muscle mass.
Serovar
Strain of any bacterium that can be distinguished by reactions
to specific antibodies
Inhibited
Samples suffered from technical problems
Vol. 122 (5) 2005
237
Research Reports
Table 2. Field sites and their dominant vegetation.
Sites
Chesterfield Farm,
Scoresby
Grant’s Picnic
Ground (DRNP) '
Grey Gum Walking
Track (DRNP) a
Jells Park,
Glen Waverley
Sherbrooke Forest
(DRNP) a
Sherbrooke Picnic
Ground (DRNP) a
Scotchman’s Creek,
Glen Waverley
Silvan Road
(DRNP)
Vegetation Description
Farmland with mainly introduced herbs, shrubs and trees
4 Wet forest’ - dominated by Mountain Ash Eucalyptus regnans
‘Lowlands forest’ - dominated by Messmate Stringybark E. ohliqua and
Red Stringybark E. macrorhyncha
Open woodland with dominant tree species being Manna Gum
E. viminalis , Swamp Gum E. ovata and Silver Wattle Acacia dealbata ,
and understorey mainly consisting of Swamp Paperbark Melaleuca erici
folia and Prickly Currant Bush Coprosma quadrifida.
‘Wet forest’ dominated by Mountain Ash E. regnans and ‘Damp forest’
- dominated by Mountain Grey Gum E. cypellocarpa and Messmate
Stringybark E. ohliqua
4 Wet forest’ - dominated by Mountain Ash E. regnans
Suburban parkland - dominated by several Acacia and Eucalyptus species
‘Shrubby foothills forest’ - predominately Messmate Stringybark
E. ohliqua and Peppermint E. radiata
(Friends of Sherbrooke Forest 2000)
taken from each bird to test for the pres-
ence of C. psittaci and Salmonella and
stored in a 1 ml cryotube with 0.5 ml of
RLT buffer solution (4M Guanidine thio-
cyanate, 15mM Pipes, pH 6.7). The cry-
otubes were transported to the laboratory
approximately 2 hours after collection and
frozen at -70°C. Bird body mass was mea-
sured to the nearest 0.1 g with a Pesola
spring balance.
Menura novaehollandiae faecal collection
Menura novaehollandiae cannot be easi-
ly captured, therefore faecal samples
(rather than ctoacal swabs) were obtained
from areas in Sherbrooke Forest in the
DRNP. In order to minimize pseudorepli-
cation (i.e. the use of statistically non-inde-
pendent data, such as several samples
taken from the same individual), only one
faecal sample was taken from each locali-
ty, and sites were chosen as far away from
each other as possible (Fig. 1). About
0.2 ml of faeces was taken from each bird
with a clean plastic spoon and stored in a
1 ml cryotube. Each sample had 0.5 ml of
RNA Lysis Tissue (RLT) buffer added,
and was stored at -70°C after arrival in the
laboratory in order to preserve the genetic
material.
Estimate of relative abundance of birds
Two methods were used to estimate rela-
tive abundance of target species at all
study sites. These were capture rates from
mist-nets and linear transects The capture
rate from mist-nets was calculated by
recording the total time the nets remained
open (TT), and the total mist-net area
(TMA). These measurements were then
used to calculate a value of mist-net expo-
sure (ME) where ME = TT x TMA [in
units of h x nr] which was then used to
estimate the Relative Population Size,
(RPS) = Total Captures/ME. Thus RPS is
an estimate of population size that takes
into account the effect of capture effort.
Birds were also counted along two 100 m
linear transects at each study site. All indi-
viduals observed within 20 m on each side
of the transect were recorded, to give a
total area (TA) surveyed per transect of
4000m^ (40m x 100m). The total time
needed to walk the transect was kept con-
stant (approximately 10 minutes) in order
to standardise the amount of time spent
looking for birds. AH transects were sur-
veyed in the early morning between 0800
and 1 000 to keep the time of day constant
within study sites.
The estimated relative population size
from mist-net captures correlated with that
obtained from the linear transects. The
numbers from the linear transacts were
chosen because they recorded the highest
numbers of birds. The relative abundance
of each species recorded in Table 4 is the
mean value of relative abundance for that
species across all study sites where the
238
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
Table 3. Oligonucleotides used in PCR to detect Chlamydophila psittaci and Salmonella.
Target
organism
Primer
Sequence (5’ -3’)
Genbank
accession
number
Expected
size of band
C. psittaci
(ompA)
ChlaF
ChlaR
ATGAAAAAACTCTTGAAATCGG
C AAG ATTTTCT AG ACTTC ATTTTGTT
X56980
1093 bp
Salmonella
(ompC)
S18fwd
S 1 9rev
ACCGCT A ACGCTCGCCTGT AT
AGAGGTGGACGGGTTGCTGCCGTT
M3 1424
159 bp
species was sighted. The sites with 0 values
(where the species was not seen) were not
used in the calculation of the mean value of
relative abundance. This acts as a control
for the fact that non sightings may indicate
inappropriate habitat for that species. The
main concern was the relative abundance of
the avian species used in the study wherev-
er they are present in the habitat. The
immatures were recorded only for the pur-
pose of calculating relative abundance.
Nucleic acid extraction
Nucleic acid extraction from cloacal
swabs followed standard procedures
(Archbold 2003). In the case of Menura
novaehollandiae nucleic acids were
extracted from faecal samples.
Faeces were vortexed and then trans-
ferred into labelled 1.5 ml microfuge
tubes. The samples were centrifuged for 5
minutes at 14 000 rpm. The supernatant
was then transferred into 1.5 ml microfuge
tubes. These faecal samples were then
treated in the same manner as the cloacal
swabs for nucleic acid extraction
( Archbold 2003 ).
Oligonucleotide primers were acquired
from a commercial source (Geneworks Pty
Ltd) (see Table 3). PCR for Ch. psittaci
was carried out in 25 pL reactions contain-
ing 5 pL of extracted DNA sample in 1 x
Taq DNA polymerase buffer (Roche
Diagnostics, Mannheim, Germany), 2 mM
MgCl2, 200 fiM of each dNTP, 1.0 pM of
each primer (see Table 2), and 1 .25 U Taq
DNA polymerase (Roche Diagnostics).
Each reaction was overlaid with a drop of
mineral oil, and contamination of reactions
by PCR product was avoided by using dif-
ferent working areas. Using a Hybaid
OmniGene thermocycler (Hybaid,
Middlesex, UK) reactions were subjected
to 40 cycles of one minute at 95°C, one
minute at 56°C, and one minute at 72°C,
and then one cycle of five minutes at 72°C.
Fig. 1. Map showing the range of locations where Menura novaehollandiae faecal samples were col-
lected. The map was compiled by Draughting Section, Division of Forest Management 1974.
VoL 122 (5) 2005
239
Research Reports
Table 4. Relative abundance, number of birds sampled, mean body mass, and number of inhibited
samples in the Salmonella PCR in seven species of Australian birds.
Host species
Relative"
abundance
n
Mean body
mass (g)
No. of
inhibited samples
in the Salmonella
PCR
Menura novaehollandiae
0.16
24
972. 50b
20
Platycercus elegans
125.00
25
144.20 ±8.50
5
Seri co mis frontal is
6.68
10
13.45 ± 1.12
0
Malurus cyaneus
7.50
2
9.25 ±0.35
0
Passer domes ficus
75.00
33
26.97 ± 1.90
3
Sturnus vulgaris
7.50
25
78.88 ± 5.65
4
Turdus merula
6.88
10
89.05 ± 6.04
4
Birds/ha as estimated from linear transects. The value for M. novaehollandiae was estimated by the
Friends of Sherbrooke Forest Group (pers. comm.) on the basis of an annual survey of 802 ha in the
Sherbrooke Forest.
b Information taken from Higgins et al. (2001 ).
Table 5. Number of individuals sampled in the 1998-1999 and the 2002 season that tested positive
for either Ch. psittaci or Salmonella.
Year
Parasitised
Not parasitised
Total
1998-1999*
10(9.7%)
93 (90.3%)
103
2002
0 (0%)
129(100%)
129
Total
10(4.3%)
222 (95.7%)
232
3 Data taken from Poiani and Wilks (2000a)
Table 6. Number of individuals in the 1998-1999, 1999-2000, and 2002 breeding seasons that tested
positive for Ch. psittaci.
Year
Parasitised
Not parasitised
Total
1998-1999"
10 (9.7%)
93 (90.3%)
103
1999-2000'
8(3.8%)
201 (96.2%)
209
2002
0 (0%)
129(100%)
129
Total
18 (4.1%)
423 (95.9%)
441
1 Data taken from Poiani and Wilks (2000a). " Data taken from Poiani and Gwozdz (2002)
The feline strain WB96 (Sykes et al. 1999)
of C. psittaci was used as a positive con-
trol, and double distilled water was used as
a negative control. The DNA of the posi-
tive control was extracted from a swab in
the same way as previously described. For
more details on nucleic acid analyses see
Archbold (2003).
Results
This research tested 129 individuals from
seven bird species for C. psittaci and
Salmonella. Neither microorganism was
detected in any of the cloacal swabs nor
faecal samples, and none of the birds
processed showed the typical symptoms of
chlamydiosis or salmonellosis. Thus,
infections by Salmonella and C. psittaci
were not detected in the species sampled
despite the wide range of both relative
abundance and bird body size.
Relative abundance
Relative abundance estimated from mist-net
capture rates and the counts from linear
transects carried out in each study site were
highly correlated (Pearson’s product-
moment correlation: r^ = 0.920, p = 0.003).
Estimates of relative abundance differed
markedly among bird species, from 125
birds/ha for Platycercus elegans to 0.16
birds/ha for Menura novaehollandiae
(Table 4). Species also differed markedly in
their body sizes (from 9.25 g in Malurus
cyaneus , to 972.5 g in Menura novaehollan-
diae) (Table 4).
240
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
Samples inhibiting PCR
Table 4 lists the number of samples that
were inhibited and therefore did not show
a PCR product in the Salmonella test.
Overall, 27.9% of samples were inhibited,
that is, suffered from technical problems.
This percentage is mainly explained by the
strong inhibition detected in the M. novae -
hollandiae faecal samples (83.3%, 20/24).
Comparison of microorganism prevalence
between years
There was a significant difference in the
overall microorganism (C. psittaci and
Salmonella) prevalence between the 1998-
1999 and the 2002 breeding seasons
(Fisher’s exact test: p = 0.0002, Table 5)
when all host species were considered.
Overall, prevalence decreased from 1998-
1999 to 2002.
A significant difference in the prevalence
of C. psittaci occurred between breeding
seasons of 1998-1999, 1999-2000, and
2002 when all host species were consid-
ered (Pearson’s Chi-square: X2 = 13.85, p
= 0.001, Table 5). C. psittaci prevalence
tended to decrease from 1 998 to 2002.
Discussion
All species tested negative for both
Salmonella and C. psittaci in spite of large
differences in host relative abundance and
body size values, which suggests that the
results are not confounded by small host
body sizes or low relative abundances.
Previous studies have indicated that usual-
ly, but not in all cases, small-bodied hosts
tend to have less diversity of parasites than
large-bodied hosts (Kuris et al. 1980;
Gregory et al. 1 99 1 ). The same is general-
ly said for the size of host populations,
with birds in small populations generally
harbouring fewer parasites (Gregory et al.
1991).
Samples inhibiting PCR
Even though there was a significant dif-
ference in the overall prevalence of
C. psittaci and Salmonella between the
1998-1999 and 2002 seasons, it must be
noted that the tests used to detect these
microorganisms were different each time.
Poiani and Wilks (2000a) used a commer-
cial kit (Clearview, Unipath Ltd) to detect
C. psittaci antigens, and cell culture was
used to test for the presence of Salmonella.
A number of studies has been carried out
to evaluate PCR in comparison with other
diagnostic methods for the detection of C.
psittaci in avian samples (Hewinson et al.
1997; Elder and Brown 1999; McElnea
and Cross 1999; Trevejo et al. 1999).
Generally it is considered that PCR is more
sensitive than the enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay (ELISA) commer-
cial kits such as Clearview, and cell cul-
ture, although one study (Trevejo et al.
1999) found that the test performance of
PCR was low compared to ELISA. This
implies that the results of this study are
conservative, as the less sensitive method
(Clearview) gave higher prevalence values
than the more sensitive method (PCR).
Thus the trends detected are not an artefact
of the different methods used.
Hewinson et al. (1997) detected
C. psittaci in faecal samples using PCR,
which contrasts with the findings of this
study, where 20/24 of Memtra novaehol-
landiae faecal samples appeared to be
inhibiting the PCR. This may be due to
methodological differences in extracting
the DNA from the faeces, or the fact that
Hewinson et al. (1997 ) used a sample from
a clinically sick parrot rather than faeces
that had remained exposed in the field for
variable periods of time. The likelihood of
obtaining false negative results may be
increased in faecal samples where the pres-
ence of inhibitors are in high concentration
and the target microorganism may be in
low concentration (Gelfland 1989).
Inhibition among species ranged from 0-
83.3% (Table 4).
Comparison of microorganism prevalence
between years
Finding zero prevalence of C. psittaci in
all seven host species sampled may not be
as surprising as at first appears. Previous
studies (Poiani and Wilks 2000a; Poiani
and Gwozdz 2002) showed that the preva-
lence of C. psittaci across four species sam-
pled decreased from 9.71% in the period
November 1998 - January 1999 to 3.83%
in the period June 1999 - February 2000.
The same four host species w'ere tested
for Salmonella in the 1998-1999 breeding
season, but it was not detected in any of
the individuals (Poiani and Wilks 2000a).
Rates of detection of Salmonella in free-
Vol. 122 (5) 2005
241
Research Reports
living avian species is usually fairly low
compared with poultry (Fallacara el al.
2001: Reche et at. 2003). Thus the results
of this study are consistent with previous
research carried out in wild populations.
There are a number of potential reasons
why the prevalence of C. psittaci appeared
to decrease over this time frame. One pos-
sibility is that the individuals were not
shedding chlamydiae or salmonellae at the
time of sampling. A negative PCR result
does not always indicate that an individual
is not carrying the microorganism, as
infected birds shed the organism intermit-
tently (Hewinson et al. 1997). Holzinger-
Umlauf et at. (1997) found that clinically
healthy Tits (Paridae) intermittently shed
C. psittaci when tested several times over a
period of nine months. In addition,
microparasites may vary in their intensity
and prevalence across seasons (Pennycott
et al. 2002; Poiani and Gwozdz 2002).
Lublin et al. (1999) found that pigeons
( Columha livia domes tica) shed higher
numbers of C. psittaci in the hottest period
of the year. However, the above does not
seem to be a good explanation for our
results as it would require perfect synchro-
nization of microparasite shedding across
seven species of birds. A general environ-
mental trend towards a decrease in parasite
populations seems to be a more likely
explanation. For instance, there is a possi-
bility that the amount of rainfall may affect
the distribution of microorganisms in the
host populations. The period from
September 2002 to December 2002 was
drier than 1998/1999/ 2000, this may par-
tially account for the low prevalence of
C. psittaci found in 2002, particularly if
the stress imposed by the drought reduced
survival of infected birds.
Autopsy revealed that three recently
reported incidences of mortality in the
Menura no vac ho It and iae population in the
DRNP (K Curran, pers. comm.) were
caused by C. psittaci infection. Since none
of the sampled individuals in this study
tested positive to this pathogen (although it
must be remembered that many samples
appeared to be inhibiting the PCR), it is
possible that the C. psittaci strain(s) likely
to be introduced in the DRNP from time to
time, may have been virulent enough to
kill all birds infected with the pathogen,
and thus may have limited the transmission
of the pathogen to other individuals. If the
strain of the pathogen was not endemic,
then the death of the birds could be
explained by their lack of immunity
against that pathogen.
Although prevalence of C. psittaci
among wild populations of native birds
may fluctuate from year to year, lack of
immunity of resident birds against specific
strains may cause mortality among infect-
ed individuals from time to time. Feral or
domestic cats and dogs may be important
carriers of C. psittaci into the park, as it is
well known that they harbour the pathogen
(Sykes et al. 1999). Any management plan
aimed at limiting introduction of domestic
mammals into the park certainly will be of
benefit in the control of Chlamydophila
infections among native birds.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Parks Victoria for fund-
ing this project through their Research Partners
Program, in particular wc thank Kevin Curran
for his support and encouragement. Thanks to
Jan Incoll and Alex Maisey for all their help
with the lyrebird field work, and to Mark
Bannister for his help with maps of distribution
and estimates of lyrebird abundance. Lindsey
Bergin allowed us to carry out the field work at
Jell’s Park, and all the help from all the staff at
Chesterfield Farm is greatly appreciated.
Melbourne Water also granted permission to
mist-net birds at Scotchman’s Creek. Laboratory
analyses benefited from Joanne Allen’s and
Kelly Tivendale’s guidance. This project was
carried out under permits of the University of
Melbourne Animal Experiment-ation Ethics
Committee (n. 00130), the Australian Bird and
Bat Banding Scheme permit (project 4, authority
n. 1505), the Department of Sustainability and
Environment (n. 10001804) and Parks Victoria
(letter signed by Dr John Wright, 27 September
2002).
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Received 3 March 2005; accepted 9 June 2005
Vol. 122 (5) 2005
243
Contribution
Diet of a Barn Owl Tyto alba at Snake Island, Victoria,
including Eastern Pygmy-possum Cercartetus nanus
Edward McNabb1, Brian Walters2 and Jason Bingham2
Abstract
A sample of 23 pellets was collected at a Barn Owl roost tree on Snake Island, a coastal sand island
off the coast of southern Victoria. Prey analysis of the pellets revealed that the Eastern Pygmy-pos-
sum constituted 27% of captures and an estimated 13.6% of the biomass of prey items in these pel-
lets. The major prey item by capture was the introduced House Mouse (50%) but the major propor-
tion of estimated biomass was provided by Bush Rats (38.0%) and unidentified rats (29.6%). ( The
Victorian Naturalist 122 (5), 2005, 244-246)
Introduction
The Barn Owl Tyto alba is a well-known
predator of small terrestrial vertebrates, e.g.
rats and mice (Higgins 1999). Most
Australian studies have been conducted in
farmland, where the species is common, or
in arid inland habitats. Little is known about
the prey of the species in natural habitats of
southeastern Australia. This report describes
the prey contents of 23 regurgitated pellets
from a Barn Owl roosting in relatively
unmodified coastal habitats on Snake Island
off the coast of southern Victoria.
Snake Island (38° 45’ S, 146° 32’ E) is a
large sand island (3452 ha) approximately
3 km from the mainland, at the eastern
edge of Corner Inlet near Wilsons
Promontory. The island is uninhabited by
people and contains very little cleared
land, although it is seasonally grazed by
stock and supports a population of intro-
duced Hog Deer Cervus porcinus
(Menkhorst 1995).
The vegetation consists of woodland with
a heathy understorey. Ten major
Ecological Vegetation Classes (LVCs) are
represented, namely Damp Sands Herb-
rich Woodland, Plains Grassland,
Mangrove Shrubland, Coastal Saltmarsh,
Swamp Scrub, Coastal Tussock Grassland,
Estuarine Wetland, Heathy Woodland,
Sand Heathland and Wet Heathland
(source: Biomap. Department of
Sustainability and Environment Corporate
Geospatial Library),
1 Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research,
Department of Sustainability and Environment, PO
Box 1 37, Heidelberg, Victoria 3084
2 Ecoplan Australia Pty . Ltd., PO Box 580,
Hurstbridge, Victoria 3099
Methods
A deposit of regurgitated owl pellets was
found within a hollow of an old Manna
Gum Eucalyptus viminalis on 12 March
2002. The appearance of the pellets was
consistent with those of the Bam Owl (see
Triggs 1996). A wing covert found at the
site was confirmed as belonging to a Barn
Owl after comparison with a reference skin.
The roost tree was half a kilometre inland
from the southern coast of Snake Island in
Damp Sands Herb-rich Woodland. This
comprised open woodland of Manna Gums
Eucalyptus viminalis and Coast Banksia
Banks ia integri folia with a scrubby mid-
dle-storey of Coast Wattle Acacia longifo-
lia. There were large openings in these
woodlands where a shrubby ground cover
replaced the wattle. To the north, the vege-
tation thickened and became predominant-
ly B. integrifolia with copses of Paperbark
Melaleuca sp. in the wetter swales and
along the coastal margin.
The hollow entrance was 8 m above
ground with an entrance of 200 mm diame-
ter, widening to 300 mm at the base,
approximately 1.5 m below. There was an
accumulation of detritus and pellet material
700 - 800 mm deep. A side vent allowed
successive deposits to roll to the outside,
thus self cleaning the remaining 700 mm
deep chamber. A sample of 23 pellets was
collected from the top 50 mm of the cham-
ber accumulation for analysis. Contents of
the pellets were identified by comparison
of skull, dentary and major limb bone
material with reference skeletons. Hairs
were identified microscopically using the
methods described in Brunner and Coman
(1974). Estimated biomass of prey was
based on mean weights of mammals from
244
The Victorian Naturalist
Contribution
Strahan (1983). Mean weight of unidenti-
fied rats was based on the range of rat
species known to occur in the Snake Island
area (Source: Atlas of Victorian Wildlife).
Results
Forty-eight individual prey items were
present in the pellets. Two pellets con-
tained three prey species, 10 pellets con-
tained two species and 1 1 pellets contained
one species. An introduced species, the
House Mouse Mus mi is cuius was the most
frequent prey taken (50% of all captures)
followed by two native species, Eastern
Pygmy-possum Cercartetus nanus (27%)
and Bush Rat Rattus fuscipes (15%).
Unidentified rats provided the remaining
proportion (8%) (Table 1). Rats provided
67.6% of the total prey biomass, House
Mouse 18.8% and Eastern Pygmy-possum
13.6% (Table 1). An unidentified bird
feather was not included in the analysis.
Discussion
The Bam Owl is an opportunistic preda-
tor of a wide range of prey (Higgins 1999).
Detailed studies have shown small rodents
to form the main proportion of the diet. For
example, the House Mouse can provide
more than 90% of the rodent part of the
owl’s diet in areas where native terrestrial
mammals have become scarce (e.g. Debus
and Rose 2004). Heathy habitats such as
those on Snake Island are known to sup-
port populations of the House Mouse as
well as a range of native mammal species
(Menkhorst 1995). This note shows that at
least two of these native species (Bush Rat
and Eastern Pygmy-possum) constitute
51.6% of the prey biomass of the Barn
Owl under consideration.
This is the first documented record of a
Barn Owl preying on Eastern Pygmy-pos-
Bam Owl Tyto alba. Photograph by Edward
McNabb.
sum although there are a few records of
Barn Owls taking another small native
phalanger, the Feathertail Glider Acrobates
pygmaeus (e.g. James 1980). The Eastern
Pygmy-possum proportion of total cap-
tures (27%) in the owl pellets indicates that
this species may be reasonably common on
Snake Island. Although there are records
of this species from the island (Menkhorst
1995) little information is available on its
status.
The Barn Owl is typically a predator of
terrestrial prey and the Eastern Pygmy-pos-
sum is regarded as predominantly arboreal
(Strahan 1988). However, Pygmy-possums
often will travel across the ground between
flowering trees such as Banksias to glean
nectar when trees are scattered or a middle-
Tabic 1. Contents of 23 regurgitated Barn Owl Tyto alba pellets from Snake Island, Victoria.
Number of pellets in which each prey species occurred, total individuals of each prey species, pro-
portion of total captures, biomass of each species (mean weight x total individuals captured) and pro-
portion of total prey biomass.
Prey species
(mean weight)
No of
pellets
Total
individuals
captured
%
Total
captures
Biomass
(g)
% Total
biomass
House Mouse (18g)
14
24
50
432
18.8
Bush Rat ( 1 25g)
9
7
15
875
38.0
Eastern Pygmy-
10
13
27
312
13.6
possum (24g)
Unidentified rat (170g) 4
4
8
680
29.6
Total
48
100
2299
100
Vol. 122 (5) 2005
245
Tribute
storey is absent (Turner 1995). This brief
study shows, again, the value of owl pellets
as a resource for surveying cryptic mammal
species (e.g. Loyn et a I 1986).
Acknowledgements
Richard Loyn. Vivienne Turner and Phoebe
Macak provided comments during the drafting
of this note and the owl pellets were analysed by
Barbara Triggs. We also thank the anonymous
referee.
References
Atlas of Victorian Wildlife.
Brunner II and Coman B (1974) The identification of
mammalian hair. (Inkata Press: Melbourne)
Debus SJS and Rose AB (2004) Diet of the Barn Owl
Tv to alba near Tannvorth, New South Wales. Corella
28. 95.
Higgins PJ (Ed) (1999) Handbook of Australian, New
Zealand and Antarctic Birds, Vol 4. (Oxford
University Press: Melbourne)
James JW (1980) Food of the Powerful Owl Ninox
siren ua in south-eastern Queensland. Emu 80. 34-35.
Loyn R1L Traill BJ and Triggs BE (1986) Prey of
Sooty Owls in East Gippsland before and after tire.
The Victorian Naturalist 103, 147 149,
Menkhorst P (1995) Mammals of Victoria. (Oxford
University Press: Melbourne)
Strahan R (Ed) (1983) Complete Book of Australian
Mammals. (Sydney; Angus and Robertson)
Tiiggs B (1496) Tracks, Scats and other Traces a
field guide to Australian mammals. (Oxford
University Press: Melbourne).
Turner V (1985) The ecology of the Eastern Pygmy-
possum. Cercartetus nanus, in banksia dominated
habitats at Wilsons Promontory. Unpublished PhD
Thesis, Monash University, Melbourne.
Received 28 October 2004; accepted 7 July 2005
Bary Dowling
18 June 1933-30 May 2005
Bary Dowling joined the FNCV in 2000.
He was a keen bird observer and a member
of the Bird Observers Club of Australia
and the Ringwood Field Naturalists Club.
From his early childhood, growing up in
the Western District of Victoria, his
knowledge and passion for all animals and
plant life grew. He had an acute eye for
detail and the naturalist's enquiring mind,
coupled with a talent for writing. His auto-
biography Mudeye: an Australian boyhood
and beyond ( 1995) describes his early life
growing up on a dairy farm. A keen inter-
est in farming saw Bary and his wife
Margaret on a mixed farm in Tasmania
and later at Learmonth, Western Victoria,
and Pomonal near the Grampians.
His early training was from the Burnley
College of Agriculture but he went on to
many varied positions. As a landscape gar-
dener he was involved in managing several
different gardening positions, as curator of
the Carlton Gardens and the Lae Botanic
Gardens. He also had a position as
Agricultural Officer in New Guinea. He
was a man who was keen to try anything
as long as it was outdoors!
As well as the previously mentioned
book he wrote Exploring Australia's
South-east (1989) and a collection of short
stories. Eye of the White Hawk ( 1 997).
In more recent times most people will
have read at least some of his beautifully
written natural history articles in The Age.
These newspaper articles chronicled his
most special times in his beloved bushland
and his rambles along the Yarra River.
His understanding of the environment and
his despair at its destruction meant many
passionate discussions between himself,
friends and fellow naturalists. He supported
the removal of cattle (and brumbies) from
the High Plains and fortunately lived long
enough to hear a result the end of the cat-
tle leases. He felt veiy strongly that spend-
ing vast amounts of money on individual
isolated species without consideration of
the environment as a whole or preserving
the species’ habitat was futile. He felt that
in saving the environment we save every-
thing, without it nothing.
His religion was the environment and all
it contained, no matter how small or how
ordinary it was. He took pleasure in its
existence. Bary’s enquiring mind refused
to accept anything at face value, and he
was always seeking deeper understanding.
He joined my regular Wednesday walks
several years ago and soon endeared him-
self to everyone with his sense of humour,
kindness and thought-provoking discus-
sions. He willingly shared his knowledge
246
The Victorian Naturalist
Naturalist Notes
and used some of the highlights of the
walks as material for his Age articles.
This modest man with a storehouse of
experiences on the land, in formal gardens
and bushland (especially if it was wild and
nigged like his beloved Grampians) was at
his happiest striding under a clear blue sky
or commenting on the extraordinary shape
of the billow ing clouds or examining a tiny
leaf gall.
He died grateful for all life, in harmony
with his fellow man and in awe of the envi-
ronment. Those of us who were privileged
to have known him mourn his loss but
rejoice in his life and its many contributions.
He adored his grandson Osca, delighting
in sharing natural history experiences with
him, with the result that Osca became a
member of the FNCV Junior Club.
Our sincere condolences to his family
and partner Catherine.
Cecily Falkingham
27 Chippewa St,
Donvale, Vic 3111
A modern peat deposit at Rosebud
On a Marine Research Group excursion
to Rosebud on 30 April 2005, the author
became interested in a peat outcrop south
of the Jetty Road pier at the back of the
beach, latitude 38° 25.27'S, longitude 144°
54.35'E. It is on the northern edge of the
Tootgarook Swamp (Keble 1950).
On closer examination of the peat
deposit, it was evident that there were
angular clasts of Dromana granite, build-
ing bricks, concrete and bitumen fragments
and sawn logs. The included coalified
wood fragments appeared to show pre-
ferred orientation. The presence of human
artifacts in the peat suggested that the
deposit occured since settlement in the
area (or modern late Holocene). The
deposit was approximately 30 m wide and
an average of 1 m thickness. The outcrop
extends easterly beneath a terrace 1 m
above low tide and may be an indication ot
an earlier slightly higher sea level.
The length and width (in cm) and orienta-
tion of 36 lignified wood fragments found
within the peat was calculated. From this
data, the alignment of the fragments is
shown in three different rosettes (Fig.l ). All
three rosettes show significant orientation in
the south-east north-west (135°) direction
sector. This direction is significant beyond
Fig. 1. Rosettes showing the frequency of linear log and wood fragments. Each circle - 1 fragment.
All 3 rosettes significant beyond p — 0.05. a. Frequency of 36 wood fragments (all sizes) with a pre-
ferred orientation of 135°.' Inferred south-westerly current aligned wood fragments in the peat
deposit as indicated by the arrows, b. Frequency of 20 wood fragments exceeding 30 cm m length.
Longest pieces prefer 135° class sector, whilst shorter lengths radiate from 15° to 75°, sub parallel to
the inferred current of 225° (SW). c. Frequency of 19 wood fragments with e = L/W exceeding 5.
Stronger orientation is perpendicular to the current, with a secondary mode sub-parallel to the SW.
Vol. 122 (5) 2005
247
Naturalist Notes
v **
Fig. 2. Lignified branch (under ruler). Angular
rock fragments of Dromana granite, bitumen
and concrete above branch. Ruler = 16 cm.
p = 0.05 for the twelve 15° classes. This
means that, with chance factors reduced to
less than 5 in 100, some factor other than
chance must be operating to align the
wood fragments perpendicular to the
onshore current. Fig. lb demonstrates that
only the longest fragments (upwards of 20
cm in length) align perpendicular to the
current. Shorter fragments tend to be sub-
paralleled to the current from 10° to 75°
(with a mean of 45°). The same pattern is
suggested by Fig.lc with the most elongate
fragments, Le. e > 5, with elongation ratio
defined as e = 1/w.
The author has found this pattern is com-
mon in the distribution of current aligned
linear fragments such as graptolites
( Dip/ograptus spp.) in Ordovician slates at
Gisborne and Toolern Vale (Schleiger
1968 Figs. lb, lc). Shorter linear shapes
tend to be fickle and fan out in the direc-
tion of the current. The distribution of lin-
ear wood fragments in the peat would be
aligned by wave action breaking on the
beach from a south west to north east swell
associated with the passing of a cold front
from west to east across southern Victoria.
The sequence of events for the formation
of peat is as set out below.
1. In modern times since settlement in the
Rosebud area, strong south-westerly winds
whipped up strong waves which scoured
the shallows of sea grass and kelp off-
shore. Marine plant material and litter from
trees nearby was piled up at the back of the
beach. Logs, rock fragments and human
artifacts were incorporated in the deposit.
2. Sand from offshore was piled over the
plant mixture to quickly bury the material.
The sand cover is essential to exclude the
oxygen if the humification process is to
Fig. 3. Peaty wood projecting from peat deposit
at Rosebud. Ruler = 16 cm.
produce carbon in the residue (Holmes
1965).
2CgH] yOg — > C^H |()Og + 2CO9 + 2CH4 + H?0
Cellulose Humite Carbon Methane Water
dioxide
3. Beach erosion to the present day has since
exposed the peat deposit at the surface.
Strong onshore winds and higher tides
would be the principal agents of erosion.
The concrete, bitumen and brick frag-
ments, etc. are present day artifacts, and
testify to the recent formation of the peat.
They are the equivalent of fossils in the
deposit, which would date the deposit as
forming in the last 50 years.
The author has seen similar sea grass
humification on flat terraces just above
low tide on the Edward's Point peninsula
on the Bellarine Peninsula, south of St
Leonards. Here the peat layers are thinner,
but still several centimetres thick. They
appear to have been washed in by swell
from north-east to south-west.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Dorothy Mahler who typed the
manuscript
References
Holmes A ( 1 965) Principles of Physical Geology >, 2 ed.
(Thomas Nelson (Australia): Melbourne)
Keble KA (1950) The Mornington Peninsula.
Geological Survey of Victoria, Memoir No 17,
Melbourne.
Schleiger NW (1968) Orientation Distribution Patterns
of Graptolite Rhabdosomes from Ordovician
Sediments in Central Victoria, Australia. Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology June, 462-472.
Noel Schleiger
1 Astley St
Montmorency, Vic 3094
248
The Victorian Naturalist
Naturalist Notes
Utilisation of man-made telephone pits
as winter hibernacula
On Wednesday July 20, 2005, I received
a phone call to remove a snake from a
man-made pit at the Heritage Golf Club,
Chirnside Park North, Victoria, on
Melbourne’s northern outskirts.
Upon arrival 1 was directed to a grassy
knoll (top of a slight rise) in a treeless area,
generally surrounded by mainly manicured
grass and tracts of longer uncut grass.
Underneath a plastic cover measuring
about 40 cm x 65 cm was a rectangular
hole about 60 cm deep. At the bottom was
some pipe or cable. The hole was lined
with standard sized bricks that were not
cemented together.
There at the bottom was a 40 cm male
Copperhead A us t re laps superbus (the size
indicated it had been bom in the summer
of 2003-4). It was facing out into the hole
from a crack between two bricks.
In the same pit were 17 Spotted Grass
Frogs Limnodynastes tasmaniensis of
varying sizes, but all more or less
mature. These were merely sitting at the
bottom or partially under the bricks lin-
ing the sides of the pit. There was no
water in the pit and most of the bottom
was lined with moist sandy dirt.
The plastic cover at the top of the pit
was sited in an area exposed to the full
day's sunlight and hence would be use-
ful in terms of attracting heat. The depth
of the pit was also such as to enable the
inhabitants to escape the consequences
of severe frosts if they occurred.
In two other similar pits within two
metres of the first, other animals were
found. One pit contained a skink
Pseudemoia sp. and 10 Limnodynastes
tasmaniensis , while the other contained
three Pseudemoia sp. and seven
Limnodynastes tasmaniensis. All were
more or less adult in size.
While the ground staff at the golf club
had not noticed the presence of the frogs
and lizards in die first pit, they said that
the Copperhead had been ‘living there’
for at least a month, indicating it was
overwintering in the site. That snake was
released the same day a few kilometres
west of where it was caught.
As a licenced snake catcher (DSE con-
troller’s permit), I have in the last two
years been called to remove an Eastern
Brown Snake Pseudonqja texlilis from a
Telstra pit at Mickleham on Melbourne’s
north-west edge, a Copperhead from
another Telstra pit at Arthur’s Creek on
Melbourne’s northern fringe, as well as
approximately another hundred snake
removals. Both pits were in similar situa-
tions to that of the golf course and both
cases occured in the cooler inactive season,
indicating that the snakes had taken up
semi-permanent refuge in the pits. Those
snakes found in the Telstra pits were first
uncovered by the linesmen who opened up
the pits to repair the phone network. In all
cases, the pits inhabited wfere in open
grassy situations in flat to undulating coun-
Spotted Grass Frogs Limnodynastes tasmaniensis
from Somerton, Victoria.
Vol. 122 (5) 2005
249
Book Review
try with little if any other ‘hard cover’ on
the ground.
On another occasion, in winter 2003, a
young Copperhead was seen in a similar
situation in a Telstra pit on a dairy farm at
Boorool Road, Mirboo North (about 100
km south-east of Melbourne). Evidently
the thermal properties of these pits are
conducive to reptiles and frogs overwinter-
ing in them.
Based on the positions of the animals
seen in these pits when found, it is clear
that the animals do move about in these
pits as time of day and weather conditions
vary. This indicates that overwintering in
these species in the relevant parts of
Victoria is better defined as brumation,
rather than hibernation in the stricter sense.
Raymond Hoser
488 Park Rd. Park Orchards, Victoria 3114
Email: adder(</' smuggled . com
Most of us, some significant politicians
and industrialists aside, now appreciate
that our future depends on the
Environment. This not-so-little book (the
size of a solid novel) docs a fine job of
helping us to understand why this is so.
Instead of a biased polemic, Ron Nielsen
provides us with a robust package of data
on the health of the environment and
humanity, and succeeds in synthesising
and objectively commenting on (as far as
one can) the important issues. Nielsen, a
nuclear physicist, rightly describes his
work as an ‘...attempt to provide a com-
prehensive summary of the essential facts
and figures that we need to know in order
to understand global environmental
The Little Green Handbook:
a guide to global trends
by Ron Nielsen
Publisher: Scribe Publications,
Melbourne, 2005.384 pp.
ISBN 1 920769307. RRP $ 35.00
change, and to try to give a broader view
of the implications for all of us... It surveys
not only the deterioration of the environ-
ment. but the economic, social and politi-
cal trends, including the increasing ten-
sions and conflicts between nations.' The
Little Green Handbook is a call for us to
ensure that our children’s future is ‘safe,
nurturing and sustainable’.
Clearly it is a big picture book - and the
picture is bleak. It points to trends that even
the most optimistic proponents of ‘technol-
ogy-will-save-us’ will find depressing.
The Introduction is a useful summary of
the issues addressed in the book, and it
also answers the questions that some read-
ers will ask at the outset; for example, how
250
The Victorian Naturalist
Book Review
reliable are the data, and can we make
accurate predictions? The following seven
chapters deal in turn with: the population
explosion, diminishing land resources,
diminishing water resources, the destruc-
tion of the atmosphere, the approaching
energy crisis, social decline, conflicts and
increasing killing power. These detailed
chapters comprise the bulk of the book;
they are littered with numbers and impec-
cably referenced tables and graphs, as well
as commentaries that are not exaggerated,
but rather rely on the data to make the
points.
The reading of the book, though disturb-
ing, is mostly easy because of the use of
simple language and clear layout. The
chapter on The Destruction of the
Atmosphere, for example, gives a lucid
introduction to the troposphere and how it
is changing - gently bringing even this
humble biologist up to speed on essential
Earth Sciences. There are headings to
break up the chapters and focus the various
points: ‘Projected carbon emissions’,
‘Carbon storage’, LHow reliable is the pre-
diction of global bankruptcy?’, and ‘What
are the effects of climate change on the
oceans?’ and so on.
One can use this book quickly to check
not only the projected carbon emissions for
Chad and the USA out to 2050, but also
the discretionary figures for the US budget,
the numbers of nuclear weapons in various
places around the world, and snippets such
as ... ‘anti-satellite weapons can be as sim-
ple as launching a bin-full of junk into the
path of one’ We leam that though the bio-
logically productive surface area of the
Earth is 1 1 billion hectares, our footprint is
now nine hectares per person (largely
because of the consumption of the likes of
us, and other western gadget nations). At
this level, Earth can support a population
of 1.2 billion people - this happens to be
the current population of the us group, and
the Earth’s total human burden back in
1857! Yes, we are in trouble - and most of
the rest of the world knows this already
from bitter experience (need I mention
Africa?). Nielsen then describes the begin-
nings of the end that we’ve seen in the past
decades - the collapse of fisheries, reduc-
tion in biodiversity, global warming and its
immediate consequences of extreme
weather (need I mention New Orleans?).
I was wondering if Nielsen was going to
inject a bit of optimism by discussing the
view that the internet empowers the com-
mon man through awareness of these glob-
al trends — but then a quick search of the
index and glance at the text reminded me
of the blindingly obvious: that only 14% of
the 6 or so billion of us is connected, and
that figure is likely to increase soon only
for the you-know- who’s of the world.
For those wanting a quick summary.
Chapter 9 puts it all ‘In a Nutshell’ and
offers suggestions as to what we should
do: we have to eliminate gross inequality
between countries, move away from fossil
fuels, challenge globalisation, and restruc-
ture economies to always put the environ-
ment first. These are not easy tasks, and
the list sounds like a syllabus for Utopia
101, but as Lord Robert May, Jared
Diamond, and others have recently
reminded us, if we don't act now, we will
bequeath to the next generations a Blade
Runner- like world that ticks over for the
privileged few survivors of the collapse.
I can imagine many readers taking some
issue with what Nielsen says; for example,
that wre must fight globalisation on all
fronts, but his case, to this reader at least,
is well presented and finds a sympathetic
ear. The bottom line, as most of us suspect
already, is that with proper global manage-
ment, reflected in ‘selfless care for one
another and dedication to the environ-
ment', we can have ‘global economic
growth and a sustainable future’ - so let’s
go to it!
The Little Green Handbook should be
bought and distributed widely; at this
‘greatest turning point in our history’ 1
suggest it be kept close at hand by all over
the age of sixteen, especially your local
pollie.
Peter Beech
School of Biological and Chemical Sciences
Deakin University, Burwood, Victoria 3125
Email: peter.beech@deakin.edu.au
Vol. 122 (5) 2005
251
The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Inc.
Reg No A003361 IX ^
Established 1880
In which is incorporated the Microscopical Society of Victoria
Understanding our natural world
Membership is open to any person interested in natural history and includes
beginners as well as experienced naturalists.
Registered Office: FNCV, 1 Gardenia Street, Blackburn, Victoria 3130, Australia.
Postal Address: FNCV, Locked Bag 3, Blackburn, Victoria 3130, Australia.
Phone/Fax (03) 9877 9860; International Phone/Fax 61 3 9877 9860.
email : fncv@Yicnet.net.au
www.vicnct.net.au/-thcv
Patron
John Landy, AC, mbe, The Governor of Victoria
Office-Bearers
President : Ms Karen Muscat
Vice Presidents : Dr Melanie Archer and Dr Alan Yen
Hon. Secretary: Ms Rosta Buc
Hon. Treasurer : Ms Barbara Burns
Librarian : Mrs Sheila Houghton
Field Nats News Editors : Mrs Joan Broadbi rry and Dr Noel Schleiger
Special Interest Groups of the FNCV
Botany: Ms Karen Muscat Geology: Mr Rob Hamson
Fauna Survey: Ms Sally Bewsher Microscopical : Mr Ray Power
Marine Research: Mr Leon Altoff- Fungi: Mr Geoff Lay
Bat Group: Mr Ian Kitchen Junior Group: Ms Wendy Clark
Terrestrial Invertebrate: Dr Alan Yen
The Victorian Naturalist is published six times per year.
Editors: Mrs Anne Morion, Dr Gary Presland and Dr Maria Gibson.
Address correspondence to:
The Editors, The Victorian Naturalist , FNCV, Locked Bag 3, Blackburn, Victoria 3130, Australia.
Phone: (03) 9877 9860. Email: vicnaL@vicnet.net.au
All subscription enquiries should be sent to FNCV, Locked Bag 3, Blackburn, Victoria 3130,
Australia. Phone: 9877 9860. Email lncv@ vicnet.net.au
MEMBERSHIP
Members receive The Victorian Naturalist and the monthly Field Nats News free. The Club organis-
es several monthly meetings and excursions. Members are welcome to attend all activities. Visitors
are also welcomed, but a $5 fee applies to non-members per excursion and $2 per meeting.
Yearly Subscription Rates- The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Inc.
Membership
Metropolitan
$55
Concessional (pensioner/student/unemployed)
$45
Country (more than 50 km from GPO)
$45
Junior
$15
Family (at same address)
$70
Institutional
Libraries and Institutions (within Australia)
$100
Libraries and Institutions (overseas)
AU$110
Schools/Clubs
$55
Printed by BPA Print Group, 1 1 Evans Street, Burwood, Victoria 3125.
The
Victorian
Naturalist
Volume 122 (6)
December 2005
Leaves from our history
125 years of the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Inc.
Symposium
Published by The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria since 1884
Department of
Sustainability
and Environment
This issue supported by:
Department of Sustainability and Environment,
and Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne
t
Royal
Botanic
Gardens
Melbourne
December
Victorian
Naturalist
Volume 122 (6)2005
History Symposium Special Issue
Editors: Anne Morton, Gary Presland, Maria Gibson
Contributions Welcoming speech by President of the FNCV,
by Karen Muscat 256
Opening Address, by Neil W Archibald. 257
Rambles, reports and reserves. The FNCV’s early
conservation of Victoria’s natural heritage,
by Linden Gillbank 258
Popular and professional communicators: Edith Coleman
and Norman Wakelield, by Danielle Clode 274
The close union between the Herbarium and the Naturalists,
by Helen M Cohn.............. 282
‘If it is not against the rules’. Women in the FNCV
1 880-1980, by Sheila Houghton 290
The FNCV's New Century Woman, by Valda Dedman 306
Marine studies and the FNCV, by Brian J Smith 31 1
The Junior Group: 62 years of encouraging
young naturalists, by Wendy Clark 315
From fungs to Fungimap: fungi and the FNCV, by TW May 319
Australian Natural History Medallion, by Ian D Endersby 326
SGAP, Swaby and the FNCV, by John Walter 330
The FNCV and the VNPA, by Malcolm Calder 336
Changes in the content of The Victorian Naturalist
between 1884 and 2004, by Melanie S. Archer 340
Evolution of Field Nats News :
a tribute to our volunteers, by Noel Schleiger 348
The Kershaw Dynasty, by J Hope Black (Macpherson) 351
From cabinets of curiosities to black boxes: the future
of the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria, by Alan L. Yen 358
Natural observations: The artists of Frederick McCoy’s
Zoology of Victoria, by John Kean and Rebecca Car land 366
From Woodlands to Field Naturalists - what an excursion!
by Sue Wright 375
From the Editors 255
From the Editors
In the lamentable absence of a complete and detailed published history of the Field
Naturalists Club of Victoria (FNCV), this issue of The Victorian Naturalist will stand as
a good summary of the subject. Almost all of the papers published here originated as
talks given at the symposium held in May 2005, to celebrate the 1 25'1' anniversary of the
FNCV. As such, most have been modified only slightly, and then only to take account of
the different format required for publishing.
These papers cover the widest range of aspects relating to the history of this fine Club.
They focus on the notable men and women of the Club; on the famous and significant
incidents to have occurred through its history, many of which were instrumental in
achieving a wider aim, and often related to the conservation of Victoria's natural
resources. The papers draw attention also to a spectrum of activities undertaken at various
limes for members of the FNCV, but also for a wider public. And there are papers here
that indicate the wide-ranging connections that exist between this Club and both other
organizations within this State, and individuals working in many scientific contexts.
What is amply demonstrated is that the FNCV has played a central role in many areas of
endeavour within the Victorian arena. Nobody reading these papers could doubt that the
FNCV has not only a long, but a glorious history, of which we should be proud.
We commend this issue to all readers, and particularly to those members and friends
who were unable to attend the 125"' symposium.
Cover: .The History Symposium attendees pictured in the Royal Botanic Gardens,
Melbourne, May 2005. Photographer: Michael Rayner, courtesy of The Age.
ISSN 0042-5184
Web address: http://www.vicnet.net.au/~fncv/vicnat.htm
Email vicnat@vicnet.net.au
History Symposium
Welcoming speech by President of the FNCV
Karen Muscat'
__
Hf •*'- «#*!
As President of the Field Naturalists Club
of Victoria, it is my great pleasure to wel-
come you to this grand occasion, the cele-
bration of the 125"’ anniversary.
It was on the 6 May 1880, that a meeting
was held in the home of Charles French,
which was situated close to where we are
now assembled. At that meeting, it was
decided to call a public meeting to estab-
lish the Club. This was held on the 14 June
1880, and the Club has never looked back.
In its 125 years, membership has steadily
grown, and despite all of the competing
alternative interests available to society
today, the Club has a membership of just
over 1000 members. As in all Clubs, there
have been peaks and troughs. Yet the lega-
cy left by its members is so great that a
booklet had to be prepared to list just some
of them.
Very briefly, achievements include dis-
coveries made during the many excursions
run by the Club, the continued publication
of The Victorian Naturalist since 1884, the
different organisations that were spawned
within the FNCV that have now become
organisations in their own right, the
Australian Natural History Medallion, and
the role of the Club in conservation issues
'email: KarenMuscat2@ hotmail.com
such as the establishment of Wilson’s
Promontory National Park.
Despite enormous social changes over
the last 125 years, several things have
remained the same: the interest in natural
history, a desire to look and learn, the need
to preserve and protect our flora and fauna
for future generations.
These ideals, along with an important
mixture of amateur and professional mem-
bers, young and old, male and female, and
a willingness to volunteer, have kept the
Club vibrant. It is these same factors that
will keep the FNCV active and relevant for
the next 125 years.
This symposium would not have
occurred without the hard work of the
organising committee (Sheila Houghton,
Anne Morton, Mitni Pohl, Gary Presland,
and Alan Yen) and the members who. in
the tradition of the FNCV, volunteered
their time to help set up and run the sym-
posium: Lyn Ansell. James Berriman. Joan
Broadberry, Rosta Buc, Barbara Burns,
Arthur Carew, Annie Lamb, Dorothy
Mahler. Jenny Porter, Ray Power, Noel
Schleiger, and Phil Scully. I also wish to
thank the speakers who we will hear over
the next two days for their interest and
endeavour in getting their presentations
together.
Special thanks are in order for our two
sponsors: the Royal Botanic Gardens and
the Department of Sustainability and
Environment. I wish to thank Dr Phil
Moors and Professor Lindsay Nielsen for
their generous support.
We chose Mueller Hall for this sympo-
sium because the FNCV met here for many
years, and its former office, before the
move to Blackburn, was in the Astron-
omer's residence nearby. Another institu-
tion that has had a close link to the FNCV
is the Royal Society of Victoria, and I wish
to call upon the Immediate past President
of the Royal Society, Professor Neil
Archbold, to open this symposium.
Professor Archbold is Professor of
Palaeontology at Deakin University and is
an active member of the FNCV.
256
The Victorian Naturalist
History symposium
be here today to represent the President,
Council and Members of the Royal Society
of Victoria on the occasion of this special
birthday symposium to celebrate the 125Ul
anniversary of the Field Naturalists Club of
Victoria. Congratulations on this great
anniversary, which serves well to illustrate
the long-term links between our two soci-
eties. 125 years ago, on the 17 May 1880, at
an adjourned meeting held at the Melbourne
Athenaeum, the FNCV was inaugurated (an
inevitable event, following the initial public
meeting held on the 6 May 1880 at the
Melbourne Athenaeum where 30 people
attended). The adjourned initial meeting was
resumed on the 1 7 May at which the rules
were adopted, the subscription set at ten
shillings, and the office-bearers elected.
Professor (later Sir) Frederick McCoy was
elected President, thereby establishing firm
links with the Royal Society of Victoria, the
National Museum of Victoria and the
University of Melbourne. Initially the
FNCV met in the Royal Society's rooms in
the Temperance Hall in Russell Street,
Melbourne, but this was to change in 1881.
Checking the pages of the Southern
Science Record (W ol. 1, No. 6, 1881, p.
88), it appears that the first ‘official’ link
between the Royal Society of Victoria and
the FNCV took place on 6 April 1881.
Members of the FNCV were present at a
special meeting of the RSV ‘by invitation’.
The occasion was the visit to Melbourne
by the distinguished naturalist Baron
'Immediate Past President, Royal Society of Victoria
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
Opening Address
Neil W Archbold1
Miklouho Maclay, who desired to establish
a Zoological Station at Watson’s Bay, Port
Jackson. The Baron had received partial
monetary support for the plan from the
Sydney Government, but was also seeking
support from other Australian colonies. It
is of note that the FNCV supported the
plan at its meeting of the 11 April 1881.
Clearly, there were firm linkages between
the RSV and the FNCV before this ‘offi-
cial’ request.
The first annual Conversazione of the
FNCV was held on the 17 May 1881, at
the RSV’s Hall ‘kindly placed at its dis-
posal by the Council’, Professor McCoy
w'as to observe in his anniversary address
that ‘many of our ordinary members are
not only well-known as accomplished nat-
uralists, but lovers of the open air studies
and excursions for the purpose of making
and recording observations which are the
main characteristics of our Club’. Further
on in his address he was to note that ‘some
of (the Club’s) collections, as well as a
small library, it is intended ultimately to
have for the general use of members when
suitable permanent chambers can be
obtained’. This was achieved in time for
the meeting of 8 August 1881, when the
FNCV met at the RSV’s Hall and notice
was given that future meetings would be
held at that location ‘where it is requested
all communications may be addressed’.
The FNCV now owns its own property
and rooms in Blackburn, but strong link-
ages still exist between the two societies -
perhaps most notably through the RSV’s
support for the Australian Natural History
Medallion. The RSV presents its best
wishes and congratulations to the FNCV
and trusts that the FNCV may have many
more anniversaries and birthdays, and is
confident that this symposium will be the
success that it promises to be, judging
from the programme.
Thank you for your courtesy and attention.
Editors' note
We regret to inform readers of the death of
Professor Neil Archbold, on 30 November
2005.
257
History symposium
Rambles, reports and reserves.
The FNCV’s early conservation
of Victoria’s natural heritage
Linden Gillbank*
Abstract
From its inception in 1880, the Melbourne-based Field Naturalists Club of Victoria (FNCV) visited
rail-accessible species-rich areas to collect specimens. The FNCV soon used its productive triad of
monthly meetings, excursions and issues of The Victorian Naturalist to observe and record the natur-
al history of increasingly distant landscapes. To ensure the accuracy of these records the FNCV
updated species* lists For Victoria’s flora, fauna and fungi in The Victorian Naturalist and prompted
and published descriptive handbooks; thereby helping specimen collectors, nature study teachers and
conservationists. Early excursions prompted the reservation of Cabbage Tree Palms in cast
Gippsland and Wilson’s Promontory National Park. (The Victorian Naturalist 122 (6), 2005, 258-274)
Introduction
As a member of the most destructive
species on the blue planet, I am delighted
to participate in the celebration of an
organisation which for so long has encour-
aged an interest in and understanding of
the planet on which we are completely
dependent. I thank and congratulate all
those who have contributed to the Club’s
first 125 years, including the organisers of
this symposium, and hope that together we
can do justice to the efforts and values of
the Club. Survival over a period, during
which various scientific, natural history
and conservation groups have emerged,
and ideas and practices in science and con-
servation have changed considerably, is a
truly remarkable effort.
My aim is twofold. Firstly I wish to show
how, from the 1880s, the Field Naturalists
Club of Victoria has provided an effective
voice for the conservation of Victoria’s
natural heritage-how it orchestrated the
collection and recording of specimens and
observations, and engaged the public and
politicians in conservation issues. I use
records and recollections published in the
Club’s journal in order to fulfill my second
aim-to show the importance of The
Victorian Naturalist as a rich historical
record of Victoria’s natural heritage and
early efforts to conserve it. In order to pro-
vide historical foundations for other sym-
posium papers I focus mainly on the
Club’s early decades.
History and Philosophy of Science Department,
University of Melbourne, 3010.
email: lindenrg@unimelb.edu.au
Collecting around Melbourne in the
1870s
To try to understand the birth of a field
club for naturalists in almost-marvellous
Melbourne in 1880, a Melbourne so differ-
ent from today, we must do more than turn
off the mobile phone and grasp a pencil
instead a computer. In order to understand
something of the environmental, social and
intellectual context of Melbourne 125
years ago, we have to attempt the possibly
impossible to try and un-know so much
that we now take for granted. That requires
a huge imaginative effort. We must peel
away the sprawl of suburbs to re-imagine
heathlands, swamps and forests around a
Melbourne devoid of so many of today’s
institutions and imped imenta-research-rich
departments in universities and other insti-
tutions, popular and academic periodicals
and books on the indigenous flora, fauna
and fungi, scientific and conservation
groups and their journals, databases, and,
of course, the Internet.
The nineteenth century was a great cen-
tury for collecting and collections. In post-
Enlightenment Europe and her colonies,
cabinets of curiosities bulged and prolifer-
ated. Natural history specimens, living and
dead, were proudly exhibited in public and
private museums and gardens, and at inter-
national and other exhibitions. Echoing her
European sister-cities, British colonial
Melbourne was no exception. Thanks
largely to Lieutenant-Governor La Trobe
and other public-minded leaders of gold-
rich Victoria in the 1850s, Melbourne was
258
The Victorian Naturalist
History symposium
enriched with a good set of public institu-
tions. In the late 1870s those providing the
public with ‘rational recreation’ included
the following:
• National (natural history) Museum in the
grounds of the University of Melbourne
- under the honorary director, Frederick
McCoy, Professor of Natural Science;
• Technological Museum in a building off
the Public Library;
• Botanical Museum in the Domain (near
the Botanical Gardens) - under
Victoria’s government botanist, Baron
Ferdinand von Mueller;
• Botanical Gardens - under William
Guilfoyle;
• Zoological Gardens at Royal Park,
where Dudley Le Souef was assistant
director.
McCoy, Mueller, Guilfoyle and Le Souef
would become Club members, along with
assistants, like William Kershaw in the
National Museum and Charles French in
the Botanical Gardens and later the
Botanical Museum ( 1884-89).
Field-collecting was recreational and sci-
entific. In the nineteenth century collecting
bugs or blossoms was considered a healthy
outdoor activity, and was eminently socially
acceptable, even for women. A collection
which began as a pleasant outdoor hobby
could grow into a scientifically important
collection. You probably need no reminder
of the scientific importance of collections.
Collections of authenticated specimens are
still absolutely essential for taxonomic work
- for 11 ora, fauna and fungi.
Professor McCoy sought crowd-attract-
ing as well as scientifically important zoo-
logical and geological specimens for the
National Museum; while the Botanical
Museum under Mueller was more strictly
scientifically focused. To develop an
herbarium which would challenge
European collections as the premier taxo-
nomic reference collection for the
Australian flora, Mueller collected plants
widely himself, exchanged specimens with
other collectors, attempted to convince the
Victorian government to purchase overseas
herbaria, and encouraged an expanding
network of collectors to send him speci-
mens. By the 1870s, thanks to the ever-
botanising Baron, much of Victoria’s flora
was named and described, and the collec-
tion of Australian specimens in the herbar-
ium in the Botanical Museum was enor-
mous - many specimens being sent by peo-
ple who would later join the Club.
Mueller’s unremitting efforts had convert-
ed much of the indigenous flora from nov-
elty to known, but there were still some
parts of the colony (e.g. north-western
Victoria and much of east Gippsland)
which remained botanically un-surveyed
and there were many unknown gaps in the
taxonomy of Victoria’s flora. Despite
McCoy’s efforts, Victoria’s fauna required
further documentation.
There were no handy books on Victorian
natural history to help enthusiastic but
inexpert collectors select beetles and but-
terflies and organise their collections.
Collectors shared their knowledge and
expertise and compared specimens - with
each other’s and with Museum collections.
As subsequent reports in The Victorian
Naturalist show, plant collectors, who
invariably sent specimens to Mueller,
knew when, where and by whom a species
was Erst (and subsequently) collected in a
particular area. Collectors knew and val-
ued the public collections to which they
referred and contributed. This was espe-
cially true of entomological collections in
the National Museum and herbarium col-
lections in the Botanical Museum.
Melbourne was still small enough for col-
lectors to know each other and their collect-
ing haunts. And a developing web of rail-
way lines could take them there. Perhaps it
is not too much of an overstatement to say
that, by the 1870s, the scene was set for a
Melbourne field club that would facilitate
and encourage the collection and descrip-
tion of Victoria’s flora and fauna.
Melbourne naturalists knew of the only
Australasian natural history society - the
young Linnean Society of New South
Wales, which, from the 1870s, held field
excursions and picnics, but enjoyed the
elitism of a royal society. They also knew
of flourishing field clubs in Britain where,
across the nineteenth century, natural his-
tory societies had proliferated and trans-
mogrified. In the early nineteenth century
natural history societies held debate-seri-
ous meetings, had libraries of expensive
books and crowded cabinets of curiosities,
published their own Transactions and wel-
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
259
History symposium
conned the wealthy; while groups of
weavers and other manual workers met in
public houses to share their mainly botani-
cal interests and findings. By the middle of
the nineteenth century regional field clubs
were emerging, which combined the social
cosiness of a club and the pleasure of out-
door excursions. An excursion could begin
at an inn with a satisfying breakfast and,
after much rambling and collecting, end
with a substantial dinner including many
toasts. By the 1870s members of over a
hundred naturalists1 field clubs were hap-
pily rambling and collecting across the
British countryside, with some large city
clubs attracting hundreds of members
(Allen 1976),
If naturalists enjoyed inter-pub field ram-
bles in Victoria in the 1870s, their tales have
not survived in the Club’s historical memo-
ry. Instead the scene of the origin of the
Field Naturalists Club of Victoria is
Melbourne’s (not yet Royal) Botanical
Gardens, where Charles French worked
under William Guilfoyle.1 French and his
friends met in his cottage, in the Gardens
near Anderson St, to discuss specimens.
especially insects and plants, which they had
collected during their rambles. French was
in charge of plant propagation and the fern-
ery. and happily combined two frequently-
linked aspects of natural history - his profes-
sional interest in collecting plants and his
recreational interest in collecting insects.
According to the oft-repeated historical
narrative in The Victorian Naturalist, the
idea for a field club was first mooted in
French’s house, prompting French and his
collecting friend, Dudley Best, to put a
small notice in The Argus for a meeting on
6 May 1880 (Pescott 1940; Willis 1950,
1980; Taylor 1996). The Argus of 5 May
earned the following notice:
1ELD NATURALISTS’ CLUB -A. MEETING of
those desirous of assisting in the formation of
above will be held at the Athenaeum on Thursday
evening next, at 8 o’clock
Club membership
The Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria
(FNCV) was formally inaugurated at a
meeting in the Athenaeum on Monday
evening, 17 May 1880, the first such soci-
A re-enactment of a meeting at Charles French's house, as performed by the Friends ol Woodlands
Historic Park at the Symposium, May 2005.
260
The Victorian Naturalist
Histoiy symposium
ety in Australia. It was not a peripheral
club struggling on a forgotten fringe of
Melbourne society. The Club’s early mem-
bership was not quite a who’s who of
Melbourne society, but it included men
from across the spectrum of power and
respectability. And it soon dared to include
women. The 1885 membership list
includes several lawyers and politicians,
and four men who gave their address as the
Melbourne Club; and not all of the thirty
women were wives, sisters and daughters
of male members. Some of the scattering
of country members were school teachers.
Members’ FLS (Fellow of the Linnean
Society), and less-commonly FRS (Fellow
of the Royal Society), indicate imperial
scientific respectability.
The Club attracted members with diverse
natural history interests and expertise. It is
not surprising that it welcomed members
from Melbourne’s museums, zoological and
botanical gardens, university and schools,
and benefited from the participation of these
already-knowledgeable people. The benefit
was mutual. William Kershaw and Charles
French, and the National and Botanical
Museums also benefited from their partici-
pation in Club excursions and meetings.
How many specimens in the vast collections
of Melbourne's Herbarium and Museum
were collected over the decades by Club
members?
Of course amateurs, whose interests and
skills had no bearing on their paid employ-
ment, also benefited. Some developed their
natural history interests so keenly that they
became acknowledged experts on particu-
lar groups of organisms, and some subse-
quently gained paid employment that used
their amateur-gained expertise. Club par-
ticipation was not unhelpful for the
appointment of Charles French as govern-
ment entomologist in 1889, and, in the
twentieth century, his butterfly-collecting
friend, the stonemason, Frank P Spry, as
National Museum entomologist, and
Charles C Brittlebank as government plant
pathologist.
Brittlebank was an artist and farmer,
whose interests spanned the full spectrum
of natural history. His exhibition at Club
meetings of exquisite entomological draw-
ings led to his preparation of illustrations
Part of the audience at Saturday's proceedings of the History Symposium.
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H is tory sympos ium
for two important books by Club members
- Destructive insects of Victoria (1891-
1911) by Charles French and Nests and
eggs of Australian birds (1900) by
Archibald J Campbell. Brittlebank, whose
property ‘Dunbar’ overlooked the
Werribee Gorge, revealed startling glacial
evidence in the Gorge (Pescott 1946).
The Introduction to the first issue of The
Victorian Naturalist . in January 1884. noted
that ‘the number of careful observers of
Nature in the colony has been greatly multi-
plied. Many who before worked alone have
been encouraged by association with work-
ers in kindred branches, and a substantial
enthusiasm has been aroused in many who
had before felt no interest in the subject.'
The Club’s early membership was impor-
tant because it spanned geography as well
as natural history, and included a healthy
mix of professional and amateur expertise
and enthusiasm. Shared and overlapping
interests blossomed. Rural members, like
state school teachers, Daniel Sullivan, FLS,
of Moyston near the Grampians, and Henry
Tisdall, FLS, of Walhalla, provided region-
al natural history records for little-known
parts of the colony, which inspired interest
in Melbourne members. Sometimes coun-
try visits attracted new members. In the
1880s a Dimboola hotel proprietor and a
manager of the nearby Lake Albacutya pas-
toral station helped Dudley Le Souef and
Charles French during their collecting trips,
and joined the Club.
The Club’s monthly triad
The Club’s collective strength came from
its triad of monthly meetings, excursions
and issues of its journal, The Victorian
Naturalist. This monthly triad allowed the
Club to facilitate and encourage the study
and conservation of Victoria's natural her-
itage in increasingly distant and little-
known parts of the colony by a sort of rip-
ple effect. Members reported on their col-
lecting trips and exhibited specimens at
Club meetings; and the subsequent publi-
cation of their reports in The Victorian
Naturalist further spread their news and
inspired other members, and sometimes
the Club, to organise trips to these new
collecting grounds.
Henry Tisdall' s reports of the local flora
and fungi attracted naturalists to the moun-
tains round Walhalla, even after he left
Walhalla State School in 1886. Club interest
in Wilson’s Promontory was initiated by a
report of a long walk by three Club members
in search of healthy exercise, interesting
scenery and specimens. They walked from
the nearest railway station, which in 1884
was Trafalgar, trekked across the Strzelecki
Ranges and followed the telegraph line to
the lighthouse on the south-eastern tip of the
Prom, and then walked to Dandenong to
catch a train back to Melbourne. Gregory
and Lucas’ spoke glowingly of the ‘the
noble granite Promontory', commending it
‘as full of interest to naturalists of all persua-
sions’. Their report was published in four
parts in the second volume of The Victorian
Naturalist.
Meetings
Monthly Monday evening meetings were
soon being held in the Hall of the Royal
Society of Victoria. The presentation and
discussion of papers and the exhibition of
specimens were important for developing
ideas about natural history. Related issues,
such as gun laws, protection of native
birds, and land reservation, were dis-
cussed, correspondence read and deputa-
tions planned. Annual conversaziones,
with lectureUes and landscapes of natural
history exhibits, attracted hundreds of
members and friends.
In the spring of 1885 the Club’s annual
wildflower exhibition was born. An exhi-
bition of 150 species of wildflowers greet-
ed members and visitors attending the
October meeting. ‘With a little effort on
the part of the members to obtain flowers
from distant parts of the colony, the
evening may be made one of the most
interesting and instructive gatherings of
the Club’, announced The Victorian
Naturalist * And so they became, interest-
ing the public and providing the Club with
money in the twentieth century.
Excursions
Right from the start, the Club organised
excursions to rail-accessible regions, often
known, from pre-Club days, to be rich in
birds, bugs and blossoms. The first Club
excursion was held near Brighton on the
Saturday after the Club’s first monthly
meeting in June 1880. Even before the
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Brighton railway line reached Sandring-
ham, the locality was "a favourite one for
Club excursions’; but ‘to reach the heath
country near the Red Bluff meant a good
walk either way. Would that a few acres of
that botanist’s paradise had been retained
in its original state for future generations’,
reminisced Francis GA Barnard."
Excursions enriched personal enthusi-
asms and friendships, and individual and
institutional collections. In revisiting val-
ued collecting grounds, excursionists were
reminded of past collections and observa-
tions, which sharpened their realisation
that some species were becoming increas-
ingly difficult to procure. As Melbourne
sprawled out along railway lines, forests
and heathlands which, in the recently-
remembered past, had yielded rich bags of
floral and faunal specimens were shrinking
and disappearing.
The working week of five and a half
days, and Sunday’s religious designation,
limited monthly excursions to Saturday
afternoons, when a train leaving Princes
Bridge station about midday picked up
Club members at various stations and
deposited them at a station near floristical-
ly-rich coastal heathlands. or forests near
Box Hill or Ringwood. In the mid 1880s,
monthly excursion reports were published
as articles in The Victorian Naturalist , but
were soon reduced to paragraphs in the
published proceedings of Club meetings.
Public holidays allowed the enjoyment of
whole-day excursions near more distant
railway stations, and the publication of
more substantial excursion reports in The
Victorian Naturalist . How convenient for
Mueller and the Botanical Museum that
the assistant, Charles French, could so use-
fully employ his keen botanical eye on
Saturday afternoons and holidays, by lead-
ing Club excursions in search of speci-
mens. French was then documenting
Victoria’s orchids in a series of articles in
The Victorian Naturalist , so the frequent
mention of orchids observed during his
excursions is unsurprising.
The monthly excursion in September 1 884
was to the heathlands for the Club's first
field day. On Saturday, 1 3 September, there
was a ‘good attendance of members, includ-
ing several ladies, who left town by the
midday train for Cheltenham, whence they
rambled across the heath to the Red Bluff
near Brighton. Wildflowers were very abun-
dant, the botanists of the party being kept
fully at work noting the various species’/'
Brighton was still the end of the line, and
Cheltenham was on the Frankston line.
Charles French and Dudley Best (1884)
prepared a more substantial report of a day
excursion to Frankston on Separation Day,
Tuesday, I July 1884. They noted that the
district ‘by former experience is known to
be rich in botanical specimens, as it was
near this place where the first specimen of
Thelymitra mcmillani (then new to sci-
ence) was discovered 20 years since.’
Mueller had named it in 1865. On sand-
hills they ‘found specimens of a minute
species of Prasophy l lunT which had yet to
be determined by the Baron. ‘Traces of the
rare and beautiful Orchid Orthoceras s/ric-
tum , were also found, and as it was upon
this hill where it was discovered on a for-
mer excursion, we took the liberty to chris-
ten it Orthoceras Hill.’ They reported that
there could ‘be no doubt that the locality of
Frankston offers a fine field to the collec-
tor, more especially the botanical, and as
the spring approaches we know of no place
that we could or would so confidently rec-
ommend for members desirous of having a
successful day’s outing.’ Readers of the
excursion report could turn a page of The
Victorian Naturalist and learn about the
orchid Orthoceras strict um in French’s
series on Victorian orchids.
Charles French, FLS, led Club excur-
sions to revisit the Red Bluff heathlands on
Saturday afternoons across the seasons. On
a wintry 9 May 1885. the walk from
Brighton station was reduced because ‘a
conveyance was in readiness, and drove
the party to the Red Bluff Hotel, when a
start was made inland.' Being May, ‘Plants
in bloom were but few’, and French hoped
that ‘these excursions will be better attend-
ed as much may be gained physically as
well as intellectually'.' In September
French led an excursion, still ‘only moder-
ately attended’, from Cheltenham toward
Brighton, across a landscape ‘simply a
blaze of bloom’, recording over seventy
species in flower. H On an oppressive
Saturday afternoon the following January,
few plants in flower greeted French’s
excursionists.9
Vol. 122 (6)2005
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History symposium
The current and past presidents of the FNCV, pictured at the Symposium. Left to right: Back row:
Brian Smith, Malcolm Calder, Jack Douglas, Tom May. Front: Wendy Clark, Karen Muscat,
Margaret Corrick, Sheila Houghton.
Public holidays allowed the Club to
organise 'camp-outs' in more distant land-
scapes. Fortuitously the holiday for the
Prince of Wales’ birthday, on 9 November,
was in spring w'hen many plants are flower-
ing. The Club’s first 'camp out’ was held
around that holiday in 1884 near Lilydale.
Members arrived at Lilydale station on var-
ious trains on Saturday, which 'was devot-
ed to perfecting the camping arrangements,
and making short rambles amongst the
adjacent scrub'. The next morning 'parties
were made up for collecting purposes. ...
Being Sunday the guns were left behind
until the morrow. ... The ornithologists
were successful in taking for the first time
the nest and eggs of the rare and certainly
the most beautiful of all the Australian
honey-eaters, viz., the helmeted or sub-
crested ... the taking of which nest involved
a good ducking for the two naturalists, as
the tree in which it was situated, gave way
and precipitated the captors, nest and all,
into the running stream.’10 The ornithologist
and oologist, Archibald Campbell, who had
suggested the excursion, exhibited the 'hel-
meted honey-eater (Ptilotis cassidix) with
nest and eggs, taken from Olinda Creek’ at
the next Club meeting."
Another public holiday was often well-
timed for fungi the Queen’s Birthday
holiday in May. On the Queen’s Birthday
in 1885 Club members returned to Olinda
Creek. The 6.15 a.m. train to Lilydale col-
lected about 25 members and friends at
several suburban stations. Two parties
explored the Olinda Creek valley - ‘sports-
men ... intent on shooting’ had 'almost
empty bags’, while the 'rest of the party,
consisting principally of botanists and
entomologists’, were more successful; ‘tea
was soon manufactured in the orthodox
Australian style, and a vegetable beaf-
steak ( Fistulina hepatica) cooked.
However this latter proved uneatable,
being too old.’ Afternoon observations
included 'some large fungi, Agaricus sp.,
which were pronounced edible by our
mycologist’, Miss Campbell. Flora
Campbell listed macro-fungi in the excur-
264
The Victorian Naturalist
History symposium
Speakers on the first day of the Symposium. Left to right: Wendy Clark, Doug McCann, Brian
Smith, Linden Gillbank, Helen Cohn, Danielle Clode, Tom May, Sheila Houghton, Valda Dedman.
sion report" and exhibited ‘rough draw-
ings’ of the fungi when the excursion was
reported at the June meeting.13
Two Prince of Wales’ birthday excur-
sions were shared with the Ballarat Field
Club - to the Lai Lai and Moorabool Falls
in 1885 and the You Yangs in 1886.N
Monthly Saturday afternoon excursions
and full-day excursions on public holidays
continued, and, towards the end of the
1880s, the Club embarked on excursions
even further afield, lasting weeks rather than
days. They followed a suggestion by the
Club’s elderly patron, Baron Ferdinand von
Mueller, and involved Melbourne’s new
professor of biology, Walter Baldwin
Spencer. In December 1886 Mueller pointed
out ‘the desirability' of organising excursions
to ... East Gippsland and King’s Island, the
fauna and flora of which are at present
almost unknown’;15 and members spent three
weeks on King Island in November 1887
and East Gippsland in January 1889. Both
excursions excited the press as well as the
Club, with an extensive article in the
Melbourne Argus and a whole issue of The
Victorian Naturalist devoted to Professor
Baldwin Spencer’s account of each.
The Victorian Naturalist
The Club’s journal spread information
and ideas beyond the participants in excur-
sions and meetings, and, by the common
practice of journal exchange, enriched the
Club’s library with publications from
around the world.
A long quotation from the Introduction to
the first issue of The Victorian Naturalist
in January 1884 explains its origin and per-
ceived purpose.
Hitherto the proceedings of the Society
have appeared in the “Southern Science
Record,” published by Mr. J. Wing [a Club
member], but it is now deemed time to
bring out a periodical of our own. It is
hoped that a larger field of usefulness will
thus be opened up, and that both members
and the public will gain by the publication
of a monthly record of work and results, of
original papers on Victorian Botany and
Zoology, and of currenl notices of the
occurrences and habitat of interesting
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
265
H istory symposium
forms. “The Naturalist” is also intended as
a medium for the exchange of specimens,
and space will be given for correspon-
dence.
Lastly, the Club has decided to prepare,
and to publish in this Magazine, scientific
lists of the Victorian species of animals
and plants for the use of collectors. Such
lists cannot be considered to be complete
even in the case of the most conspicuous
and best-known groups. Additions may be
made from time to time; in fact, the very
publication is expected to stimulate mem-
bers to the discovery and recognition of
new forms. Great care will be exercised to
exclude all doubtful species, and as the ser-
vices of some of the most active practical
naturalists in the colony have been secured,
it is confidently expected that the cata-
logues will be of value in creating that
exact knowledge of specific forms which
will facilitate more advanced Biological
studies, and in diffusing an acquaintance
with the useful and hurtful organisms of
Victoria, which must be of great practical
and material benefit to the community.16
Early issues of The Victorian Naturalist
carry species lists for various groups of
Victoria's fauna, including birds by TA
Forbes-Leith and AJ Campbell. But reli-
able collecting requires more than species
lists, and a Club president had a better idea
for Victoria’s flora.
Mueller’s Key to the System of Victorian
Plants
in the preface to his Key to the System of
Victorian plants , Mueller (1888a)
acknowledges the part played by the Club
and its lawyer-politician president, Frank
Stanley Dobson:
This work owes its origin to a desire,
expressed by the Field-Naturalists’ Club of
Victoria, at the instance of the Honorable
Dr. Dobson, that its members should be
provided with a literary guide similar to the
meritorious “Handbook of the Plants of
Tasmania,” written some years ago by the
Rev. W. Spicer, for facilitating the study of
our native flora, particularly during botani-
cal excursions.
At the Club’s crowded fourth annual con-
versazione in the Royal Society’s Hall in
April 1884, the Honorable Dr F Stanley
Dobson, LLD, MLC, presented his presi-
dential address. Dobsonr noted that
‘Botany is beyond all others a science for
ladies’ and suggested that bouquet-gather-
ing ladies study a little botany. (How, I
wonder, did Flora Campbell, a frequent
Club exhibitor whose Australian fungi
were exhibited at the conversazione, feel
about these presidential words?)
Tasmanian-born Dr Dobson was familiar
with the dichotomous key in Spicer’s
Tasmanian Handbook and showed how it
could be used to determine a plant's name.
Dobson asked ‘Now, why has not such a
book been written, if not for Australia gen-
erally, at any rate for our colony?’ He
thought that ‘the work of compilation
should be easy' and suggested that it
‘might be placed under the superinten-
dence of the Baron Vs In October 1884
Dobson informed the Club that ‘Baron von
Mueller had undertaken the compilation of
a students’ Victorian Botany’. ,v Barnard
later claimed that Dobson used his position
in Parliament Ho urge the production of
such a work by the Government Botanist,
and, much against his will, Baron von
Mueller undertook the task.’’0
The Victorian Naturalist provides
glimpses of hopes for and opinions of
Mueller's Key to the System of Victorian
Plants , which was published in two not-
too-weighty volumes. Somewhat confus-
ingly, the first volume off the press was
Part II (Mueller 1885), which contains a
taxonomically-arranged list of over 1800
species of Victorian vascular plants and
illustrations of 152 species. Mueller exhib-
ited it at the Club's annual conversazione
in April 1886. The Club was pleased that
‘The size of the publication is such as to
allow' it to be conveniently carried in the
pocket during excursions, nevertheless, all
the illustrations are given at the natural
size or magnified.’*71
Preparation of Mueller's Key provided a
focus for the study of Victoria’s vascular
ilora, but there was no such focus for non-
vascular plants and fungi. In 1886, with
Mueller’s approval, the Club "resolved to
form a section for the closer study of
Cryptogamlc botany’. :: The Victorian
Naturalist soon carried papers on Victorian
mosses by Daniel Sullivan and lichens by
Rev FRM Wilson, as well as further fungal
266
The Victorian Naturalist
History symposium
papers by Henry Tisdall and Flora
Campbell.
Aware that the colony was still not com-
pletely botanically surveyed, Mueller con-
tinued to seek specimens from un-
botanised landscapes. Unfortunately, the
Club’s East Gippsland excursion would
not eventuate until after the completion of
his Key, but another suggestion was time-
ly. The railway line had reached
Dimboola, and, perhaps inspired by Club
news of a summer trip from Dimboola to
Lake Albacutya pastoral station by Dudley
Le Souef (1887) to observe Mallee fowl
and their nesting habits, Mueller suggested
that Charles French spend his annual leave
collecting in the area.
French explained: ‘Baron von Mueller
being anxious to trace out and fix the geo-
graphical limits of certain plants, also to
procure, if possible, (for the “Key”) addi-
tional species from the north-western por-
tion of the colony, suggested to me that I
should spend my annual leave of three
weeks in the Wjmmera district for that pur-
pose.’ Taking the 6.30 am train late in
August 1887, French arrived in Dimboola
on a cold, wet wintry night, and with
some useful hints from Mr. D. Le Souef,
... had but little difficulty in finding the
hotel, the proprietor of which (Mr.
McLellan), being a bit of a naturalist him-
self, made me very comfortable, and we
were soon on very good terms.
I found a very kind letter from Mr. Percy
Scott of the Albacutya Station [who had
helped Le Souef], proffering assistance in
enabling me to get into the back country,
as the Baron was desirous that 1 should
proceed, so far as time would permit,
towards the Murray River.' *
At the Club meeting in November 1887
Mr J McLellan was elected a member, and
Charles French, FLS, ‘gave an interesting
account of a recent collecting trip in the
district around Lake Albacutya, and for
twenty-five miles in a north-westerly
direction.’24 One of the many plants French
collected was a new record for Victoria
in time for insertion in Mueller’s Key.
Part I of the Key was reviewed in The
Victorian Naturalist before it was pub-
lished. Early in 1888 the Club received
advance proofs of about three-quarters of
Part I,25 whose unnamed reviewers con-
cluded ‘that the members of the Field
Naturalists’ Club ... have acquired a work-
ing “flora” of the colony of exceptional
value.’ They were pleased that it was more
than a dichotomous key, with each order,
genus, and species having ‘a short pithy
diagnosis’, and heartily congratulated ‘the
Baron on having produced for Victoria one
of the handiest, simplest, and most useful
floras in the world.’26
Thanks to specimens which Mueller had
received from Charles French and other
collectors since the publication of Part II of
the Key , he needed to add about 60 species
of vascular plants to the Victorian species
list. Mueller ( 1888b) used The Victorian
Naturalist to publish a supplementary list,
and anticipated future additions from ‘the
most eastern part of Gippsland, including
the elevated Waratah region, the whole
only quite recently opened up for itinera-
tions and settlement’.
Meanwhile, on the other side of the
colony, the railway line had stretched
westwards from Dimboola into un-
botanised territory, allowing French (1889)
to collect many western Wimmera plants
in Bower during an early spring week in
1888. Two were ‘additions to the flora of
Victoria’, in time for inclusion in
Mueller’s Key.
Extended excursions
The Club’s East Gippsland trip the fol-
lowing summer was too late for any new
records to be inserted into the Key. Mueller
so wanted a survey of the Bora of the
rugged and little-known terrain between
palms on Cabbage Tree Creek, near the
lower Snowy, and waratahs growing over
the border in the vicinity of the upper
Genoa, both of which he had been thrilled
to see decades earlier (Gillbank 1998b).
Perhaps Flora Campbell spurred Club
interest with her (unfortunately unpub-
lished) account in April 1888 of a trek
through ‘almost inaccessible country’ to
the palms.” Three months later the Club
resolved To organise a party to camp out
and collect for two or three weeks in the
Cann River District, East Gippsland, leav-
ing town within a day or two after
Christmas, 1888’.2* And so, that summer,
French and four fellow Club members fol-
lowed the tracks which Mueller had sug-
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History symposium
gested would provide access to this part of
East Gippsland. In January 1889, with a
guide and three packhorses, they trekked
hundreds of kilometers from Orbost along
narrow tracks recently etched through
western Croajingolong. The artistic profes-
sor. Baldwin Spencer, braved a downpour
to sketch the Cabbage Palms, and later a
more accessible waratah tree (unfortunate-
ly after it had ceased flowering). Spencer's
drawings, illustrating the expedition report
(Spencer and French 1889), were the first
pictorial illustrations published in The
Victorian Naturalist*
As usual Mueller supplied names for the
rarer plants French brought back (Spencer
and French 1889). Before a copy of the
long-awaited Part I of his Key reached the
Club’s library, Mueller joined about 70
members attending the February 1889
meeting to hear Professor Spencer’s diary-
report of the exhausting Croajingolong
expedition and see French’s herbarium
specimens. Having reminded the Club that
he had found the waratah he named
Telopea arcades and had brought to public
notice Victoria’s patch of palms, ‘Baron
von Mueller advocated the reservation of
the palm groves, and moved a vote of
thanks to Professor Spencer and the party’;
and the meeting ‘decided to interview the
Minister of Lands re the reservation of por-
tion of the Cabbage-tree Creek district'. '1
Perhaps helped by a huge report of the
expedition in The Argus of 16 March
1889, the Club was successful, and was
officially informed that ‘in response to the
Club’s request, about 8,500 acres had been
added to the forest reserve in the ...
Cabbage Tree creek district’.1’ In his presi-
dential address in May, Arthur Lucas was
pleased to tell the 700 people attracted to
the Club’s ninth annual conversazione,
about the Club’s expedition and successful
application to the Minister of Lands for the
palms reserve. 3J
This was the same Minister (John Dow)
who continued to give only unfulfilled
promises about the reservation of another
area that had occupied the Club's interest
and energy for some time - Wilson’s
Promontory, And Arthur Lucas was one of
the three Club members, whose long walk
over Christmas 1884 had initiated interest
in the Prom, and who, with fellow Prom
rambler, the lawyer, J Burslem Gregory,
prompted the Club’s resolve to secure the
permanent reservation of Wilson’s
Promontory as a national park - then such
a new concept that it had barely had time
to touch the imagination of the shapers of
society. In response to Club correspon-
dence and deputation in 1890. Dow’s
promised reservation of Wilson’s
Promontory (as a forest reserve) evaporat-
ed into silent inactivity (Gillbank 1998a).
Meanwhile the Club continued to organ-
ise extended excursions to distant and
often little-known parts of Victoria.
British-bom Baldwin Spencer was keen to
learn about the creatures in the varied land-
scapes of his new- home, and enthusiasti-
cally participated in the Club excursions to
King Island and East Gippsland. In
November 1 890 Professor Spencer joined
five members on an intrepid rain-drenched
fortnight’s trek to the rarely seen Yarra
Falls. With information and advice from
the widely-trekked Burslem Gregory, they
lol lowed the Woods Point road (from
Marysville) and the Tanjil Track to the
Falls, collecting and photographing along
the way. ‘One view was particularly inter-
esting, historically, being the first photo-
graph ever taken of the Yarra Falls', taken
with great difficulty from the narrow, slip-
pery, spray-drenched gorge.’1 These are the
first photographs used in The Victorian
Naturalist. Because process engraving was
still so expensive, photographic prints
were inserted into some copies of The
Victorian Naturalist for March 189 If 5
Spencer was pleased to find, under fallen
logs and tree bark, planarian worms, often
lacking taxonomic names. Planarian find-
ings by Spencer’s university colleague and
fellow Club member, Arthur Dendy, FLS,
had recently inserted a new word into the
English language. In the report of his pro-
ductive collecting trip in the bountiful
moist mountain forests around Walhalla,
Dendy (1889), with the help of a Greek
dictionary, invented a new term to describe
the small, soft-bodied, light-abhorring
inhabitants of dark crevices under stones
and logs - cryptozoic fauna.
After a Depression-induced interval of
six years, annual Club ‘camp-outs’ were
resumed in 1899 around 9 November
(soon to become the King’s Birthday holi-
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The Victorian Naturalist
H istory symposium
day) to such relatively accessible places as
Lerderderg River, Maroondah Weir,
Gembrook, Shoreham, Launching Place
and Warburton.
By then the Club was establishing anoth-
er tradition - the ten-day Christmas-New
Year camp-out, which allowed members to
comprehensively collect and survey the
flora and fauna of an area. They surveyed
the Buffalo .Mountains over Christmas
1903, then the Otways, and then Wilson's
Promontory. Excursion reports include
separate sections on various aspects of nat-
ural history, for example, zoology or ento-
mology by James Kershaw, FES, of the
National Museum, and botany by Alfred
Hardy, FLS, a draughtsman in the Lands
Department.
In the twentieth century the Club no
longer had a patron-Baron to suggest
places in need of botanical perlustration.
But members could still be inspired by
news of fellow members’ trips. So it was
tor the Club’s Buffalo Mountains camp-
out. in the 1880s the railway-line crept up
the Ovens Valley past Myrtleford, allow-
ing Carl (Charles) Walter to visit Mt
Hotham and the Buffalo plateau in one
plant-collecting week in January 1899.
Members were so impressed with the spec-
imens he exhibited, that Walter was asked
to prepare some notes on his excursion ‘for
the benefit of members who may desire to
visit the district and see the great beauty
and profusion of our Alpine flora’.36 This
inspired three Club members, Francis
Barnard, Charles Sutton and Gustav
Weindorfer, to take a copy of Mueller’s
Key on a slightly streamlined version of his
trip over Christmas 1902 (Gillbank 1990).
They were not disappointed. They present-
ed their report, ‘Among the Alpine
Flowers’, and impressive collections of
photographs and plant specimens to the
Club in March 1 903. 37 Pleased with help
given by the Man fields, who ran the
Temperance Hotel at Eurobin, Barnard and
Sutton suggested the Buffalo Mountains
for an extended excursion, certain ‘that no
member who took part in it would ever
regret the expenditure of time and money
necessary for the outing.’18 And from the
exuberant report of the Club’s camp-out on
the Buffalo plateau over Christmas 1903,
they were probably right. James Kershaw
reported that CoghilFs insect collection
included over twenty species ‘new to the
National Museum collection’.19
The Club’s exuberance was soon dulled
by an awful realisation - that Wilson’s
Fig. 1. Club camp on the Vereker Range, Wilson’s Promontory National Park, Christmas 1912.
(Kershaw Collection, Historic Places Section, Department of Sustainability and Environment)
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
269
History sympos i urn
Promontory had been reserved as a nation-
al park only temporarily (in 1898). And in
1904 it was threatened with subdivision.
The Club and other societies were gal-
vanised into action, often with Professor
Baldwin Spencer, McCoy's successor as
National Museum director, at the helm.
Deputations and a public meeting in the
Melbourne Town Hall bore some success,
and in January 1905 Wilson's Promontory
was reserved permanently, except for an
encircling coastal strip (Gillbank 1998a).
In order to provide biological information,
the Club held its next Christmas-New Year
camp-out at Wilson’s Promontory.
Fortunately, by then the nearest railway
station was closer than Trafalgar. Foster on
the South Oippsland line left a mere two-
mile walk to a yacht trip across Corner
Inlet. Alfred Hardy, who had alerted the
Club to the temporary nature of the Prom’s
reservation, led the 1905-6 camp-out,
which collected images as well as speci-
mens. A brilliance of lantern slides brought
the Prom’s biological and scenic splendors
to a huge Melbourne audience of about a
thousand in February 1906."1
Nature study and plant names
The next Christmas-New Year camp
served a very different purpose - to help
teachers with a subject recently introduced
into Victorian primary schools, nature
study. Club members, 'Professor’ Henry
Tisdall (until his death in 1905) and
Professor Spencer’s star biology graduate.
John Albert Leach, the future ‘Mr Nature
Study', had contributed to an in-service
summer school for primary school teach-
ers, and were teaching trainee teachers at
Melbourne’s Teachers’ Training College
and Continuation School. Leach (1907)
organised an eight-day Christmas-New
Year camp at Morning ton for fifty state
school teachers in December 1906. A
dozen Club members led daytime field
work and presented evening lectures on a
wide variety of aspects of natural history.
Another British-born professor. Dr Alfred
Ewart (1907a), was in charge of botany,
helped with local plant names by J P
McLennan, a State School teacher.
Teachers from across Victoria subsequent-
ly joined the Club.
Over the decades, so many members had
contributed to and consulted the
Herbarium collection that Mueller had
built up, that the Club felt very protective
of it. So it is not surprising that Ewart’s
dual appointment in February 1906 as uni-
versity prolessor, as well as government
botanist, immediately sparked fears that
the Herbarium might be spirited away to
the university and damaged by students.
Very concerned. Hardy reported such a
rumour." Professor Ewart quashed the
rumour, joined the Club, and began using
The Victorian Naturalist to publish botani-
cal papers.
Noticing the lack of plant names on
labels of wildflowers exhibited in a display
of school nature study work in September
1906, Francis Barnard (1906b) asked the
Club ‘Are popular names for our wild
Bowers desirable?'. He shared the view
that 'popular names would greatly assist a
general knowledge of the native plants’,
and 'outlined a scheme for collecting and
compiling names by means of school chil-
dren and teachers of nature study’.42
Barnard suggested that, in order to avoid
confusion arising from the use of different
common names for the same plant, 'this
Club of ours might take up the question,
and endeavour to fix names for some at
least of our most prominent or showy
flowers ’T
Barnard’s talk prompted the Club’s
involvement in thd collection of much
more than common names, and culminated
in the publication of the Club's A census of
the plants of Victoria in the 1920s - a
huge, completely voluntary undertaking, to
which Ewart, as government botanist, con-
tributed. Progress can be followed through
the pages of The Victorian Naturalist ,
beyond the Census’ publication (facilitated
by funds from the Club’s annual wild-
flower shows) and revision, to Jim Willis’s
involvement in the 1940s, leading to his
preparation of the two-volume Handbook
of plants in Victoria ( 1 962, 1972).44
Thus, just as the Club had prompted the
production of Mueller’s Key in the 1880s,
in the early twentieth century another gov-
ernment botanist was helping the Club pre-
pare another botanical text. Both reflect the
Club’s continuing concern for reliable
botanical records. Arthur Lucas made this
point in 1885 - that Mueller's 'determina-
tions of difficult species, render this paper
270
The Victorian Naturalist
H istory symposium
trustworthy in its record of plants’.45
Professor Ewart (1907b) queried earlier
botanical records, and was so concerned
about the reliability of botanical records in
The Victorian Naturalist , that he attempt-
ed, unsuccessfully, to persuade Club mem-
bers that voucher specimens for all plants
named in papers should be deposited in the
Club’s herbarium or the National
Herbarium! 4,1
Willis47 acknowledged the work of coun-
try school teachers in the elucidation of
Victoria’s flora, and
the pre-eminent role in furthering botanical
science that has been played by the Field
Naturalists’ Club of Victoria ... . This body
of amateurs has always been a champion of
systematic botany, and it is hard to imagine
what would have become of the science in
Victoria had the F.N.C.V. journal. The
Victorian Naturalist , not been available as
a medium of expression and interchange of
information.
The Victorian Naturalist carries type
descriptions for hundreds of taxa of
Australian plants.4* Some collections of
Naturalist articles grew into books which
the Club published to help nature study
teachers and improve the reliability of col-
lection records. The Club’s descriptive
handbooks on Victorian ferns (Bond and
Barrett 1934), based on articles by French
and others, and fungi (Willis 1941) were
revised and expanded over subsequent
decades.
Reservation of Wilson’s Promontory
National Park
Meanwhile, further deputations and dis-
cussions led to the permanent reservation
of Wilson’s Promontory in 1908, over two
decades after interest was initiated by three
Club members in 1885 (Gilibank 1998a).
Half of the Prom’s first (honorary)
Committee of Management were Club
members, including Professors Ewart and
Spencer, and the Secretary, James
Kershaw. Echoing the commonly-held idea
that a national park should provide a sanc-
tuary for species, Ewart hoped that
Wilson’s Promontory National Park would
‘render it possible to preserve many
species which seem in danger of extinc-
tion’ and hoped ‘that none of our endemic
species will be suffered to become
absolutely extinct when a special harbour
and sanctuary exists for them’.49
The national park was officially botani-
cally surveyed over three successive
springs by two Club members, James
Audas, from the National Herbarium, and
Percy St John, from the Botanical Gardens.
Ewart ( 1 909, 1910, 1911) prepared reports
incorporating Audas’s botanical reports
and St John’s zoological report, and, in
between botanical jousts with Flardy, read
them at Club meetings. Ewart and Audas
joined the Club’s second Prom excursion,
led by Kershaw, over Christmas 1912.
Photographs taken during both Club
excursions are reproduced in the special
issue of The Victorian Naturalist that was
published in 1998 to celebrate the Park’s
centenary.
The Club’s experience in the reservation
of Wilson's Promontory National Park is
important for several reasons. Firstly, it
shows a route by which land was success-
fully reserved in Victoria:
1. Club member’s ramble/excursion
2. Talk given and specimens exhibited at
a Club meeting
3. Article published in The Victorian
Naturalist
4. Club survey
5. Public meeting/s
6. Letter/s and deputation/s to goverment
minister/s
7. Land reservation as a National Park
Secondly, it resulted in a model for
national park management - via an hon-
orary committee of management for each
park.
Thirdly, it resulted in the establishment
of a body which would press for the estab-
lishment of future national parks - the
National Parks Association (which is not
to be confused with the much later
Victorian National Parks Association
[VNPA]).
News of the National Parks Association
and subsequent Club efforts to have areas
reserved as national parks can be followed
through the pages of The Victorian
Naturalist , for example the reservation of
Sperm Whale Head as the Lakes National
Park in the 1920s, and subsequent collabo-
rative efforts with the Portland Field
Naturalists Club for the reservation of
national parks on the Lower Glenelg and
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
271
His tory^ sympos him
Mt Richmond. And there are the Club
efforts, prompted by the destructive results
of wartime commando training on
Wilson’s Promontory, which eventually
resulted in the establishment of the VNPA
and National Parks Authority in the 1950s
(Garnet 1980).VJ
The Victorian Naturalist has continued to
carry species lists and descriptions of land-
scapes across Victoria, so it is not surpris-
ing that it was mined for information by
the authors of two substantial surveys of
Victorian national parks. John Landy
(1960 unpubl.) and Judy Frankenberg
(1971). The Club also helped publish
books on the flora of Wyperfeld and
Wilson’s Promontory National Parks by J
Ros Garnet (1965, 1971), active Club
member and ardent advocate for Victoria's
national parks.
The Club's commitment to conservation
has continued, with recent conservation
efforts (not always reported in The
Victorian Naturalist ) having diversified
and proliferated.
In conclusion
From the 1880s the Club has engaged
with the landscape, ideas and institutions
and contributed to the documentation and
conservation of Victoria’s natural heritage.
This was possible because of the Club’s
enthusiastic membership, its productive
triad of monthly meetings, excursions and
issues of The Victorian Naturalist , and its
overlapping interests with museums and
other public institutions. Club members
collected specimens and observations, ini-
tially in rail-accessible, species-rich areas
near Melbourne, and then further afield in
lesser-known landscapes. The Victorian
Naturalist records of biologically diverse
areas now lost to Melbourne’s suburban
sprawl or reserved as national parks, and
some parks themselves, bear witness to the
Club’s enduring contributions the conser-
vation of Victoria’s natural heritage.
I end with a double plea: firstly, for the
(long-sought- for) production of a substan-
tial Club history, with individuals, institu-
tions and environments richly intertwined;
and secondly, that all issues of The
Victorian Naturalist be scanned into a
database, to allow seekers of the rich his-
torical lode running through its pages to
find organisms and issues, people and
places. I think the Club deserves both.
Notes
In the late 1870s French worked in the Gardens under
Gui Hoyle not, as is stated in historical papers in The
Victorian Naturalist, Baron von Mueller.
Reprinted in 1084. The Victorian Naturalist 101,6.
' Gregory and Lucas (1885-6) The Victorian Naturalist
2. 43-48
Anon (1885) Exhibition of wild flowers. The
Victorian Naturalist 2, 82.
Barnard, FGA (1906a) The Victorian Naturalist 23.
65
" Anon ( 1884) Excursion of die Field Naturalists’ Club
The Victorian Naturalist I, 83,
Anon (1885 ) Excursion of the Field Naturalists’ Club.
The Victorian Naturalist 2, 31-32.
Proceedings of C lub meeting, 1 4th September 1885,
The Victorian Natural is r 2. 65,
Proceedings of Club meeting, 18tli January 1886, The
Victorian Naturalist 2, 125.
Anon (1884) The "‘C amp Out" at Olinda Creek. The
Victorian Naturalist I, 110-112.
: Proceedings of Club meeting. 17th November 1884.
The Victorian Naturalist 1 . 109.
Anon (1885) The Queen’s Birthday excursion to
l.ilydnle. The Victorian Naturalist 2, 33-35.
Proceedings of Club meeting, 10th June 1885, The
Victorian Naturalist 2, 29, 30.
Anon (1885, 1886) Excursion to Lai Lai; Excursion
to the You Yunus. The Victorian Naturalist 2, 94-99;
3. 99-103.
Proceedings of Club meeting. 13th December 1886,
The Victorian Natural is t 3, 113,
Reprinted in 1984. The Victorian Naturalist 101, 6,
Dobson ( 1 884) The Victorian Naturalist 1,41-2
' Dobson (1884) The Victorian Naturalist 1 ,44)
“ Proceedings of Club meeting. 13th October 1884,
The Victorian Naturalist 1. 97.
" Barnard FGA (1906a)77?c Victorian Naturalist 23,
68
1 Sixth Annual Conversazione, 20th April 1886, The
Victorian Nat lira list 3, 9.
Proceedings of Club meeting, 9th August 1886, The
Victorian Naturalist 3. 54.
French, C. (1888) The Victorian Naturalist 4, 169
1 Proceedings of Club meeting, 14th November 1887,
The Victorian Naturalist 4. 115.
Proceedings id' Club meeting. 1 6th January 1888, The
Victorian Naturalist 4, 167; Presidential address by
A H S Lucas (1888) The Victorian Naturalist 5, 7.
" Anon (1888) Review. The Victorian Naturalist 4.
179-18(1. It was later mentioned in The Victorian
Naturalist 5, 1 36.
Proceedings of Club meeting. 9th April 1888, The
Victorian Naturalist 5, 17. A small patch of palms
had been reserved early in 1887 (Gillbank 1998b).
' Proceedings of Club meeting, 9th July 1888, The
Victorian Naturalist 5. 50.
" Spencer’s sketch of palms is reproduced in Willis
(1980). An earlier illustration in The Victorian
Naturalist is the map accompanying the King Island
expedition report.
1 Proceedings of Club meeting, 11th March 1889, The
Victorian Naturalist 5. 169.
Proceedings of Club meeting, 1 1th February 1889,
The Victorian Naturalist 5, 1 54.
Proceedings of Club meeting. Nth April 1889, The
Victorian Naturalist 6. 41. I he letter did not mention
that the area was reserved ‘temporarily from sale and
leasing* as recorded in the notice in the Government
Gazette of 22 March 1889.
272
The Victorian Naturalist
History symposium
” Annual address by A H S Lucas, 16th May 1889, The
Victorian Naturalist 6, 47.
34 Proceedings of a special meeting to receive reports of
Club expeditions to the Kent Group of islands and
the Yarra Falls, 15th December 1890, The Victorian
Naturalist 7, 1 19. The photograph of Tommy's Bend
(on the Woods Point road not far from Marysville) is
reproduced in Watkins E (1984) Ways of seeing
nature: Attitudes to nature in the Victorian
Naturalist , 1884-1982. The Victorian Naturalist 101,
32. Spencer was not (as claimed by his 1985 biogra-
phers) the expedition leader.
Barnard FGA (1906a) The Victorian Naturalist 23,
72
" Walter C (1899) The Victorian Naturalist 16. 81
i: Proceedings of Club meeting, 9th March 1903, The
Victorian Naturalist 19, 158-159.
Barnard FGA and CS Sutton (1903) The Victorian
Naturalist 20, 1 2
Coghill et al. ( 1904) The Victorian Naturalist 20, 150
4,1 Anon (1906) Excursion to Wilson's Promontory. The
Victorian Naturalist 22. 179-180. See also Gillbank,
1998a, 270.
" Proceedings of Club meeting, 12th February 1906,
The Victorian Naturalist 22, 178.
Proceedings of Club meeting, 1 0th September 1906,
The Victorian Naturalist 23, 115.
Barnard FGA (1906b) The Victorian Naturalist 23.
137
4< For example, Sutton CS ( 1909) Progress report of the
work of the plant records sub-committee. The
Victorian Naturalist 26, 105-1 10: Willis JIT (1943,
1944, 1946) Plant names committee. The Victorian
Naturalist 60, 1 25-1235; 61. 1 27- 1 28: 63, 1 86- 1 88.
1 Gregory JB and Lucas AHS (1885-6) The Victorian
Naturalist 2. 153
Proceedings of Club meeting, 8th July, 12th August.
9th September and 14th October 1907, The Victorian
Naturalist 24. 65-66. 67, 81-82. 94-95. 106.
‘ Willis, JH ( 1949) The Victorian Naturalist 66, 127
The Australian Plant Name Index database shows
that Mueller contributed well over a hundred, Ewart
a few, and Willis over twenty Lype descriptions. In
1955 the National Herbarium's journal MueUeria
took over the reins of Victorian taxonomic botany.
4,1 Ewart, A.I ( 1908) The Victorian Naturalist 25. 83
" As secretary of the committee which began as the
FNCV’s National Parks and National Monuments
Committee, Ros Garnet published live reports in The
Victorian Naturalist during 1949-52: and later
reported on further progress. See also Calder M
(1998) John Roslyn (RosT) Garnet. AM. 1906-1998.
The Victorian Naturalist 115. 70-71; Gillbank L
(2001) Conserving the Museum's biological capital:
Four men and a national park, In A Museum for the
people. A history of Museum Victoria and its prede-
cessors 1854-2000 by C Rasmussen, pp 146-151.
(Scribe Publications: Melbourne)
References
Allen DE (1976) The Naturalist in Britain. (Allen
Lane: London)
Anon (1891) Report of a visit to the Yarra Falls. The
Victorian Naturalist 7. 157-1 79.
Barnard FGA ( 1906a) The first quarter of a century of
the Field Naturalists' Club of Victoria. The Victorian
Naturalist 23. 64-77.
Barnard FGA (1906b) Arc popular names for our
native plants desirable? The Victorian Naturalist 23.
136-139.
Barnard FGA and Sutton CS ( 1903) Among the alpine
flowers. The Victorian Naturalist 20,4-12.
Bond RW and Barrett ( (1934) Victorian ferns.
(FNCV: Melbourne)
Coghill G et al. (1904) The Buffalo Mountains Camp-
Out. The Victorian Naturalist 20, 144-159.
Dendy A (1889) Zoological notes on a trip to Walhalla.
The Victorian Naturalist 6, 128-136.
Dobson FS (1884) President's address. The Victorian
Natural is l 1, 36-44.
Ewart AJ ( 1907a) Botany. The Victorian Naturalist 23,
205-210.
Ewart AJ (1907b) On supposed new Victorian plant
records. The Victorian Naturalist 24, 86-88.
Ewart AJ (1908) Some notes on the flora of Victoria.
The Victorian Naturalist 25. 78-84.
Ewart AJ (1909) Biological survey of Wilson's
Promontory. First report. The Victorian Naturalist
25, 142-144.
Ewart AJ (1910) Biological survey of Wilson’s
Promontory. Second report. The Victorian Naturalist
26. 129-132.
Ewart AJ (1911) Biological survey of Wilson's
Promontory. Flowering plants and ferns - third
report. The Victorian Naturalist 27, I 78-180.
Erankenberg J (1971) Nature Conservation in Victoria.
(Victorian National Parks Association: Melbourne)
French C (1888) Botanical Trip to the Wimmera. The
Victorian Naturalist 4. 1 69- 1 78.
French C (1889) Notes on the natural history of the
western Wimmera. The Victorian Naturalist 5. 145-
152.
French C and Best D (1884) Field Naturalists’ Club
Excursion to Frankston. The Victorian Naturalist 1,
98-100, 112-115.
Garnet JR ( 1965) The vegetation of Wyperfeld National
Park. (Park management committee and the FNCV:
Melbourne)
Garnet JR (1971) The wildflowers of Wilson's
Promontory National Park. (Lothian Publishing
Company and the FNCV: Melbourne)
Garnet JR (1980) National Parks and the FNCV. The
Victorian Naturalist 97. 1 30- 1 34.
Gillbank I. (1990) Field Naturalists in Victoria’s alps.
The Victorian Naturalist 107. 165-173.
Gillbank L (1998a) Of land and game: the role of the
Field Naturalists Club of Victoria in the establish-
ment of Wilsons Promontory National Park. The
Victorian Naturalist 1 15, 266-273.
Gillbank I. (1998b) Two plants and a botanist:
Ferdinand Mueller’s interest in Victoria’s palm and
waratah and their reservation in East Gippsland. In
Celebrating the parks , pp 223-234. Ed E Hamilton-
Smilh. (Rethink consulting: Melbourne)
Gregory JB and Lucas AILS (1885-6) To Wilson’s
Promontory overland. The Victorian Naturalist 2. 43-
48, 54-59, 87-90. 150-154.
Tandy J (I960) Report on national parks and reserves
for the Victorian sub-committee of the Australian
Academy of Science (unpublished).
Leach JA ( 1907) The Mornington Camp. The Victorian
Naturalist 23, 1 85- 1 88.
Lc Soucf WI1D (1887) Trip to Lake Albacutya. The
Victorian Naturalist 4, 44-47,
Mueller F ( 1 885 ) Key to the system of Victorian plants.
II. Enumeration of the native species, arranged
under genera and orders, with annotations of their
regional distribution, and with xy/ographic illustra-
tions, (Government Printer: Melbourne)
Mueller I- ( 1888a) Key to the system of Victorian
plants. 1. Dichotomous arrangement of the orders,
genera and species o f the native plants, with annota-
tions of primary distinctions and supporting charac-
teristics. (Government Printer: Melbourne)
Mueller 1- (1888b) Supplement to the enumeration of
Victorian plants. The Victorian Naturalist 5, 14-16.
Poscott EE (1940) Sixty years of work - the story of the
Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria, year by year. The
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273
His tory Sympos inn i
Victorian Naturalist 57, 4-3 1 .
Pescott EE (1946) The late Charles C. Brittlebank. The
Victorian Naturalist 62, 1 89- 191.
Spencer WB and French C (1889) Trip to
Croajingolong. The Vic torian Naturalist 6. 1-38.
Taylor A (1996) Baron von Mueller in the Field
Naturalists* tradition. The Victorian Naturalist 113.
131-139.
Walter C (1899) A trip to the Victorian alps. The
Victorian Naturalist 16. 81-87.
Willis JH ( 1941 ) Victorian fungi. (FNCV: Melbourne)
Willis JH (1949) Botanical pioneers in Victoria - 111.
The Victorian Naturalist 66, 123-127.
Willis JH (1950) A botanical retrospect (F.N.C.V.,
1880-1950). The Victorian Naturalist 67. 65-70.
Willis JF1 (1980) The first century of the Field
Naturalists Club of Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist
97, 93-106.
Received 16 June 2005; accepted 10 November 2005
Popular and professional communicators:
Edith Coleman and Norman Wakefield
Danielle Clode1
Abstract
Natural history societies such as the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria (FNCV) have long played an
important role in the historical development and professionalisation of the biological sciences.
Natural history remains one of the few areas where non-professionals or amateur enthusiasts can
continue to make significant contributions to, and discoveries in, science. This paper examines the
publications of two FNCV members, Edith Coleman and Norman Wakefield, who contributed wide-
ly to both the popular and scientific understanding of Victorian natural history. We will trace the fate
of their written contributions, particularly those from the Victorian Naturalist , in the modern scien-
tific community through a citation database and demonstrate that there is a significant and ongoing
flow of information between amateur societies like the FNCV and professional scientists, ( The
Victorian Naturalist 122 (6), 2005, 274-281 )
A collection of enthusiasts
The value of an organisation like the
Field Naturalists Club of Victoria (FNCV)
is immediately apparent to its members.
As a social organisation it provides an
opportunity for like-minded people to
gather together and share their passions
and interests. It also operates as a special
interest group to represent and promote the
values of its members within state and
local circles of government. Unlike purely
social and interest groups, however, the
operations of the FNCV also intersect with
one of society's primary mechanisms for
knowledge generation — scientific
research.
The origins of professional science
Social collectives of enthusiastic ama-
teurs played an important role in the ori-
gins of professional science (Harrison
1999) in the late seventeenth to early nine-
teenth centuries. The pre-eminent scicnlif-
Department of Zoology, University of Melbourne,
3010 Victoria
ic organisations of the day (like the Royal
Society of London or the Academy of
Sciences in Paris) were dominated by
wealthy amateurs (Crosland 1995a).
These ‘non-professional' scientists laid the
foundations of modern biological science
and included the most eminent and influ-
ential thinkers of their time, such as
Charles Darwin, Alfred Wallace and
Charles Lyell.
Professional scientists, who were both
trained in their speciality and employed to
study their subject, began to emerge in the
late 1700s and early 1800s (Crosland
1995b). The increasing professionalisation
of science slowly eroded the role of ama-
teurs in knowledge generation as scientific
research became increasingly specialised,
institutionalised and professional. The con-
tribution of amateur societies today to the
complex, highly structured and formalised
activity of modern science is less direct
than in earlier centuries. Biological sci-
ence (which has perhaps always had the
274
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
strongest following of amateur enthusi-
asts), remains one of the disciplines in
which it is still possible for amateur
researchers to make significant contribu-
tions to the field. With its mix of enthusi-
asts and experts, youth members and
retired professionals, the FNCV provides
an ideal melting pot to study the interface
between popular and professional cultures
in biological science.
Popular and professional communica-
tions
Articles are a significant feature of both
popular and professional communication
about biological discoveries and provide
an enduring, and easily assessed, means of
disseminating discoveries and knowledge.
The extent to which FNCV members are
able to disseminate their knowledge and
discoveries through scientific journals,
including the FNCV’s own journal. The
Victorian Naturalist , offers a concrete
means of tracking the flow of information
across public and professional spheres.
The extent to which material published in a
more popular, general interest journal such
as The Victorian Naturalist has found its
way into the more specialised scientific lit-
erature will provide a specific illustration
of this information flow.
I would like to use two well-known fig-
ures from the FNC'V history, Edith
Coleman ( 1 875- 1 95 1 ) and Norman Arthur
Wakefield (1918-1971), to explore the
connection between the professional and
the amateur; between the scientific and the
popular. I have chosen these individuals
because of the significant contributions
they made to both scientific and popular
literature in their lifetimes, particularly
within the pages of The Victorian
Naturalist . They rank amongst the
FNCV’s most prolific authors, with a
broad spread of contributions in both the
popular and scientific domains. After an
interval of 30-50 years, it is worth investi-
gating what lasting impact their work has
had in the wider scientific community.
Subject 1: Edith Coleman
Edith Coleman was born in 1875 in
Surrey, England (Fig. 1). She arrived in
Australia as a girl and initially worked as a
teacher. She joined the FNCV in 1922,
presenting her first paper on orchids the
same evening as she joined. For the next
few decades she was a prolific writer and
correspondent on broad range of botanical
and ecological topics ranging from orchid
pollination to echidna hibernation to stick-
insect development. Coleman contributed
to a diversity of newspaper and magazines,
such as the Woman 's Mirror , the Argus ,
The Age , School Taper and Wild Life. She
published an illustrated guidebook to wat-
tles, Come Back in Wattle Time (1935)
which was reprinted in 1943.
Edith Coleman was not a professionally
trained or employed scientist and the bulk
of her writings were popular in nature.
Her contributions to the scientific litera-
ture, however, were substantial. She con-
tributed many papers to scientific journals,
including The Victorian Naturalist, Emu,
Proceedings of the Royal Entomological
Society, Australian Zoology, .Journal of
Botany, and Australasian Journal of
Pharmacy. Her contributions to The
Victorian Naturalist were impressively
voluminous (as indicated in the Author
Index). She wrote over 135 articles for the
Victorian Naturalist more than 27 years —
an average of five per year (Willis 1950).
Edith Coleman’s work on Victorian
orchids remains an important contribution
to the field, but it was the discovery of a
remarkable piece of wasp behaviour for
which her work became more broadly
known. Coleman’s daughter Dorothy first
noticed ichneumonid wasps Lissopimpla
Fig. 1. Mrs Edith Coleman. (Source: The
Victorian Naturalist , 1950, vol. 67, p .98)
Vol. 122 (5)2005
275
H istory symposium
semipunctata visiting Small Tongue
Orchids Cryptostylis leptochilci in bush-
land near their home in Belgrave. Closer
observation revealed that the wasps
appeared to be mating with the orchid,
Edith Coleman later verified that all the
wasps visiLing the orchids were male and
that they often left a spermatophore. She
first published her findings on the remark-
able phenomenon of pollination by
pseudocopulation in The Victorian
Naturalist in 1927 (Coleman 1927). Her
paper subsequently came to the attention
of Sir Edward Poulton of the
Entomological Society in England, who
reformatted it, with the addition of new
material (as detailed below), into a form
suitable for publication in an international
entomological journal, the Transactions of
the Entomological Society (Coleman
1928). His preface to this paper makes an
interesting observation on the attitudes of
the time towards amateurs, female natural-
ists and/or, perhaps, 'colonials’.
The interesting observations which from
the subject of the following paper were
first made by Mrs. Coleman's daughter,
but afterwards frequently repeated by both
naturalists at Upwey and Belgrave,
Victoria. Mrs Coleman has published an
account of the discovery in the Victorian
Naturalist, xliv, p. 20 May 1927 and p. 33
April 1928. The present paper was sent to
the Entomological Society by Mr AM Lea,
together with the Appendix which records
his own observation and a number of let-
ters from the authoress. 1 have extracted
from these letters and others written to me
a number of paragraphs which have been
incorporated in Mrs. Coleman's paper or
added as supplementary notes. I regret that
there has been no opportunity to consult
the authoress on the arrangement, but hope
that it will meet with her approval.
In 1949, Edith Coleman was the first
woman to be awarded the Natural History
Medallion, and she died in 1951. Her
broader contribution to the study of natural
history in Australia is probably immeasur-
able, as evidenced by the recollections of
Coleman in life by Rica Erickson (1999):
She maintains a voluminous correspon-
dence with many people yet finds time for
field work, photography, to attend lectures
and meetings, visit friends, make jam and
write a regular column for a Melbourne
newspaper. Devotes much time and
patience in observing nature, insects etc.
especially to the study of pollination of
orchids.
The following incident recalled by Jean
Galbraith (1951) illustrates the diffuse and
indirect ways in which a passion for natur-
al history can inspire and be shared, far
beyond the more concrete means of com-
munication which will be analysed in this
article:
1 like to remember a walk with her when,
after finding and enjoying many orchids,
we stopped at the fence of a little bush gar-
den, watching the Spinebills among its
salvia flowers. "Sometimes,” she said,
“when I see a garden like that I find out
who it belongs to, and post them some
roots or a packet of seeds. They don't
know who sends them, but I like to think
of their surprise, and of my seeds growing
in so many different gardens.
Subject 2: Norman Wakefield
Our second subject is Norman Arthur
Wakefield who was born in 1918 in
Romsey Victoria. He trained as a teacher
and used many of his early postings in
Gippsland to conduct field trips.
Wakefield was first introduced to the
FNCV in 1938 by WH Nicholls. In 1955
he took up a lectureship in nature study at
Melbourne Teacher's College. Wakefield
completed his BSc in Botany at Melbourne
University in 1960 but subsequently
moved into zoological research, founding
the Fauna Study Group of the FNCV and
obtaining his MSc in 1969 from Monash
University on Pleistocene and recent cave
deposits. He maintained a voluminous rate
of publications in both the popular and sci-
entific domain including a weekly column
for the Age which was subsequently con-
verted into a book, the Naturalist's Diary
(1955, reprinted in 1975). Whilst his early
work was dominated by botany (particular-
ly of ferns), Wakefield's later research
interest resulted in numerous taxonomic
studies of fossil and extant mammal
species.
Wakefield's commitment to education
was evidenced by a large number of arti-
cles in School Paper and Education
276
The Victorian Naturalist
History symposium
Magazine , as well as the production of a
series of 54 Nature Study for Schools
broadcasts (1961-62). He made significant
contributions to both botany and zoology
in Victoria with the publication of his sem-
inal work on Ferns of Victoria and
Tasmania (1955. reprinted in 1975) and
contributions to many scientific journals
such as Emu and Proceedings of the Royal
Society. In addition to being the Editor of
The Victorian Naturalist between 1952 and
1964 (with a brief break in 1957) he also
wrote 126 articles for the journal over 33
years (nearly four per year).
Having begun his interest in natural his-
tory as an amateur, Wakefield became a
professional naturalist, both trained and
employed in the area. However, as Keith
Dempster (1987) noted, Wakefield com-
bined elements of both the amateur and
professional in his work.
Norman embodied elements of both [the
amateur and the professional]. To some
extent this alienated him from some people
in each camp. He was quite open about the
fact that his prime motive for editing The
Victorian Naturalist was because of the
opportunities it provided for him to publish
his own articles. This idea is of course
abhorrent to scientists who rely on journal
referees to provide a disinterested impri-
matur, and it must also be said that many
of Wakefield’s articles did not make attrac-
tive reading for the general membership of
the FNCV. Against that it might be argued
that the articles had some reconciling influ-
ence. Professional scientists were persuad-
ed to take the work of naturalists more
seriously and the club members were given
a little more insight into scientific thinking.
I think both these elements are still dis-
cernable in the style of The Victorian
Naturalist today.
Wakefield came to international attention
with the discovery of a trail of fossil foot-
prints in the Devonian sandstone of Genoa
River in Victoria (near NSW). These foot-
prints were found to be 350 million years
old and made by an amphibian about 2-3
feet long (Warren and Wakefield 1972).
At the time, they were the oldest footprints
known, but they have since been overtaken
by older footprints found in Gippsland in
some paving stones on a local farm.
Norman Wakefield was awarded the
Natural History Medallion in 1962, (Fig.
2); he died in 1971 in an unfortunate and
untimely accident (Anon 1972). Many
have remembered him for his ease and
enthusiasm with children, while others
recall a less forgiving character (see Cl ode
2002). Keith Dempster ( 1987) noted:
He wasn’t at ease with strangers or those
with whom he had nothing in common and
some people found him taciturn and rather
“heavy going". With those among whom
he felt at ease he talked freely and was
always ready to share his vast store of
knowledge about Victorian natural history
which was possibly unsurpassed in its
breadth and depth.
Willis (1973) described Wakefield as:
gentle, cheerful, helpful, open-hearted,
honourable, meticulous and tidy, coura-
geous, tenacious of purpose, inspiring con-
fidence ... loyal and stalwart.
Understanding scientific communication
Scientific articles can be considered
intellectual maps (rather than chronologies
of events or narratives, e.g. Dear 1991;
Martin and Veel 1998). They typically
begin by introducing the previous literature
and research in a Held, leading into a more
Fig. 2. Norman Wakefield receiving the
Australian Natural History Medallion, 1962
(Source: The Victorian Naturalist, 1964, vol 81,
p. 193)
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
111
History symposium
and more specialised discussion that ulti-
mately yields the question or hypothesis
that the scientist wishes to address. After
documenting the methodology used to
approach the question, and the results
obtained, the scientist then discusses her
particular findings in relation to previous
research mentioned initially, thereby care-
fully placing her own work within the
intellectual framework of her discipline.
At its heart, the article contains a claim to
new knowledge (Myers 1997). distin-
guished and identified within the context
of previous work and ideas. Signposting
previous research and acknowledging the
ideas of others is thus a vital component of
the article as both a map and as a knowl-
edge claim.
Before publication an article must run the
gauntlet of scientific peers, whose task it is
to assess the knowledge claim and either
accept it. downgrade it or reject it. The
more significant the knowledge claim, the
more prestigious the journal in which it is
usually published. A contemporary scien-
tist might typically submit his best work to
the most prestigious (broad audience) jour-
nals first, before working his way down
through the more specialist or localised
journals until the peers reviewing the arti-
cle feel that it has reached a level appropri-
ate to the knowledge claim being made
(Myers 1997). Journals can thus be infor-
mally ranked in order of importance of the
work they contain (See Table 1).
Although the peer review system is
designed to ensure that knowledge claims
are rigorous and valid before publication
(Daniel 1993), the complexity and rigidity
of the publication process may deter non-
professionals from contributing to the most
prestigious journals. Indeed non-profes-
sional contributions are likely to be viewed
somewhat sceptically by reviewers for
journals dominated by professionals.
While amateurs and non-professionals
contributions still find a place in the highly
specialised and professional field of scien-
tific publication, they tend to be restricted
to the lower end of the publication spec-
trum. However, particularly in the field of
observational natural history, discoveries
which significantly alter the way in which
a species or the environment is understood
may be made and reported by amateurs.
Table 1. Hierarchy of journals with a descrip-
tion and a hypothetical example of their content
Super-journals— International journals
with a multi-disciplinary audience, highly
sought alter by scientists of all disciplines
(e.g. Nature, Science) and very competi-
tively refereed. Have citation impact fac-
tors of around 30. e.g. 'The seeds of life in
space: evidence of nanobactcria in an
asteroid.1
International journals — Journals con-
taining refereed papers of international
significance with either a multi-discipli-
nary audience (e.g. Proceedings of the
Royal Society) or a broad audience within
a discipline (e.g. Trends in Ecology and
Evolution). Have citation impact factors
of 4-10. e.g. ‘A review of evidence of bac-
terial life in meteorites.'
National journals — Journals with refer-
eed articles of primary significance within
their country of origin (e.g. Australian
Journal of Zoo logv). Many o f t he in tern a-
tiotial journals originated as national jour-
nals. Have citation impact factors of 0-4.
e.g. ‘Organic chemical elements in a mete-
orite of asteroid origin.’
Regional journals — Journals with refer-
eed or unrefereed articles primarily of
regional significance (e.g. Victorian
Naturalist). Are rarely catalogued for
impact factors, e.g. ‘Crystalline patterns
observed in the Blackburn meteorite.1
Local journals, magazines,
newsletters — Unrefereed material of local
significance, often anecdotal or popular in
nature (e.g. Wingspan. Field Nats News).
No impact (actors, e.g. ‘Illustrations of the
Blackburn meteorite.'
Popular publications - Anecdotal materi-
al or material reporting on established sci-
entific information rather than claiming
new discoveries (e.g. Australian
Geographic). No citation impact factors
e.g. ‘Meteor hits Blackburn and excites
scientists'.
often in an anecdotal format. But when an
amateur publishes a significant discovery,
does the professional scientific community
recognise their knowledge claim, irrespec-
tive of whether it is published in a presti-
gious scientific journal or a chatty anecdo-
tal report? Is it possible for material to
move up the publication hierarchy over
time in relation to its scientific value?
Citation databases
One way of exploring this question is to
278
The Victorian Naturalist
History symposium
examine the scientific citation databases
which record all publications in the major
journals (national and above). Electronic
citation databases first appeared in the
early 1990s and offer a reasonably com-
prehensive coverage of all articles pub-
lished since that date. The database used
for this study is the ISI Web of Science (©
Thomson Corporation 2005).
Although some databases have now
backdated their references to the 1970s,
few extend beyond this time as yet. As a
consequence, none of Edith Coleman’s
papers is listed in the citation database
both because of their age and because The
Victorian Naturalist is not one of the jour-
nals catalogued. Only one of Norman
Wakefield’s articles is listed, his last arti-
cle published posthumously in Nature
(Warren and Wakefield 1972). This should
not be seen as a reflection of the value of
their work, however. The publications of
Charles Darwin and Albert Einstein are
similarly missing from these databases.
Citations are generally a positive reflec-
tion on the value of research. However
they can also be negative and take the form
of a rebuttal. Negative citations tend to
occur where major experimental results are
being disputed, particularly where the dis-
puted results are influential or provocative.
Neither Wakefield nor Coleman published
experimental research and their careful
observational natural history is not particu-
larly prone to negative citation. Obscurity,
rather than refutation, is the greater hazard
for observational field work. In any case,
there is no evidence that negative citations
are necessarily bad for authors or their pos-
terity. For example, Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck’s French evolutionary theory of
transformation was probably rescued from
linguistic obscurity only when Charles
Lyell refuted it, thereby introducing it to
an English-speaking audience (Young
1992).
Because of the importance of articles as a
means of tracing the origin of ideas, the
citation databases include (in addition to
bibliographic information and the summa-
ry or abstract) all the references cited in
the article. This function enables scientists
to search both backwards and forwards
through the literature by examining both
the articles used to construct a paper and to
search for more recent papers which have
cited a particular article. The cited refer-
ence search function on the Web of
Science enables us to examine whether or
not Coleman and Wakefield’s articles are
still being used and cited by modern scien-
tists in their fields.
Analysing their publications
Edith Coleman’s publications have been
cited in scientific articles on 129 occa-
sions. Of these citations, 98 are for 45 arti-
cles in The Victorian Naturalist . The
majority (53%) of her papers in The
Victorian Naturalist have been cited only
once, with the remainder being cited 2-7
times (Mean=3.67). Whilst Coleman’s arti-
cles probably vary in the amount of scien-
tifically useful information they contain, it
is not possible to assess on an a priori
basis whether some are more scholarly
than others. For example, ‘Fairylands of
Silk' (Coleman 1944) may not appear to
have much scientific merit, however, it
contains observations of wild web-building
spider behaviour that might be of value to
future scientific studies. Her most cited
papers are her 1927 paper in The Victorian
Naturalist (with seven citations) and her
paper in the Transactions of the
Entomological Society of London in 1928
(also with seven citations), both of which
were on the topic of pseudocopulation.
Clearly contemporary scientists do not
regard her publication in the more presti-
gious Transactions journal as more worthy
than the earlier publication in The
Victorian Naturalist (indeed, most cite
both papers). Coleman's paper on pseudo-
copulation in the Journal of Botany
(Coleman, 1929) also received six citations
as does her paper on P/erostylis orchid pol-
I ination in The Victorian Naturalist
(Coleman 1934).
Norman Wakefield’s publications have
been cited considerably more in the litera-
ture (231 times), as might be expected for
someone who wrote articles which were
more scientific in nature and who pub-
lished more recently. All of the papers
cited tend to be scholarly rather than anec-
dotal or entertaining. As with Edith
Coleman, most of Wakefield’s citations
(168) are for papers in The Victorian
Naturalist (citing 41 papers). Just over half
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
279
History symposium
Journal Impact Factor
Fig. 3. The impact factor of journals containing articles citine the work of Edith Coleman or Norman
Wakefield.
(21) of Wakefield's The Victorian
Naturalist papers have been cited only
once, with the remaining 49% being cited
2-28 times (Mean=7.3). His most cited
individual piece is his Nature paper
(Warren and Wakefield 1972) with 35 cita-
tions, however his second most cited paper
(28 citations) is the second pail of a revi-
sion of antechinus taxonomy published in
The Victorian Naturalist (Wakefield
1967). Part one of this paper (Wakefield
1963) received 20 citations.
Citation levels of articles in Nature are
disproportionately higher (an average of 30
per article) than citation levels in other
journals (which tend to range 1-8 citations
per article). Given the vast difference in
international prestige and exposure
between The Victorian Naturalist and
Nature, the difference in citations between
Wakefield’s Nature paper and his antechi-
nus papers in The Victorian Naturalist is
insignificant and the latter must surely rate
as being just as successful as the former.
Journal impact
Given the differences in prestige value of
journals, it is worth exploring the hierarchy
of the journals in which articles citing our
two subjects are being published. The IS1
calculates an impact factor for each journal
based on the average number of citations
received by papers published in the last
year. Uncatalogued regional journals like
The Victorian Naturalist are allocated an
impact factor of 0. The normal spread of
impact factors extends from around 0 to 4
for national or specialty journals up to
about 8 or 9 for international journals (see
Table 1). However, the ‘super’ journals
Science and Nature have impact factors of
around 30. Publication in these journals
tends to attract citations by virtue of the
prestige of the journals themselves, thus
creating a somewhat self-inflating impact
factor. Anecdotally it is worth noting that
most professional biologists typically seek
to have their papers published in journals
with an impact factor of more than 1.
It is clear from' Figure 3 that both
Wakefield's and Coleman’s papers are
being cited in a full range of journals, from
the lowest-ranking ones (with no impact
factor) to the highest ranking ones. Not
surprisingly. Norman Wakefield’s Nature
paper has been cited in a number of other
Nature and Science papers (by citing publi-
cations from high impact journals, authors
associate their own knowledge claim with
other knowledge claims whose value has
been acknowledged through publication in
a high-impact journal). However, many of
the other journals citing both Wakefield’s
and Coleman’s paper also have high impact
factors. Interestingly, despite having more
citations and a Nature paper, only 39% of
Wakefield's papers are cited in journals
with an impact factor of more than 1, com-
pared to 46% of Coleman’s papers. This
might be because Coleman's papers are
often cited in reviews of the literature
(which tend to be published in higher rank-
280
The Victorian Naturalist
History ) symposium
ing journals) while Wakefield’s papers are
cited in a broader range of papers on active
research.
In general, it is clear that both authors are
travelling well in the scientific literature
and their contributions are both well-
recognised and well-acknowledged. The
increasing dependence of modern
researchers on electronic databases shows
no sign of reducing the value of older
papers (Pechenik et a! 2001) and indeed
may facilitate awareness of older regional
papers through cited reference searches.
The continuing acknowledgement in the
scientific literature of both Coleman and
Wakefield’s articles from The Victorian
Naturalist, demonstrates that the journal
has clearly served its function as a conduit
for the two-way flow of information
between the amateur and professional
worlds of natural history and biological
science. Nor is the value of an amateur
society like the FNCV restricted to the
publications of its journal. Both Coleman
and Wakefield are examples of active par-
ticipants who used their connections with
the FNCV to broaden the distribution of
their work to both a general and scientific
audience. Their contributions, both within
The Victorian Naturalist and in the wider
scientific and popular literature, and its
continued use by professional scientists
today, demonstrates the important role
amateur naturalists still have to play in
modern biological science.
References
Anon (1972) Naturalist dies in tree fall, The Age , 25
September. p2.
Clode D (2002) Norman Wakefield, In Ritchie, J. and
Langmore, D. (eds) Australian Dictionary of
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Coleman E (1927) Pollination of the orchid
Cryptostylis leptochHa , Victorian Naturalist. 44, 20.
Coleman F. (1928) Pollination of an Australian orchid
by the male lehncumonid Lissopimpla scmipttrwfata
Kirby, Transactions of the Entomological Society,
76, 533-9.
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Cryptostylis leptochHa F, MuelL Journal of Botany,
67,96-100.
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Crosland M (1995a) The development of a professional
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Enlightenment , Variorum: Aldershot UK.
Crosland M (1995b) Explicit qualifications as a criteri-
on for membership of the Royal Society; A historical
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Britain since the enlightenment, Variorum:
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Daniel HD (1993) Guardians of Science: Fairness and
Reliability > of Peer Review, Weinheim; New York.
Dear P (1991) The Literary Structure of Scientific
Argument . Historical Studies, University of
Pennsylvania Press: Philadelphia.
Dempster K (1987) Personal communication to John
Nicholls* State Library of Victoria Manuscript
Collection (SLV MS 12267),
Erickson R (1999) Personal communication to Sheila
Houghton, Manuscript in the I NCV library.
Galbraith .1 ( 1951) Edith Coleman: A personal appreci-
ation, The Victorian Naturalist, 68, 46.
Harrison C ( 1999) The Bourgeois Citizen in Nineteenth
( entuiy France , Oxford University Press: Oxford.
Lyell C' (1830) Principles of Geology, Volume 1-1 1 1,
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Martin JR and Vcel R ( 1998) Reading Science: Critical
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Nicholls J (1987) Norman Wakefield, Gippsland
Heritage Journal. 2. 42-5.
Pechenik JA, Reed JM and Russ M (2001) Should auld
acquaintance be forgot: possible influence of com-
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literature. Bioscience. 51, 583-8.
Ward GM (1972) Norman Arthur Wakefield: An
appreciation, Victorian Naturalist, 81, 285.
Wakefield NA (1955) Ferns of Victoria and Tasmania
with descriptive notes and illustrations of the 1 16
native species, Field Naturalist's Club of Victoria:
Melbourne.
Wakefield NA and Warneke RM ( 1963) Some revision
in Anlechinus ( Murstipialiu)- I , The Victorian
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Wakefield NA and Warneke RM ( 1967) Some revision
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Received 7 July 2005; accepted 3 November 2005
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
281
History symposium
The close union between the Herbarium
and the Naturalists
Helen M Cohn
Abstract
The National Herbarium of Victoria and the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria have been closely
associated since the Club was founded in 1880. This association has been mutually beneficial. The
Herbarium provided Club members with authoritative botanical information and staff were active in
the Club, many holding office. As members, staff were part of a community of botanists, which gave
them contacts and opportunities for exchange of ideas lacking within the Victorian Public Service.
Participation in Club excursions enabled staff to undertake field work at times w hen resources made
this very difficult. The Herbarium's collections were sign i Heartily enlarged, particularly in the fifty
years after the death of Ferdinand Mueller, by the accession of the personal collections of Club
members. At times leadership of the botanical community in Victoria lay with the Club rather than
the Herbarium. ( The Victorian Naturalist 122 (6), 2005, 282-287)
Working quarters
On April 30 1 884 Francis Dobson rose to
deliver his presidential address to members
of the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria at
their annual conversazione. The occasion
offered him the opportunity to reflect on
how far the Club had come in its four short
years. Members could not. he said, ‘be too
highly complimented’ on the Club’s use-
fulness and their efforts to date. For much
of his speech Dobson encouraged mem-
bers to continue with their efforts iti mak-
ing a valuable contribution to scientific
knowledge while at the same time provid-
ing themselves with a healthy and con-
vivial pastime. 'Most of us’, he said, ‘are
engaged in occupations which confine us
within doors, and the mere ramble in the
country for a few hours is as good for the
body as it is for the mind of the intelligent
observer.’ He went on: 'Socially, as well
as scientifically, such an institution as ours
must act beneficially, as it brings into clos-
er and more intimate union those who are
already held together by the tie of affection
for some scientific pursuit’ (Dobson 1 884).
It is the close union between the Club and
the National Herbarium of Victoria that is
the subject of this paper. All the people
named in this paper were members of the
Club.
The Club and the Herbarium have been
closely connected since the inception of
the Club. In the late 1870s, Charles French
Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne, Birdwood
Avenue, South Yarra, V ictoria 3141.
helen.cohn@rbg.vic.gov.au
snr and George Luehmann met regularly
with fellow naturalists in French’s house in
the Botanic Gardens. French was at that
time on the staff of the Botanic Gardens,
although he transferred to the Herbarium
as 1st Assistant in 1884, while Luehmann
was Ferdinand Mueller’s deputy and suc-
ceeded him as Government Botanist. From
these meetings the Club was born, and
both French and Luehmann arc recorded as
founding members (Pescott 1940; Willis
1980). Since that time Herbarium staff
members have been staunch supporters of
the Club. Over 125 -years Herbarium staff,
with few exceptions, have been members
of the Club. As members. Herbarium staff
played a prominent role in Club activities.
Many of them served on committees, some
in more than one capacity. Alfred Ewart,
Percy St John, Frank Morris, Margaret
Corrick and Tom May all occupied the
chair as President; Pat Bibby was
Librarian; James Tovey was Secretary;
Council members included James Audas
and George Luehmann; Jim Willis and
Arthur Court edited The Victorian
Naturalist ; Helen Aston and Neville Walsh
were members of the Australian Natural
History Medallion Award Committee;
Marie A1 lender served an unprecedented
term of 35 years as Excursion Secretary
(Fig. 1 )
Ferdinand Mueller, Australia’s great
19th-century botanist and the man who
established the Herbarium, was not a foun-
dation member (although he joined in
282
The Victorian Naturalist
History symposium
Fig. 1 Marie Allender (front, 2nd from left), Excursion Secretary for 35 years, with Club members in
Albany, W.A., on 12 September 1963. (Reproduced with permission from the Archives of the Royal
Botanic Gardens Melbourne.)
1880) and declined repeated invitations to
take the chair as President. He was, how-
ever, no less active in his support of the
Club than other Herbarium staff. In 1886
he consented to be Patron and remained so
until his death in 1896 (Taylor 1996),
When the Club decided to publish its own
journal, Mueller offered not only to pro-
vide articles but also to subsidise the print-
ing of his papers to the tunc of 5/- per page
(FNCV archives. Minute books 007, f. 59,
meeting 4 August 1884). His willingness
to identify specimens brought to him by
Club members was noted many times in
their accounts of collecting trips published
by members in The Victorian Naturalist
(French and Barnard 1887; Sayce 1887:
Hardy 1907). In the matter of using up-to-
date botanical names for Victorian plants,
even as late as 1918 Francis Barnard
declared that he personally preferred to
follow Mueller’s nomenclature (Cohn
2005). Such was the Club’s veneration of
Mueller that his exploits as recounted by
fellow Club members reached heroic pro-
portions. Of his early explorations of
Wilsons Promontory JG Gregory and
Arthur Lucas wrote: 'Here, alone, for four
days without food, reduced one night to his
last match wherewith to light a fire, while
the rain was drenching him, our pioneer
readily faced the chances of death by cold,
exposure, and hunger, in order to add to
science a knowledge of the Flora of these
interesting districts’ (Gregory and Lucas
1886). In 1892, at the height of Victoria’s
economic woes, Mueller’s Herbarium was
subject to the same cutbacks as other
Government departments. The Club leapt
to his defence, making representations to
the effect that such reductions would leave
him with a budget 'manifestly inadequate’
to maintain the Herbarium in an appropri-
ate manner (Walter Fiedler to Chairman,
Royal Society, 2 February 1892, FNCV
archives. Correspondence 0 1 0-00 1 ) .
Mueller’s place in Club history has
become the stuff of mythology (Taylor
1996). There grew up a Club tradition of
celebrating Mueller anniversaries and of
conducting pilgrimages to his grave.
Barnard’s preference for Mueller’s nomen-
clature can be seen as part of this mytholo-
gy. But there was a more practical aspect
of the Club’s connection with the
Herbarium. In 1885 President Jacob Halley
referred to Mueller’s Botanical Museum
(that is, the Herbarium) as offering the
botanist all that was needed to study the
Australian flora (Halley 1885). Members
readily donated specimens to the
Herbarium ‘under the impression that in a
National collection they would be carefully
preserved and more easily within the reach
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
283
His toty sympos i am
of those anxious to use them for the pur-
pose of comparison’. The Herbarium, in
fact, functioned as ‘the working quarters of
most of our local Botanists, who have
always received the most courteous atten-
tion from those in charge' (Walter Fiedler
to Chairman, Royal Society, 2 February
1892, FNCV archives, Correspondence
010-001). President O Sayce in 1904 spoke
in a similar vein, calling for closer co-
operation between the collector and the
systematise with greater attention being
given to the provision of comprehensive
field notes. In his view. Club members had
an important role in furthering the work of
Victoria’s scientific institutions responsible
for studying the local flora and fauna (Sayce
1904). This included the Herbarium. On a
more practical level, after many years of
using room in the Royal Society of
Victoria for their activities, the Club was
based at the Herbarium from 1955 (Willis
1980). All meetings were held in the
Herbarium building and the Club’s library
was kept behind a partition at the back of
the hall. This arrangement only ceased in
1988 when, following the construction of
an extension to the building to accommo-
date the Herbarium’s collections, the Club
acquired its own premises in the
Melbourne suburb of Blackburn.
From the Club's point of view its con-
nection with the Herbarium provided con-
siderable benefits over a long period of
time. This came in the form of active con-
tributors to its activities and leaders of
excursions, ready access to botanical
expertise and the specimens in the
Herbarium’s collections, and accommoda-
tion for its meetings and library. From the
Herbarium's point of view, its connection
with the Club was at least as important if
not more so. Within 20 years of the foun-
dation of the Club the Herbarium had been
reduced to the Government Botanist,
George Luehmann, and a staff of two,
James Tovey and James Audas (Cohn
2003). For the next 40-50 years, with the
exception of the period of Alfred Ewart’s
tenure of Government Botanist, the
research that was central to Mueller's role
in charge of the Herbarium had largely
slipped off the official agenda. What the
Government required of the Herbarium
was little beyond an identification service,
particularly in relation to the agricultural
enterprise of the State, and that the speci-
men collections be maintained. The
Herbarium entered a period of the dol-
drums during which the involvement of
staff in the Club provided a lifeline. In fact
the close union advocated by Dobson
proved invaluable to the Herbarium. It was
in their participation in Club activities that
Herbarium staff associated with a commu-
nity of like-minded naturalists and partici-
pated in field excursions, while Club mem-
bers added significantly to the Herbarium’s
collections.
Community of botanists
One of the most important aspects of the
Club was that it was a community of natu-
ralists sharing their enthusiasm for the
local natural history and helping each other
learn about it. This was especially so when
it came to botany. If you wanted to connect
with a community of botanists in Victoria
the learned Society, the Royal Society of
Victoria, was not the place to find it. Some
Naturalists, such as Ferdinand Mueller,
Alfred Ewart and Herbert Williamson,
were members of the Royal Society. These
were the exception rather than the rule. It
was the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria
that provided this sense of community,
which proved one of the principal attrac-
tions of the Club to Herbarium staff. It was
particularly important during the middle
period of the Herbarium's history, approxi-
mately 50 years between the death of
Mueller and the post- World War II period,
when the Herbarium staff numbered just
two people plus the Government Botanist,
when research was a sideline to the official
work of the Herbarium, and when the gov-
ernment expected so little of the
Herbarium. In the Club, the staff found
people who shared their interests, who
were knowledgeable about the flora, and
who proved to be amiable companions in
the bush. The Club was where much of the
botanical activity in Victoria was centred.
Most of those people who were making
observations in the field and publishing
articles about the native vegetation were
Club members.
Alfred Ewart recognised this very quickly
after arriving in Victoria to become
Government Botanist and the first Professor
284
The Victorian Naturalist
His tory sympos i um
of Botany at the University of Melbourne.
He attended his first Club meeting in
March 1904 as the guest of the President,
Francis Barnard, became a member at the
April meeting and was elected to Council
in June. In addition he encouraged his two
staff James Audas and James Tovey to join
- or in the case of Tovey rejoin (Cohn
2005). All three became stalwarts of the
Club. Life-long friendships were forged
between Club members and staff. Jim
Willis referred with obvious pleasure to his
26-year friendship with Bill Hunter and a
33-year association with Norman
Wakefield (Willis 1971; 1973). The Willis
archive in the Library at the Herbarium
includes, as just one example, 20 years of
correspondence with Keith Rogers.
Club members may have been ‘amateurs'
but there was a ready acceptance of the
expertise among them. Of Carl Walter, it
was noted that ‘no one did better work at
the time in our Field Naturalists Club than
our friend Walter, who named for every-
one' and who ‘from his long experience in
the field, was often consulted' (Allen
1989; Anon 1907). Flora Campbell was
referred to as ‘our mycologist’ and when
on excursions spent as much time identify-
ing fungi for other members as she did col-
lecting for herself (Anon 1885). Herbarium
staff readily acknowledged the expertise of
Club members and their willingness to
share their knowledge. Herbarium botanist
Frank Morris paid tribute to Alfred
Tadgell, who ‘constantly inspired and
taught “beginners” by his lectures, writings
and leadership of excursions to near and
far distant areas’ (Morris 1949). Nor were
the Herbarium staff too proud to accept
help in their official duties from Club
members whose acquaintance with particu-
lar plant groups was greater that their own.
Thus Richard Bastow was asked by Ewart
to assist in identifying mosses. Bill
Nicholls not infrequently undertook orchid
identifications for the Herbarium, and
Norman Wakefield helped Jim Willis in
the preparation of his Handbook by prepar-
ing draft keys for several of the more diffi-
cult groups (Ewart to R. Bastow 2 April
1908, RBGM archives, MSS 399b, f.219;
Willis 1973).
Many enjoyable camp-outs
Field work was another aspect of
Herbarium work where belonging to this
community of botanists proved invaluable.
Observation in the field was one of the pri-
mary objectives of the Club (Halley 1885),
and it was an aspect of herbarium work
that for many years was almost impossible
to achieve with the limited resources avail-
able. Ewart came to the job of Government
Botanist as an experienced plant patholo-
gist but not a plant taxonomist. For him,
field work was a vital means by which he
could gain first-hand experience of a flora
of which he knew practically nothing and
with which he needed to become acquaint-
ed very quickly if he was to be credible as
Government Botanist. However with his
teaching commitments, the only time he
could make field trips was during the
University vacation.
In addition, as public servants.
Herbarium staff were obliged to follow the
Public Service regulations. Under these
regulations permission was needed from a
higher level than the Government Botanist
for official work to be undertaken other
than at one’s normal place of business.
Even Mueller had to obtain permission to
travel out of Melbourne. One of Ewart's
first field trips was an official visit to
Wilsons Promontory. This was partly in
his capacity as the Club’s representative on
the Committee of Management of the
Wilsons Promontory National Park, and
partly because the Minister had been per-
suaded to sanction a botanical survey of
the Park as Herbarium business (Ewart et
cd 1909). A trip to the Ovens Valley to
inspect the spread of the weed St Johns
Wort afforded Ewart and Audas a rare
opportunity to combine Department of
Agriculture business with collecting for the
Herbarium (Ewart and Audas 1910). These
trips were, however, the exception rather
than the rule. Occasionally opportunities
for field work came from unexpected
sources. In 1947 Jim Willis was invited to
participate in an expedition being arranged
by Russell Grimwadc. A group of scien-
tists from different disciplines would travel
by bus from Port Lincoln in South
Australia westward to Perth. Ministerial
approval for Willis to join this group as
botanist was sought and refused. As Willis
recounts the story, Grim wade then ‘inter-
viewed’ the Premier and Willis was able to
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
285
His tory sympos ium
board the bus (Jim Willis interviewed by
Darren Watson 22 July 1994, RBGM
archives, MSS 499.2). (Fig. 2) Approvals
were clearly not easy to obtain.
Staff were usually left in the position of
having to use weekends and vacations to
undertake the field work that combined the
interests of the Herbarium and themselves.
James Audas was one staff member who
loved going bush, and he invariably used
his leave for this purpose. Club members
were entertained with the accounts of his
many holiday excursions published in The
Victorian Naturalist. These reports, and
the specimens Audas collected, give an
invaluable picture of the flora before the
further encroachment of settlement or agri-
culture (see for example Audas 191 1,
1920). Jim Willis was particularly appre-
ciative of the opportunities offered by Club
excursions. He talked warmly of spending
weekends and holidays on ‘joint family
outings’ and of ‘many enjoyable camp-
outs’ in the company of various of his
friends in the Club (Willis 1973). (Fig. 2)
When Margaret Corrick first joined the
Herbarium staff her task was to incorpo-
rate some thousands of Willis specimens
into the collections. She estimated that
most of these specimens were collected on
Club excursions (M Corrick 2005 pers.
comm. 19 May).
Collections
One of the most important aspects of the
close association between the Herbarium
and the Club was the accession to the
Herbarium collections of so many speci-
mens from so many Club members.
Reference has already been made to Jacob
Halley’s remarks about the readiness of
members to donate plant specimens to the
Herbarium and their general understanding
that the Herbarium collections were avail-
able for all to consult and would be looked
after as a resource for all. The fact that
staff participated so genuinely and gener-
ously in the life of the Club undoubtedly
encouraged people to lodge specimens. For
many there was a personal connection with
Herbarium staff, with strong friendships
being forged. It is not an exaggeration here
to single out Jim Willis as being particular-
ly influential in encouraging the botanical
pursuits of other Club members.
Specimens came to the Herbarium in a
variety of ways. Alfred Ewart was aware
very early on that there were private col-
lections of specimens belonging to Club
members that would be valuable acquisi-
tions for the Herbarium. For a total expen-
diture of £102 Ewart purchased the 10 000
specimens of Felix Reader's herbarium
which was particularly rich in mosses and
the plants of north-western Victoria, Carl
Walter’s herbarium of approximately 3000
specimens, and about 5000 lichens collect-
ed by Francis Wilson (Cohn 2005). Ewart
was particularly pleased to receive the
bequest of Alfred Hewitt's Eucalyptus col-
lections. Not only was Howitt an acknowl-
edged expert on this genus, but there were
still many of what Ewart termed 'knotty
points’ to be resolved relating to this group
of plants (Ewart to M. Howitt 8 April
1908, RBGM archives, MSS 399b, f. 239).
Other Club members who bequeathed their
collections (and in some cases notebooks)
to the Herbarium included Richard Bastow
(over 1000 bryophytes). Thomas Hart
(whose collections also included a full set
of William Hunter’s specimens), and
Herbert Williamson (Austin Bastow to
Ewart 25 May 1920, RBGM archives,
MSS 318; Willis 1960). The value of these
specimens can be seen from the interest
expressed by the Director of the Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew, in obtaining
Williamson’s herbarium for Kew (Arthur
Hill to Ewart 12 March 1931 and Ewart to
Hill 14 April 1931, RBGK archives,
PR02V1C3).
Other Club members whose specimens
are in the Herbarium include Francis
Barnard, St Eloy D’Alton, James Stirling,
Daniel Sullivan, Charles Sutton, Edward
Pescott, Frederick Pitcher, Alfred Tadgell,
Henry Tisdall, Hermann Rupp, Edith
Coleman, Gustav Weindorfer and his wife
Kate, and Flora Campbell, who was
acknowledged by the Queensland
Government Botanist Frederick Bailey as
one who had ‘perhaps exceeded all others’
in the collection and elucidation of
Victorian fungi (Bailey 1892). Norman
Wakefield donated many specimens to the
Herbarium, including the vouchers and
types from his articles in The Victorian
Naturalist (Aston 1980). Jean Galbraith
spent much time in the Herbarium while
286
The Victorian Naturalist
History symposium
working on her book Wildflowers of
Victoria (1950) and on occasion, in order
to make the most of her limited time in
Melbourne, she spent the night in the
Herbarium on the couch reputed to have
belonged to Ferdinand Mueller. Other
Club members whose collections came to
the Herbarium include Bill Hunter, Keith
Rogers and Bill Nicholls who gave both
his collections and his orchid paintings to
the Herbarium.
What this represents for the Herbarium is
a comprehensive coverage of well-pre-
pared and labelled Victorian material col-
lected by people who had built up a very
considerable knowledge of the Victorian
flora. Much of this material was collected
in the period after the great collection-
building efforts of Ferdinand Mueller and
particularly in the middle decades of the
Herbarium's history, the 1920s- 1940s,
when it was not possible for herbarium
staff to make significant field collections.
Without the contributions made by these
people the Herbarium would have very lit-
tle material collected during the 50 or so
years after Mueller’s death. Also signifi-
cant is that much of this material was col-
lected by people who were expert in spe-
cific groups of plants or had devoted their
efforts to particular regions of the State.
Thus the Herbarium has good material
from Gippsland thanks to the efforts of Bill
Hunter, Bill Nicholls, Alfred Howitt,
James Stirling, Henry Tisdall and Keith
Rogers, and from western Victoria thanks
to Felix Reader, St Eloy D'Alton, and
Daniel Sullivan. Richard Bastow, John
Bracebridge Wilson and Francis Wilson
were working on the lower plants when
no-one else was interested in them. And
there were the orchid collections of
Nicholls, Coleman, Pescott and Wakefield.
This is by no means an exhaustive list of
the Club members whose specimens now
form part of the Herbarium collections.
Centre of reference
Another aspect of the relationship
between Herbarium and Club to consider
is the leadership of botanical activities in
Victoria. While Mueller was alive there is
little question that he was seen as the focus
of botanical research and collecting, but
mask
fig. 2. Jim Willis (top right) with Club members and their families on the Club excursion to Lake
Mountain on the Australia Day weekend, 1948. (Reproduced with permission from the Archives of
the Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne.)
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
287
H istory symposium
what after that? Ewart when he arrived was
impressed by what he saw as a lack of
direction in Victorian botanical affairs and
this was partly behind his early determina-
tion to play a prominent role within the
Club (Cohn 2005). He was determined to
make the Herbarium once again the centre
of reference for botany in Victoria. As a
member of the Club he was in an ideal
position to tap into the extensive botanical
knowledge that resided in members of the
Club. He wanted both to harness that
knowledge and lead the community of
botanists. The first plank of his campaign
was to encourage the use of up-to-date
botanical names as determined by the
Herbarium botanists. Here he met with
qualified success: Francis Barnard’s decla-
ration of support for Mueller’s standards
has already been noted. Ewart was more
successful in his chairmanship of the Plant
Names Committee. Most members of this
Committee were so as either Club mem-
bers or Herbarium staff. The diligent work
of the Committee resulted in a series of
articles published in the Journal of the
Department of Agriculture of Victoria
between 1911 and 1916 listing the recom-
mended common names for the flowering
plants of Victoria and, in 1923, the publi-
cation by the Club of the Census of the
plants of Victoria. Most Herbarium staff
served on the Committee at some stage,
including the revived Committee of the
1930s-40s. This was a highly successful
collaboration between the Club and the
Herbarium.
During the years when Ewart was
Government Botanist, 1906-21, the
Herbarium did provide some leadership of
botany in Victoria. In the period after 1921
this was not the case. Ewart’s four succes-
sors as Government Botanist also held the
office of Director of the Botanic Gardens.
They were, in order. William Laidlaw,
Frederick Rae. Alex Jessep and Dick
Pescott. Their interests and inclinations lay
more towards that side of their work
involving the Botanic Gardens than the
study of the native flora that was inherent
in the work of the Herbarium under their
control. Jessep and Pescott, while not
engaging in the work of the Herbarium,
were nevertheless assiduous in their efforts
to improve conditions at the Herbarium.
Between them they were responsible for
the renaissance in the Herbarium’s for-
tunes. However, it was difficult for
Herbarium staff to lead botany in Victoria
when they were so few in number, when
there was no Government direction, and
when the Herbarium’s senior officer, while
concerned with management of the
Herbarium, did not participate in its
research or related activities. There was
certainly a perception that the Club took up
the baton during these years. As Jim Willis
said, the ‘Club was largely responsible for
any botanical w'ork done in Victoria. They
always had a reputation for good sound
botanical work by amateur people’ (Jim
Willis interviewed by Darren Watson, 22
July 1994. RBGM archives, MSS 499.2).
Willis joined the Herbarium staff in 1939
and this marked the beginning of the
rebuilding of the Herbarium staff numbers.
It was due in no small part to Willis that
the Herbarium regained its position at the
centre of botanical activities in Victoria.
A major reason for the Club taking a
leading role in Victorian botany wfas the
publication of its journal. Up to 1960 the
overwhelming majority of botanical papers
published in Victoria were in The
Victorian Naturalist. Willis made a half-
joking remark about Ewart stealing materi-
al from the The Victorian Naturalist for the
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Victoria (Willis 1950). However, this does
not stand scrutiny. An inspection of the
Proceedings reveals relatively few botani-
cal papers. Much of the material published
in the Proceedings by Ewart with col-
leagues and students as co-authors are
about Northern Territory rather than
Victorian plants. What Jim’s remark
shows, however, is that The Victorian
Naturalist was viewed as vital for the pub-
lication of botanical information. Among
the more prolific writers in The Victorian
Naturalist were Norman Wakefield (62
botanical papers). Bert Williamson (45),
Edward Pescott (36), Bill Nicholls (118),
Hermann Rupp (71). Of the Herbarium
staff Willis wrote 107 botanical articles,
Audas 13, Ewart 22, and Morris 22. It
could be said that Herbarium staff pub-
lished here because there was nowhere
else. Rather, the existence of The Victorian
Naturalist provided the encouragement to
288
The Victorian Naturalist
History symposium
put information that was lacking from
other quarters into print .
The close union between the National
Herbarium of Victoria and the Field
Naturalists Club of Victoria has proved
mutually beneficial to both organisations
over the 125 years that the Club has been
in existence. In the community of natural-
ists that was the Club, the Herbarium staff
found colleagues who shared their interest
in the native flora of Victoria and whose
expertise was of value to the Herbarium.
Many Herbarium staff have been active
participants in Club activities. The associa-
tion between the two organisations proved
particularly important to the Herbarium
during the middle period of its history,
when it had few staff and resources were
minimal, and the Government required lit-
tle beyond curation of the collections and
the provision of an identification service
for the public. Club excursions provided
Herbarium staff with opportunities for
field work that were rare in their official
duties. Of particular significance are the
many Victorian specimens collected by
Club members and lodged in the
Herbarium. The fruitful collaboration
between the Herbarium and the Club still
continues with the highly successful
‘Fungimap’, a project to map the distribu-
tion of fungi, which is based at the
Herbarium and involves the observational
skills and input from many field naturalists
(Grey and Grey 2005; May 2004).
Abbreviations
FNCV - Field Naturalists Club of Victoria
RBGK. - Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
RBGM - Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne
References
Allen TG (1989). Hedley. Home of Orchids. (The
Author: Yarram)
Anon (1885) The Queen's Birthday excursion to
Lilydale. The Victorian Naturalist 2, 33-36.
Anon (1907) The late Mr. Chas. Walter. The Victorian
Naturalist 24. 1 10.
Aston II I (1980) The herbarium and plant collections
of Norman A. Wakefield (1918-1972). Muelleria 4.
251-263.
Audas JW (191 1 ) Botanical gleanings on a trip to the
Omeo district. The Victorian Natural ist 28. 172-81.
Audas JW (1920) Through the Murra Murra country
(Western Grampians). The Victorian Naturalist 37,
59-65.
Bailey FM (1892) Concise history of Australian
botany. Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Queensland 8, xvii-xlii.
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Victoria. 1853-2003. Muelleria 17. 3-14.
Cohn 1 1 M (2005) Watch dog over the Herbarium:
Alfred I wart. Government Botanist of Victoria
1906-1921. Historical records of Australian science
16. 1-29,
Dobson FL (1884) President’s address. The Victorian
Naturalist 1, 35-44.
Ewart AJ and Audas JW (1910) The flora of the
Victorian alps. The Victorian Naturalist 27, 104-20.
Ewart A.I. Audits , A. I and St John PRH (1909)
Biological survey of Wilson's Promontory. The
Victorian Naturalist 25. 142-5 1 .
French C and Barnard FA (1887) Notes of a holiday
tour in Rivcrina and Western Victoria. The Victorian
Naturalists . 147-52. 170-2 and 4. 9-14.
Galbraith J (1950) Wildflowers of Victoria. (Collins:
Melbourne)
Gregory JB and Lucas AHS (1886) To Wilson's
Promontory overland. The Victorian Naturalist 2, 87-
90.
Grey P and Grey \ (2005) Fungi down under.
(Fungimap: South Yana)
Halley JJ (1885) Presidential address. The Victorian
Naturalist 2. 3-13.
Hardy AD (1907) [Proceedings of meeting 8 July,
1907], The Victorian Natural ist 24, 67.
May TW (2004) Fungimap incorporated. Fungimap
Newsletter 23. 7.
Morris PF (1949) The late Alfred James Tadgell. The
Victorian Naturalist 66. 135.
Pescott EE (1940) Sixty years of work: the story of the
Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria, year by year. The
Victorian Naturalist 57, 4-5.
Sayee OA (1904) President's address. The Victorian
Naturalist 2 1 , 35-9
Sayce WA (1887) First ascent of Mount Bellenden-
Ker. The Victorian Naturalist 4. 37-44.
Taylor A (1996) Baron von Mueller in the Field
Naturalists’ tradition. The Victorian Naturalist 113.
131-139.
Willis JH (1950) A botanical retrospect (F.N.C.V.,
1880-1950). The Victorian Naturalist 67, 65-70.
Willis JH (I960) Thomas Stephen Hart (1871-1960).
The Victorian Naturalist 77, 111-114.
Willis JH (1971) William Hunter (1893-1971), doyen
of East Gippsland botanists. The Victorian Naturalist
88. 88-91.
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Received 30 June 2005; accepted 6 October 2005
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
289
History symposium
‘If it is not against the rules’
Women in the FNCV 1880-1980
Sheila Houghton
Abstract
The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria never had a rule barring women. It welcomed them, electing
two women to the committee in 1885. Forty-three years passed before another woman served on the
Committee, and it was not until 1947 that the Club had its first female President. Women played a
significant part in the Club’s activities, notably in supporting the Wildflowcr Exhibitions. The Club
attracted both professional women and amateur naturalists, some of whom became recognised
experts in their chosen field. This paper presents a selection of the 2213 women elected between
1881 and 1980. who both contributed to the knowledge of natural history, and played a vital part in
the history of the FNCV. ( The Vic torian Naturalist 122 (6), 2005. 290-306)
Introduction
In July 1881 the Hon FS Dobson LLD,
MLC was surprised, but honoured, to read
in the newspaper that he had been elected a
member of the Field Naturalists Club of
Victoria (FNCV). He wrote to thank the
Club for being ’good enough9 to elect him,
adding that he hoped to join Club excur-
sions during the summer, and to bring Mrs
Dobson with him ‘if that is not against the
rules' (Dobson 1881). Henrietta Louisa
Dobson was the first woman to be elected
to the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria on
12 September 1881 (Fig. 1). It was possi-
bly as much her desire to join an excursion
as his that she should do so. Born Henrietta
Louisa Sharland in New Norfolk in 1853,
Henrietta came from a prominent
Tasmanian family whose interests may
well have included natural history, since
her nephew, Michael Sharland. became an
ornithologist, nature writer to The Mercury
(Hobart) and sometime President of the
Tasmanian Field Naturalists Club.
It has been suggested that the FNCV
agreed to accept a woman member because
they wanted the prestige of having Frank
Stanley Dobson on their members' roll
(Taylor 1991). But the Club never evinced
any objection to women joining, and
before Mrs Dobson appeared on the scene
there was the mysterious Miss Guilfoyle
(who may have been a sister of WR
Guilfoyle, the Director of the Melbourne
Botanic Gardens), w'ho exhibited tropical
fish on several occasions during 1881, and
again at the Annual Conversazione in
12 Scenic Court, Gisborne, Victoria 3437
1882, though she was never elected a
member (anon 1881, 1882).
In a letter written on 30 May 1881 to
Hugh Paterson, w'ho was struggling to
establish the Naturalists Field Club of New
South Wales, Dudley Best, the FNCV's
Secretary, offered some good advice: ‘try
to inveigle a few ladies to join ... and take
my word you w ill now have plenty of fel-
lows' - the objective observation of a con-
firmed bachelor (Best 1881). The Rev. .1.1
Halley, in his Presidential address in April
1885, took a moral approach. He wel-
comed those whom he termed their ‘sisters
of science' in the Club, 23 of them at the
time, and declared that ‘the happy home is
Fig. 1. Henrietta Dobson (on extreme right),
photographed with members of her family in the
1890s. (Courtesy of Archives Office of
Tasmania [NS 1337/39])
290
The Victorian Naturalist
History ; symposium
certainly the intelligent home’, where
intelligent mothers and sisters would ‘add
something to the common stock of thought
and knowledge’. This influence would
assist the popularisation of science, while
offering an alternative to the popularity of
sport. Optimistically (and in the event
somewhat unrealistically), he hoped that ‘it
will be our privilege, before many years
have passed, to listen to this annual
address delivered by one of the sisterhood
of our guild' (Halley 1885). The flamboy-
ant Augustus Forbes Leith, in his letter of
resignation before returning to England in
1887, was more enthusiastic. He had
‘hailed with delight the time when ladies
first joined the Club’ for he ‘failed to see
that there was any life in it until they came
to the front’. He embellished these com-
ments by saying that he considered that
‘Woman had done more for Natural
Science than ever Man did’, adding that
‘one good drawing is worth fifty pages of
descriptive manuscript’ (Leith 1887).
In the first century of the Club 2213
women were elected. The meticulous keep-
ing of records during the first 60 years of the
Club’s history enables us to trace the emer-
gence of women members. In the first 25
years, 1 68 women and girls w'ere elected, of
whom 40 were still members in 1905,
including the 16 juniors who were elected
that year. This represented 14.8% of the
membership, which had grown to 19% by
the end of the First World War. In 1940 the
women accounted for 33.7% of the member-
ship. The scarcity of membership lists after
this date until 1983 makes it impossible to
gauge whether this percentage was main-
tained. There was a big increase in the num-
ber of women elected during and just after
World War II: 20 in 1941, 34 in 1943, 40 in
1944 and 51 in 1946. 1107 women were
elected between 1955 and 1980, but of these
we have no way of telling how many
remained members for any considerable
length of time, and this figure also includes
women who dropped out and then were re-
elected at a later date, sometimes more than
once. We know nothing about the majority
of these women, beyond the basic facts of
their name, address, marital status and the
date of their election to the Club. An analy-
sis of the addresses indicates that initially
members came from the inner suburbs of
Melbourne, such as South Yarra, Toorak
and Kew, but gradually they were drawn
from further afield, mainly from the eastern
or south-eastern suburbs. A small percentage
were country members, often teachers in
state schools who moved to different areas.
Some of those who lived permanently in the
country remained members of the FNCV
after local clubs were formed in their area.
The Victorian Naturalist , however, pro-
vides much information, which gives some
insight into who these women were, and
their interests. The practice, maintained
until the 1960s, of publishing who nomi-
nated and seconded the election of a mem-
ber may give some clue as to that person’s
particular interest, especially in the early
years, though as the Club expanded this
became more of a formality, with the nom-
inee not being personally known to the
proposer. More helpful is the practice, dur-
ing the 1960s, of publishing a new mem-
ber’s interests. But the most valuable
resource of all is the reports of meetings,
which were given in great detail up until
the 1960s. There is no evidence that
women were involved in the campaign for
the reservation of Wilsons Promontory in
1 898, but we can trace later a growing con-
cern amongst them for the preservation of
the environment: for example, in Grace
Nokes supporting a motion to preserve
native flora in 1924, Winifred Waddell’s
concern for the preservation of native
plants in the 1940s, and in 1964 when Mrs
Emilie Bennett drew the Club’s attention
to the destruction being caused by bulldoz-
ers in the Heytesbury and Lower Glenelg
areas, and also in Patricia Carolan’s con-
cern for the Howqua River area. Reports of
ordinary meetings contained details of dis-
cussions, in which women sometimes took
part, so that we know, for instance, that in
1920 Calphurnia Currie was concerned
about the content of meetings and the level
of assistance given to country members,
and that when in 1942 the Club was dis-
cussing the possible effect of blackout
restrictions on their evening meetings
Roycna Chisholm suggested that the lady
members gather on the steps of the Emily
McPherson College, of which she was
Principal, and proceed together for safety
to the meetings, then held at the Royal
Society of Victoria.
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
291
His tory sympos i am
Correspondence mentioned in ordinary
meeting reports has not survived. Amongst
the letters held in the Club’s archives are
requests from women about to travel inter-
state or overseas for letters of introduction
to naturalists or natural history clubs in the
places to which they were going. Others
ask for help in the identification of speci-
mens, for information about the Club, or
deal with details about their upcoming
talks or exhibits, or give thanks for letters
of condolence on the loss of a relative. In
1931 Calphurnia Currie wrote letters of
sympathy to the Club on the loss of HB
Williamson and AE Rodda, and there are
also tributes from women who had
received much help and instruction from
outstanding members.
Contribution to the Club is not confined
to whether a person held office, and this is
particularly true of the women members,
especially in the first 60 years of the
Club’s existence. The part they played in
the Wild flower Exhibitions is a case in
point. They were very supportive here, at
first in what might be called a female role,
serving refreshments, selling Bowers,
arranging the entertaiment, but very soon
they were involved in the natural history
displays, in the Microscopical, the Orchid
and Plant Identification Sections, and in
assisting at or taking charge of tables
devoted to the flora of the various States.
Usually their contribution was personally
acknowledged, but sometimes one can only
infer their involvement from general thanks
in the Annual Report. Some women were
regular exhibitors at meetings, others only
occasionally; some gave talks, led excur-
sions and reported on them, held minor but
important offices such as Exhibition
Steward at meetings, or Library Assistants
when the Groups were established. The
amount of information available for an
individual varies enormously, but even an
occasional reference indicates that she was
supporting the Club. In every decade at
least one woman member emerges who
played a significant part in the Club’s histo-
ry, or became well-known in wider natural
history circles. These are the women who
have been chosen as the subject of this
paper, along with a few others of whom we
have only a glimpse (but one which reveals
a variety of involvement).
1880-1920
Henrietta Dobson was the only woman
member for nearly two years until the elec-
tion of Flora Campbell and two other
women in 1883. Flora Campbell was the
woman who in many ways in the first
twenty-live years exemplified the purposes
for which the Club had been founded, the
self-taught amateur who became an expert
in her field. Flora Mary Campbell was
born in Tasmania in 1845. She was elected
to the Club in 1883, when she was living
in South Yarra, and in 1888 she married
William Martin, so became better known
by her married name. Her special interest
was in fungi, about which very little was
known at the time. But Flora Martin knew
what she was doing, and significantly the
collection of fungi which she exhibited at a
Club meeting in June 1883 was reported as
being ‘mostly named' (Anon 1883). In
1886 she contributed a paper on edible
fungi, and pointed out that 10 species usu-
ally regarded as poisonous were quite safe
to eat if they were young and fresh
(Campbell 1886). Members of the Club
remained cautious and somewhat sceptical,
and their opinions were not exactly altered
after an excursion to Olinda Creek, where,
at her instigation, they collected and
cooked the Beefsteak Fungus Fistulina
hepatica. They w'ere unable to eat it
because it was too old (Anon 1885).
Flora Martin sent many specimens to the
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England,
including the first fruiting specimen of
‘Blackfellow’s Bread’ Polyporus mylittae ,
which established the nature of the fungus
that had puzzled botanists for years. She
contributed specimens which MC Cooke
included in his Handbook of Australian
Fungi , a presentation copy of w'hich was
amongst her books found after her death in
1923, signed by the author over his photo-
graph ‘In kindly remembrance of the good
offices of Mrs Flora Martin in advancing
this work in the colonies, and in securing
its official recognition, my thanks are ever
due’ (Pitcher 1925).
Flora Martin corresponded with botanists
overseas, and did not hesitate to take issue
with Baron von Mueller over plant classifi-
cation. In particular she corresponded with
FM Bailey, the Queensland Government
Botanist, and sent him specimens, which
292
The Victorian Naturalist
History symposium
particularly annoyed the Baron. In a very
heated letter to FG A Barnard in 1 885 she
quotes from a letter from Bailey about a Dr
Lucas, who "without the least knowledge of
the Queensland flora pays a flying visit’ to
northern parts ‘gathers naturalized weeds or
strays from gardens and hands them to the
Baron as Australian plants, and he without
consulting me publishes them as indige-
nous’. (TP Lucas, an original member of
the FNCV, had moved to Brisbane for his
health). She continues: 'The paper on fungi
is most misleading, but 1 can’t write about
[it]. I am so indignant.’ She had visited
Queensland herself briefly, in company
with JE Tenison-Woods, who also com-
mented on the spread of introduced plants
(Campbell 1885).
Flora and her husband moved to a farm in
Drouin in 1892 and this increased her inter-
est in pathogenic fungi. She had already, in
1887, given a paper at a Club meeting, on
‘Vegetable Pathology’ and exhibited 400
specimens of diseased plants (Campbell
1887). She was interested in the economic
aspects of plants, and in 1895 read another
paper to the Club, intriguingly entitled ‘A
Ramble Amongst Fertilizers5, mainly about
weeds (Martin 1895), and she put forward
ideas about aerating the soil and compost
that would gladden Peter CundalFs heart.
In 1890 she was the first woman to present
a paper to the Australasian Association for
the Advancement of Science conference in
Melbourne, on 'Diseases of Plants’ (Anon
1 890a).
There was a big upsurge in enrolments
during 1884, which was in no small part
due to the efforts of Dr Dobson. In his
presidential address in 1884 (Dobson
1884a), he stated his belief that botany was
a suitable study for ladies, an idea shared
by the Reverend William Wooils, of
Sydney, elected an Honorary member of
the FNCV in 1883, who wrote in a letter to
the Sydney Morning Herald ‘Botany ... is
particularly fitted to attract the attention of
the fair sex’ (Wooils n.d.). With this in
mind. Dr Dobson, who was a somewhat
reluctant President, was an energetic
recruiter of female members. In 1884 he
proposed almost all the Simson ladies for
election. Robert Simson was a pastoral ist
and had been a member of the Legislative
Council for the Western District in the
1870s. He had married Catherine Officer
(Hone 1976), who had a renowned garden
at their home in Toorak, and was ‘a great
student of botany’ (Dobson 1884b).
Elected in 1884. she remained a member
until 1893, though curiously her recorded
input to the Club consisted of exhibits of
snakes and rats, apart from an initial con-
tribution of Queensland plants. Her sister-
in-law, Margaret, Mrs John Simson, elect-
ed at the same time, and followed by all
her daughters in 1885, became a loyal
member until her death in 1922. Along
with Henrietta Dobson she was elected to
the FNCV Committee in 1885.
Their election may have been something
of a token gesture, because Mrs Dobson
did not attend any Committee meetings,
and Mrs Simson only one in September
1 885, but neither did many of the male
Committee members, often only the chief
office-bearers being present, a kind of
executive sub-committee. (FGA Barnard
did not include them when he drew up his
chart of officer-bearers from 1880-1901 to
present to the Club on its 21st anniver-
sary). Mrs Simson’s presence at the
September meeting may well have been
related to the impending Wildflower
Show, held in October 1885 for the first
time. There are references in later years to
the Ladies Committee, and to the
Wildflower Show sub-committee, which in
1890 contained four women, Kate Coghill,
Mary Halley, Miss AE Roberts and
Susannah Cochrane (Anon 1890b). There
is no doubt that the women played a signif-
icant and continuing part in these events.
In the 1930s the Shell Company provided
an exhibit each year, and there are letters
of thanks to Mrs Florence Ellen Barrett
(known as ‘Effie’), the wife of Charles
Barrett, and her committee, for managing
their exhibit. Women from different parts
of Victoria, and interstate, many of them
not members of the FNCV, regularly con-
tributed exhibits of native flowers from
their local areas, until the passing of the
Wildflower Protection Act in 1930 prohib-
ited the picking of native flowers in
Victoria. Miss Nethercote, elected in 191 1,
was the convenor of the Ladies Committee
in 191 7 (Anon 1 9 1 7), and she was passion-
ate about the Grampians flora, going to
considerable lengths to organise the collec-
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
293
H i story symposium
tion and transport of exhibits. She and
Miss Rollo, elected in 1904, took part in
the discussion before the 1918 Show (anon
1918) , which led to an effort to make the
display more systematic, and gradually
specialist tables, such as the Orchid
Section, presided over by Edith Coleman
and her daughter Dorothy for nearly twen-
ty years, became a regular feature, together
with a Plant Classification table, in the
care of HB Williamson, assisted by Jean
Galbraith. Mrs Jane Edmondson, a mem-
ber from 1901 for 52 years, looked after
the Flower Stall and the making up of but-
tonholes and bouquets for sale, while Hilda
Gabriel was in charge of the refreshments
for several years in the 1920s. The
Microscopical Section was often in the
charge of women.
Gertrude Nethcrcote was a very energetic
and enthusiastic member of the Club, and
was complimented by the President in
1916 on her successful efforts to increase
the membership and interests of the Club.
In January 1919 she took a party of girls
camping at Wilsons Promontory, and gave
a detailed talk to the Club on their experi-
ences, illustrated by lantern slides. They
camped at Darby River, fished successful-
ly at Tongue Point, swam in the river, and
undertook a three-day trek to Sealers Cove.
She also provided some useful hints on
how to keep bread from going mouldy on
an extended trip (Nethercote 1920). They
adopted a young koala, that Miss
Nethercote received a permit to keep,
which was present at the meeting and gave
‘an occasional grunt of satisfaction on
hearing the voice of its mistress’ (anon
1919) . What Gertrude Nethercote did is
not known, but it is probable that she was a
schoolteacher. The reason for her resigna-
tion in 1934 is unknown, but her services
were sufficiently valued for the Secretary
to write urging her to reconsider her deci-
sion (Col liver 1934). Financial pressures
may have been the cause. Three years
later, her father, Charles Nethercote, who
had been elected in 1915. is recorded as
paying the subscription for himself and his
daughter (Nethercote 1937), but there is no
record of her involvement after 1934.
Augustus Forbes Leith would probably
have approved of the election in 1889 of
Miss Susannah Cochrane. At the January
1 890 monthly meeting she exhibited paint-
ings of 25 species of Victorian orchids,
and thereafter she exhibited paintings regu-
larly at meetings. Annual Conversaziones
and Wildflower Shows until 191 1. She dis-
appears from the records after that, until
1937 when she wrote to the Club offering
back copies of The Victorian Naturalist for
sale (Cochrane 1937). She died in 1941.
Another, somewhat better-known, painter
was Amy Vardy Fuller. She was elected to
the Club in 1914, and became a Life mem-
ber in 1925. Born in Geelong in 1869, she
made her debut as a singer in Melbourne in
1889. Her musical talents were put to good
use in 1916 when she organised the vocal
and instrumental programme for the
Wildflower Show. As a painter she was
self-taught, and. as she confessed in a talk
to the Club in 1915, she ‘knew but little of
the science of botany’, but finding while
living with relatives in South Africa that
pressing the local flowers w'as unsatisfac-
tory she decided to try painting them. She
had painted 325 South African specimens,
165 Western Australian flowers, and was
proceeding to Victorian and New South
Wales specimens, enlisting the assistance
of botanists to name them (Fuller 1915).
Although not possessing the same botani-
cal accuracy as Ellis Rowan's, Amy
Fuller’s paintings were considered suffi-
ciently significant for the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, England, to purchase 102 of
them, featuring flowers represented there
only by pressed specimens. It was, she said,
a wrench to part with them, and she would
have been dismayed to know that when Jim
Willis tried to locate them in 1958 he could
find no record of them! (Willis 1958). Amy
Fuller was the convenor of the Ladies
Committee for the 1918 Wildflower Show,
and her paintings W'ere regularly displayed
at shows until 1931. When she died in 1944
she left 230 paintings to the Club (FNCV
Minutes 1944).
The reasons why women joined the Club
are not always easy to determine, but there
was in the early days a certain cachet in
being a member of the FNCV, and it is
possible that some of the daughters who
were elected (and no doubt their mothers)
saw it also as an opportunity to survey the
marriage field as well as the heathlands or
seashore. Several marriages did take place.
294
The Victorian Naturalist
His to ry sympos i um
Una, daughter of the Reverend JJ Halley,
the Club’s third president, married George
Coghill, and founded a field naturalist
dynasty (Carey 2004 pers. comm. 28
September) (Fig. 2). She disappeared from
the membership list for thirty years before
being re-elected when George Coghill
became President, but she was very much
around in the intervening years, going on
camp-outs and assisting at Wildflower
Shows. FGA Barnard, one of the original
members, editor of The Victorian
Naturalist for 32 years, and an indefatiga-
ble historian of the Club, married Mary,
the daughter of Henry Watts, another origi-
nal member. Anna McHaffie, of the Phillip
Island family with a keen interest in natur-
al history, married Alfred Hardy, who later
worked for the Forestry Commission and
was President in 1918-1920.
The marriage that was to have a lasting
effect on Tasmanian history and conserva-
tion was that between Kate Cowle and
Gustav Weindorfer. Kate was born in
Devonport and after her parents' deaths
travelled with her sisters Laura and Carrie
to Melbourne, where she met Alfred
Hardy. Discovering her botanical interests,
he encouraged her to join the Club. She
and Laura were elected in 1902. with
Carrie joining a year later. Kate became an
active member, and her botanical knowl-
edge was employed in supplying lists of
plants observed on Club excursions. She
exhibited a collection of dried Victorian
plants at the Annual Conversazione in
1905, and was co-leader of a junior excur-
Fig. 2. Enid Una Coghill, pictured in later life.
(Courtesy of Elspeth Carey.)
sion to Sandringham, a popular place for
botanical investigation. Gustav Weindor-
fer, who had been elected in November
1901, encouraged and helped her to classi-
fy her plant collection, and they also
shared an interest in music. Kate’s biogra-
pher considered it a meeting of kindred
spirits that brought out the latent abilities
in both of them. Kate had settled into a sin-
gle academic life, and Weindorter was
restless and thinking of returning to his
native Austria and his profession as an
estate manager. Kate's family were strong-
ly opposed to the marriage because of the
Austro-German connection, but Kate was
an independent woman, who at 42 knew'
her own mind, and her decision was to
have a significant, though largely unrecog-
nised, consequence. They were married on
1 February 1 906, and spent their five-week
honeymoon on Mt. Roland collecting and
classifying plant species. And it was from
there that Weindorfer first saw Cradle
Valley, a sight that brought back memories
of his homeland, and he remained
enthralled by it for the rest of his life. Kate
was the first woman known to climb
Cradle Mountain. Together they built the
famous Waldheim Chalet, which was
ready to receive their first paying guests by
the end of 1912. Kate spent time at the
mountain, either in short visits, or for sev-
eral months, during which she cooked for
the guests, and took parties on less arduous
bushwalks than those conducted by
Weindorfer. Sadly after 1914 her health
began to deteriorate, and she died on 29
April 1916 (Schnackenberg 1994).
A Life member
Mary Bage, wife of Edward Bage, was
elected in 1884, and became the Club’s
first female Life member. She occasionally
exhibited specimens at meetings, but her
role was more concerned with the social
niceties. At a monthly meeting in 1900 she
moved that the FNCV forward congratula-
tions to Professor Baldwin Spencer on his
nomination to become a Fellow of the
Royal Society ( London), and again in 1904
when he was created a Knight of the Order
of St. Michael and St. George. In the same
year she invited members, after the exami-
nation of exhibits at the ordinary meeting
in September, to partake of light refresh-
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
295
H is tory sympos ium
ments in celebration of her 21 years as a
member. In 1920 she was the promoter of
the 40"' anniversary meeting of the Club,
again providing refreshments. But she was
also concerned with other matters: in 1911
she suggested that the Club contribute to
the Mawson Antarctic Exploration Fund,
providing £1 for the purpose (the Club
subscribed £5); in 1925 she raised the
question of whether cars should be admit-
ted to Sherbrooke National Park, and near-
er home she gave her opinion on whether
unbound issues of periodicals in the library
should be lent, although we don’t know
what her position was!
Professional Women
While some of the women members in
the First 25 years of the Club’s existence
had an amateur, or transient, interest in
natural history, there was a good propor-
tion of professional women: Leonora
Little, the first woman science graduate
from Melbourne University (BSc. 1893).
was elected to the Club in the same year;
Ada Lambert, who graduated in 1 895, and
became a science teacher, elected as Mrs
a’ Beckett, in 1916 with one of her sons;
Jean White, (DSc. 1909) who later con-
ducted the first major study of the problem
of prickly pear in Queensland, elected in
1905; and Georgina Sweet, who graduated
in 1896, and had a distinguished university
career, (DSc. 1904) was elected in 1891.
Some of these memberships were short-
lived. but Georgina Sweet was re-elected
in 1911. (Leonora Little married in 1894,
later moving to Western Australia).
The exception was Freda Bage, elected in
1 894 at the age of 1 1. She came from a sci-
entific family who had a keen interest in
the Club. Her father, Edward Bage, a part-
ner in Felton, Grimwade and Co., the
wholesale druggists, was one of the Club’s
original members. Elected in 1880, he
became a Life member with his wife,
Mary, in 1884, and was the Club’s
Treasurer in 1886-1887. Freda, who gradu-
ated from Melbourne University with a
M.Sc. in 1907, was a life-long member for
a total of 76 years, even though she moved
to Brisbane when she was appointed
Principal of Womens College at
Queensland University in 1914. Prior to
that she had been a regular exhibitor at the
Club’s Wildflower Show's. In 1905 and
again in 1908 in the Microscopical Section
she demonstrated the development of chick
embryos, assisted firstly by Jean White,
and then by Gwynneth Buchanan (elected
1917) who became lecturer in Zoology at
Melbourne University in 1921. Freda took
part in the Club’s camp-outs at Wilsons
Promontory at Christmas 1912. together
with Janet Raff, and again in 1913. She
became President of Brisbane Field
Naturalists Club in 1915, and sent exhibits
of Queensland flora to the FNCV
Wildflower Shows on numerous occasions.
In 1917 she wrote saying how much she
enjoyed receiving The Victorian Naturalist
each month (Bage 1917), and when she
was in Melbourne she attended meetings
of the Club. She was elected an Honorary
member in 1945.
Over the years the FNCV counted
amongst its members other distinguished
women scientists, such as Dr Ethel
McLennan, the mycologist and plant
pathologist, and Dr Isabel C’ookson, the
paleobotanist who became a pioneer of
Australian palynology. As recent BSc.
graduates they were both elected in 1916,
but their membership appears to have been
fairly brief. Cookson, however, gave two
lectures, one in 1929 on v Ancient Plants’
and the other to the Microscopical Group in
1961 on her branch of palaeontology. Ethel
McLennan, who became Associate
Professor of Botany at Melbourne Univer-
sity, popularly known as ‘Doctor Mac’, was
re-elected to the Club in 1937, but before
that in the 1930s she had hosted Club excur-
sions to the University Botany Department,
and joined Jim Willis in leading excursions
in search of fungi, as well as contributing
articles on fungi to The Victorian Naturalist
(McLennan 1932a, b, c).
The first woman to play an active role in
the administration of the Club was Janet
Raff, who was elected in 1909 and
remained a member for 64 years, becom-
ing an Honorary Member in 1949. She was
a graduate of Melbourne University, where
for many years she was a senior demon-
strator and lecturer in agricultural entomol-
ogy. Janet Raff is generally regarded as
being the first woman to be elected to the
Committee of the Club (the Council after
1950), a position she held from 1928-1933.
296
The Victorian Naturalist
His tory sympos i urn
Unlike Mrs Dobson and Mrs Simson in the
1 880s she attended meetings regularly. She
was also a frequent exhibitor at monthly
meetings, mainly of entomological speci-
mens, including in 1^31 a Cactoblastis
moth bred from eggs collected from
Prickly Pear at Roma, Queensland, and its
characteristic egg-stick. She went on sev-
eral Christmas camp-outs, led excursions
to Black Rock for shore life, and to Kew
Lagoons for pond life, and contributed arti-
cles and excursion reports to The Victorian
Naturalist between 1912 and 1956. In
1938 the Club selected her to represent
them at the Australian and New Zealand
Association for the Advancement of
Science (ANZAAS) Conference. Four
other women went as Club delegates to
ANZAAS conferences; Dr Margaret
Chattaway attended the 1956, 1958 and
1959 conferences; Miss RS Chisholm in
1961; Dr L Myfanwy Beadnell in 1962;
and Miss EL Forster in 1965.
Amateur Naturalists
Each decade produced several women
who remained members for many years
and contributed significantly to the life of
the Club, with an increasing number
emerging as the 20"' century progressed.
One of these was Calphurnia Currie,
known as ‘Ferny', who was elected in
1917, when she was living in Fitzroy. By
1919 she had returned to Lardner, the fam-
ily property near Drouin. She was a fre-
quent exhibitor, though not always in per-
son, reported on the flora and fauna in her
district, and led Club excursions to the
area. In 1932 she sent a vivid account of a
local bushfire. At a meeting in 1920 she
took part in a discussion about making
meetings more popular, and urged that
country members should be given more
help, especially in the naming of speci-
mens, a plea that was echoed by other
country members from time to time. Ferny
contributed articles to The Victorian
Naturalist from 1918 until 1952, and also
had articles published in Emu. Grace
Nokes was elected in 1918, and remained a
member until her death in 1945. Fler par-
ticular interests were botany and ornitholo-
gy, and she was an early supporter of the
need for the protection of native flora, and
the conservation of significant areas.
If many members were neither profes-
sional women nor knowledgeable ama-
teurs, willing to give talks or display speci-
mens, they tended to contribute the skills
they had. Such a person was Dorothy
Philpott, who in 1918 qualified as a short-
hand writer, and offered to take the min-
utes at the monthly meetings, an offer no
doubt gratefully accepted. Another handy
person was Helen Bailey, elected in 1929,
who was reprimanded in 1934 for breach-
ing the Wildflower Protection Act by pick-
ing orchids. She pleaded ignorance, but by
way of atonement offered to type lists of
protected plants to be distributed to mem-
bers. She produced 600 copies of the wild-
flower protection article and lists of flow-
ers, refusing reinbursement.
Junior Members
The original rules of the FNCV did not
include a membership category for juniors.
In 1886 children under the age of 16 were
admitted as juniors. The annual subscrip-
tion for adults w^as 15/-, for Juniors 5/-.
Another amendment to the rules in 1904
introduced the category of Associate mem-
ber between the ages of 16 and 20, who
paid 5/-. The Junior subscription was
reduced to 1/-, The Junior category was
removed in 1927, but a further modifica-
tion of the Associate category crept in (it
doesn’t ever seem to have been formulat-
ed) according to Eulalie Brewster, who
was elected in 1944 at the age of 1 8, when
she discovered that had she been male she
could have been elected at 16! (Brewster
n.d.). This paternalistic distinction disap-
peared when the Club was incorporated in
1950, when the Associate category was
abolished, and the Junior category was
reinstated for persons under 18, although
the establishment of Junior Clubs largely
catered for them.
In the early days of the Club the younger
members tended to be the children of
members, but by 1892 when the FNCV
offered prizes for natural history other
young people were involved, many of
whom were not members. An increasing
number of female members were teachers
in both private and state schools, and
would have encouraged their pupils to join
the Club as an extension of nature study,
introduced into the curriculum as part of
Vol. 122 (6)2005
297
History symposium
the ‘new education’ in the early 20"' centu-
ry. There was a big upsurge in junior elec-
tions after 1 904, perhaps in part because of
the reduced subscription. In January 1905
four girls came from Moonee Ponds State
School, another four from the newly-estab-
lished Government Continuation School,
and in November and December another
19 were elected, when it would appear that
almost the entire female junior population
living in Droop Street, Footscray was
enrolled. From then until 1913, 51 juniors
were elected, including another big contin-
gent from Footscray in October 1909, all
nominated by a Miss Gillbanks, who had
herself been elected in April that year.
Interestingly, no further female juniors
w'ere elected after 1913, although the
Junior category existed for another 14
years.
Most of the female junior memberships
appear to have been of short duration, but
some interesting names occur, such as
Lucy Bryce, elected in 1908 aged 1 I, who
went on to have a very distinguished career
as a htematologist. and founded the Blood
Bank during World War II (Verso 1979).
One junior who did rejoin the Club was
Bertha Keartland, daughter of George
Keartland, who had been a member since
1886. Bertha was a junior member from
1905-1907, and has the distinction of being
the first junior to contribute to an ordinary
meeting, with a nature note about a young
Bronze Cuckoo that she had observed
being fed by Superb Warblers and Yellow-
rumped Tits. She attended Teachers
Training College and taught at the new
high schools in Bendigo and Rutherglen
before going to Melbourne University in
1916, the year she rejoined the Club. She
graduated with an MSc. in 1922, studied at
the Domestic School in Toronto, where she
researched the vitamin content of grain, and
was awarded an MA. Back in Melbourne
she became one of the foundation staff of
Emily MacPherson College in 1927. After
her retirement in 1933 she returned to
teaching nature study (Kelly 1993).
1920s to 1940s
Royena Strathy Chisholm, another life-
long member, was elected in 1918. She
became Principal of Emily MacPherson
College in 1924, and was a supportive
member of the Club, with a concern for the
preservation of records and collections. At a
meeting in 1919 she exhibited photographs
of the Club’s excursion to King Island in
1887; and she asked Dr Hugo Flecker, a
former member of the Club, founder of the
North Queensland Naturalists Club and the
person after whom the Cairns Botanic
Gardens are named, when he visited the
Club in 1945, whether FP Dodd's insect
collection still existed. A few months later
she asked whether the Club had any control
over how its donation to the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, England was to be spent;
and in 1946 whether it was true that a spring
existed near the Shrine of Remembrance.
(Stan Colliver said he thought Charles
French had once mentioned collecting water
for his billy tea there). When she died in
1970 Royena Chisholm left a bequest to the
Club.
The early 1920s saw the election of tw;o
women who made substantial contribu-
tions to the knowledge of natural history,
Edith Coleman and Jean Galbraith. Edith
Coleman’s daughter, Dorothy, had been
elected as an Associate member in 1914.
but it was not until September 1922 that
Edith was elected, giving a paper on
orchids the same evening. This was subse-
quently published in The Victorian
Naturalist (Coleman 1922), the first of her
35 articles and notes on a variety of topics
to appear in the journal. She was a great
nature lover, but orchids dominated, and it
was her discovery of the pollination mech-
anism of the genus Cryptostylis that creat-
ed the most interest both here and over-
seas. Together with Dorothy, who often
provided line-drawings to illustrate her
mother’s articles, Edith presided over the
Orchid Section of the Club’s Wildflower
Exhibition for many years. In 1926 she
proposed the establishment of an Orchid
Research Section in the Club, through
which she was able to encourage other
enthusiasts. The garden that she created at
her Blackburn home was not far from
where the Club now has its headquarters, a
fitting conjunction. Edith Coleman was the
first woman to receive the Australian
Natural History Medallion in 1949. Her
prolific writings are dealt with in another
symposium paper in this issue. Illness pre-
vented Edith Coleman from active partici-
298
The Victorian Naturalist
History symposium
pation in Club affairs in her later years,
and she died in 1951.
In 1922, aged 16, Jean Galbraith made
the momentous decision to visit the FNCV
Wildflower Exhibition. Her enthusiasm
and curiosity attracted the attention of HB
Williamson, long-time FNCV member and
noted amateur botanist. He offered to iden-
tify any plant specimens that she liked to
collect and send to him. Thus began the
correspondence that turned Jean’s love of
plants into a passion, based on sound
instruction, which continued until
Williamson’s death in January 1931. In the
May following his death Jean offered to
collect Australian specimens for the Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, as
Williamson had done for many years, and
the offer was accepted.
Jean was elected to the Club in 1923, and
each year she assisted Williamson on the
Plant Classification table at the Wildflower
Exhibition, later taking charge of this her-
self. Through the Club Jean met Edith
Coleman, who became a close friend and
mentor. Jean was elected an Honorary
member in 1959, and in 1964 the Club pre-
sented her with an FNCV microscope,
designed by Dan Mclnnes and WC
Woollard, to assist her in her work. In
1950 she published Wild flowers of
Victoria , with two later editions in 1955
and 1967. They were superseded in 1977
by her Field guide to the wilcif lowers of
south-east Australia , many an amateur
botanist’s vade-mecum. The famed garden
at Tyers, in Gippsland, created by Jean and
her parents, was immortalised in Garden in
a valley , published in 1939 and reprinted
in 1985. A prolific writer, Jean Galbraith
was well-known to gardeners through her
articles in The Australian garden lover ,
from 1926-1976 under the name ‘Correa',
and from 1985-1992 in The Age newspa-
per, Melbourne. Her contributions to The
Vi do r i a n Na f u ra list from 1926-1980
included 48 much-valued articles on
Australian wattles. Her last article was
‘Botanists and the FNCV - the first 30
years’, the talk she gave at the Centenary
meeting of the FNCV in 1980 (Galbraith
1980). Jean was a foundation member of
the Latrobe Valley Field Naturalists Club
and the Society for Growing Australian
Plants (now Australian Plant Society), and
an Honorary member of the Victorian
National Parks Association and the Native
Plants Preservation Society. In 1970 Jean
Galbraith became the second woman to be
awarded the Australian Natural History
Medallion. When she died in 1999, aged
92, Jean had been a dedicated member of
the FNCV for 76 years.
Another important woman in natural his-
tory circles became a member in 1926.
Margaret Louise Wigan, who became
President of the Bird Observers Club from
1932-1934, was the first woman president
of any natural history society in Australia.
As well as being an ornithologist she had
wide interests in natural history, showing a
great variety of exhibits at FNCV meet-
ings, from a Cordvceps collected at the
Easter camp-out in the Otways in 1928 to
Grevillea rosmarinifolia from the hedge at
Ivanhoe Grammar, where she was Matron,
to the black land snail. (CJ Gabriel said
that this snail was of particular interest
being bright scarlet in Gippsland and the
Dandenongs, but light grey in the Otways
(Gabriel 1940)). It has now been estab-
lished that these are two different species
of Victaphanta (Smith and Kershaw 1979).
Margaret travelled extensively, to North
Queensland with an introduction from the
Club to Dr Flecker in Cairns, to Adelaide
and to England and Europe. After a visit to
Kew Gardens in 1931 she wrote to the
Club to convey their desire for a new col-
lection of Victorian flora. At the
Wildflower Show in 1926 she assisted at
the Queensland and South Australian
tables, and was jointly in charge, with AS
Chalk, of the Ornithological Section of the
1948 Nature Show (as it was called by
then). Her contributions to The Victorian
Naturalist between 1927 and 1951 were
mostly articles on birds, or excursion
reports. Margaret Wigan was a member of
the FNCV Committee from 1948 to 1953.
By the time she became an Honorary
Member in 1 962 she was unable to attend
meetings, so the President, Dan Mclnnes,
and a number of her friends visited her
home to present the certificate. It was an
occasion of much amusing reminiscence
(Garnet 1962). Margaret Wigan died in
1970 at the age of 94. yet another member
who had followed the example of Charles
French by living to a great age.
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
299
H istory symposium
Blanche Miller, also an ornithologist,
was elected, together with her husband,
Victor, in 1924. They both put much time,
energy and money into the Club, although
Blanche never held any office. She
declined to be on the sub-committee estab-
lished in 1936 to introduce new members,
but was nevertheless keen to encourage
people, especially juniors, to join. She was
interested in the history of the Club, and
her "Early years of The Victorian
Naturalist ’ was published in the journal
(Miller 1934). At the AGM in 1935 she
gave a talk on past Annual Meetings,
which caused the President to suggest that
she might like to continue FGA Barnard’s
History of the Club. Apparently Blanche
did not take up this suggestion, but at the
Club’s Diamond Jubilee meeting in 1940
she gave a paper on 'The Club's "Activities
Past, Present and Future', that was not
published. She was made an Honorary
Member in 1937, and after she died in
1 948 a Eucalyptus (eucoxy/on was planted
in her memory on Vernon Davey’s proper-
ty at Toolern Vale, the site of the Royal
Australasian Ornithologists Union’s first
observatory, wiiere the Club had held bird
observing excursions.
The early 1930s saw the election of two
women who were to have a profound
etfect on the Club. They were May Salau,
nee Vale, elected in 1931, and Eudora
Freame, elected in 1932 (Fig. 3). May Vale
was born in Heathcote and grew up on a
farm. She trained as a teacher, and met her
Fig. 3. Margaret Eudora Freame (FNCV
Archives)
husband-to-be, Fred Salau, at one of her
postings. He later ran a nursery at Clarinda,
in south-east Melbourne, and gatherings at
their home became a kind of mirror of
those at Charles French’s home in the
1 870s. Stan Col liver had been elected at the
same meeting as May Salau, and soon
afterwards ‘The Gang’ was formed, con-
sisting of amateurs and professionals who
met at either the Salau or Colliver homes
every two months to further their interests.
This was undoubtedly the forerunner to the
formation ol the Geology and Botany
Groups within the Club in 1945. May was a
frequent exhibitor at Geology Group meet-
ings, and a long-time member of the Nature
Show committee in the 1960s under the
leadership of Dan Mclnnes. She had a very
professional approach to the mounting of
exhibits for the shows, and according to
Tom Sault she was frequently heard telling
helpers that ‘ near enough is not good
enough’. May Salau died in 1990 at the age
of 95 (Sault 1991 ).
Margaret Eudora Freame was elected
along with her husband in July 1932.
Marine biology and entomology were her
particular interests, and she was responsi-
ble, with AJ Swaby, for the establishment
of this Special Interest Group in 1947. She
and her husband .1.1 (we have no names) led
many excursions to Allona and
Mornitigton, and the gleanings from these
trips were regularly exhibited at meetings.
From 1932 to 1963 scarcely a meeting
went by when she did not exhibit some
specimen of marine life, and over the same
period she wrote articles and notes for The
Victorian Naturalist. Mrs Freame was a
great supporter of the Hawthorn Junior
Field Naturalists Club, founded in 1942,
being Secretary-Treasurer from 1943 to
1958, and Vice-President in 1948-49. She
was made an Honorary member of the
FNCV in 1950 for her services to the
Hawthorn Junior Field Naturalists Club.
As a member of the Nature Show commit-
tee she assisted with the Marine Biology
section, and in 1948 helped with the
Club's exhibit at the Royal Show. Eudora
Freame was elected to the FNCV commit-
tee in 1945, and became Vice-President in
1948. After she died in 1968 her marine
collection was purchased by the Rosebud
Aquarium and Museum.
300
The Victorian Naturalist
His tory sympos i um
Post World War II
After 65 years of the Club’s existence
women began to be elected to the
Committee on a regular basis. Ina Watson
was the first woman President of the
FNCV in 1947-48. An ornithologist, she
was a member of the RAOU of which she
became Vice-president in 1966, and of the
Bird Observers Club, in which she held
almost every office, including President.
She had also been President of the Leach
Memorial Club. From 1950 until 1962 she
worked with Roy Wheeler in the Altona
Salt Works Survey, studying the life histo-
ry of the silver gull, and co-authored their
report on the work. This survey became
the catalyst for the foundation of the
Victorian Ornithological Research Group,
of which she was an original member.
On a visit to England in 1949 she went to
the bird sanctuary on Skokholm Island,
Wales, where she learnt the technique of
bird-banding. Ina was one of the first bird
banders registered with CSIRO. She gave
talks to the FNCV on these travels and also
on her visit to Central Australia with the
RAOU in 1953.
Ina Watson was a noted nature photogra-
pher, and 19 of her photographs are includ-
ed in the National Photographic Index of
Birds. She was also an accomplished land-
scape artist, and an exhibition of her oil
paintings was held in the Flamilton Gallery
in 1971. Ina contributed articles to The
Victorian Naturalist from 1944 to 1961,
and numerous articles were published in
Emu, Walkabout and The Bird Lover. She
wrote two books for children, Silvertail,
the story * of a Lyrebird, which was includ-
ed in the gift of books to the Queen for her
children in 1954, and Larry the seagull
(Watson 1971a).
The late 1940s was a period when the
Club was undergoing changes, and Ina
Watson was involved in the preliminary
stages of preparing for the incorporation of
the FNCV, which took place in 1950. She
was one of the three people concerned over
the method of adjudication and the dura-
tion of nominations for the Australian
Natural History Medallion, which led to
the revision of the rules in 1947 (Watson et
al. 1 947). She was a member of the Award
Committee of the Medallion from 1964-
1966, and again in 1967-1968.
Ina Watson was educated at Essendon
High School, and was an Associate of the
Australian Institute of Accountants, and of
the Public Relations Institute. For 27 years
she was managing secretary of the
Melbourne Radiological Clinic, and then
spent ten years as Information Officer in
the Department of Fisheries and Wildlife
(Watson 1971b). In 1967 she moved to
Portland to live with her sister. Ina Watson
died in 1992, aged 83.
Another woman who made a consider-
able impact on the Club was Winifred
Waddell (Fig. 4). She was elected in 1947,
and was passionate about the preservation
of native flora. She founded the Native
Plants Preservation Group of the Club. The
conservation of areas of floral significance
required money, and Winifred Waddell’s
idea was that there should be Associates to
the Group, who paid a separate subscrip-
tion, and/or made donations for the specif-
ic purpose of conservation. This did not fit
within the constitution drawn up at incor-
poration, so she set up the Native Plants
Preservation Society as a separate entity.
The FNCV Committee had recorded that
the Club’s conservation work was being
done through Miss Waddell, and praised
her efforts (FNCV Minutes 1952).
Winifred Waddell was awarded the
Australian Natural History Medallion in
1964 for services to botany and conserva-
Fig. 4. Winifred Waddell (Reproduced with
permission from the archives of the Royal
Botanic Gardens Melbourne)
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
301
His tory’ sympos ium
tion, which she said she valued as much as
the MBE awarded in the same year (Atkins
1966). In the early 1960s she wrote nature
articles for The .Junior Age which Jean
Galbraith edited into Wild flower diary, as a
tribute to Winifred, after she died in 1972.
Dr Margaret Chattaway migrated to
Australia with her mother, in 1946, to take
up a position in the Forest Products
Division of CSIR. later CSIRO. She had
led a colourful life previously. Born in
1899 in Oxford, where her father was
Professor of Chemistry, she attended St
Hugh’s College, and obtained her doctor-
ate in wood anatomy. She worked in Italy
and then was appointed to a fellowship at
Yale University. During WWIl she joined
the army as a driver, and later was promot-
ed as a Junior Commander in the Army
Education Department.
While she was working at CSIR, her
boss. Dr Dadswell, with whom she had
corresponded during the war, knowing
Margaret’s great love of the bush, ensured
that she had a lot of field work, and she fell
in love with Australia. She did not become
an Australian citizen until her 90t'1 birth-
day, when she said she was a little
ashamed that she had delayed so long. She
celebrated the occasion by taking a joy-
ride in a helicopter. In later life she lost her
sight, but this did not stop her. She joined
the Association of the Blind, of which she
became a Life Governor, and bearing in
mind the advice given her that ‘You have
to learn to see through your fingers’, she
attended the Association’s Vision
Resource Centre and learned many hand-
crafts, including woodwork (Janes 2000;
The Age 19 September 1989).
Elected to the Club in 1946, Margaret
Chattaway became Vice-President and
Assistant Editor of The Victorian Natural-
ist in 1951-1952, and President in 1952-
1953. Her lectures included accounts of
Club excursions to Bendigo and Central
Australia, aspects of British flora, and a
report on her visit to New Zealand for the
ANZAAS conference in Dunedin in 1956.
In 1950 she organised a Symposium on
Wood for the Club assisted by colleagues
from CSIRO. At a time when conservation
action was gathering momentum in
Victoria in the 1940s and 50s she con-
tributed information about the preservation
of National Monuments in Britain. She
was a contributor to The Victorian
Naturalist from 1951-1964, but appears to
have had no direct connection with the
Club after that time, which may have coin-
cided with the onset of her blindness, but
during the 20 years of her active involve-
ment she made a significant contribution to
the Club. In 1980 she attended the
Centenary meeting, and was photographed
with the President and the seven other ex-
Presidents who were there. She died in
1997 at the age of 98, following what
seems to be something of a characteristic
of field nats, of both sexes.
Just a year after Margaret Chattaway
joined the Club, another woman who was
to make an enormous contribution to the
Club was elected in December 1947. She
was Marie Allender, who in 1955 was
elected Club Excursion Secretary, a posi-
tion she held for the next 35 years. As an
office-bearer she became a member of
Council and she remained so for a further
five years after relinquishing the position
of Excursion Secretary. In 1964 she was
made an Honorary member, when tribute
was made to her cheerfulness and efficien-
cy in organising excursions, and to the fact
that she devoted a good part of her life to
the Club. This, of course, was to continue,
and 25 years on she was presented with a
Club badge, engraved ‘30 years service’,
and a silver platter inscribed ‘For outstand-
ing service. FNCV 1985’.
The excursions Marie organised ranged
far and wide, to most parts of Victoria, to
Western Australia, New South Wales,
Norfolk Island, and Queensland, and in
1972 to New Zealand. Mackenzie coaches
became an integral part of Club life. In
1967 Marie was given the management of
the finances for excursions, and when the
Club resumed responsibility for them after
ten years. Marie presented it with a bank
balance of S4000 (Mclnnes 1995).
In 1957 Marie was appointed as a techni-
cal assistant at the Herbarium, where she
worked until her retirement in 1980. The
FNCV held all its meetings there, but there
was no means of direct contact, so for
many years Marie acted as a focal point for
the Club, her private phone number being
the contact, and this was used not only in
the organising of excursions, but to field a
302
The Victorian Naturalist
H is tory sympos i urn
great number of enquiries of all kinds. If
Marie was unable to answer the questions
herself she put callers in touch with people
who could. She was Secretary of the
Botany Group from 1957-1963. Her name
is commemorated in O lean a allenderae, a
plant named after her by Jim Willis,
Herbarium colleague and fellow FNCV
member, after she discovered this new
species on Wilsons Promontory, in 1964
(Grey et ah 1 998).
Sadly Marie died in 1 995 just as the Club
was negotiating the purchase of the hall at
Blackburn, which has given the FNCV the
central point that Mane had so generously
provided for many years.
Margery Lester, known as Madge, was
elected in 1953. In the course of her long
association with the Club she was
Assistant Librarian, Assistant Secretary,
Minute Secretary at General meetings,
Club reporter, and Editor of The Victorian
Naturalist from March 1976 to February
1977, and again for the special Centenary
issue, ( TVN 97 no. 3:1 980). She was
President of the Botany Group in 1963-
1964, and the Group’s syllabus planner in
1961-1962. She also ran the Club’s book-
stall for a time, and in 1970 was enrolled
as an adult member of the Hawthorn Junior
Field Naturalists Club.
Madge came into the Club as an interest-
ed amateur, and in her organised and
meticulous way she set about acquiring
knowledge in most fields of natural histo-
ry. Botany was her speciality, and she
became a frequent speaker at Botany
Group meetings, illustrating her talks with
slides and drawings. These talks were
always informative, as a glance at the pro-
grammes show: the plant kingdom; the dif-
ference between spores and seeds as meth-
ods of botanical regeneration; introduction
to conifers (the Botany Group’s exhibit for
the 1964 Nature Show); wheat rust; leaves
and photosynthesis, etc. In 1959 she gave a
talk on banksias, illustrated with her own
slides of all the Victorian species from the
Little Desert to East Gippsland. Typical of
Madge and her methods was the talk she
gave to the Botany group in December
1965. It had the slightly ambiguous title of
kRot’, which she presented as “odd
Christmas fare, consisting of “flummery”
and a “meat course'”. The “flummery’ was
a story of an imaginary country where
dead trees lay feet thick because the agents
of decomposition were on strike. The
‘meat course’ dealt with the importance of
fungi in decomposition. Back to the ‘flum-
mery’ where all was well, because the
fungi were back on the job, the old trees
had been disposed of, and new ones were
growing in their place (anon 1962).
Madge was a skilled and patient photog-
rapher. Her series of slides on the emer-
gence of a cicada taken during one evening
was so popular that she exhibited them
three times at meetings during 1960. The
Club now has these slides, along with
many of Madge’s papers.
At a General meeting in October 1957
during a discussion on the recent Prahran
Nature Show Madge suggested that mem-
bers should be given 18 months in which to
prepare for a major show, so that the
Groups would be able to participate. This
might have been just a sensible idea, but it
suggests that the Prahran Show had not
come up to Madge’s high standards. Madge
was a commercial artist and she put much
time and effort into the Nature Shows, mak-
ing models, and providing diagrams, illus-
trations, signs and posters. For one show
she produced a striking poster of a kangaroo
with a pouch full of wildflowers.
During her editorship of The Victorian
Naturalist two special Coast issues were
published. Madge believed in provoking
discussion, which an article of hers on the
koala in one issue produced ( TVN
95:35:1978). When the Club library was
relocated to the back of the Herbarium hall
Madge spent three days a week for five
years classifying and cataloguing the
stock, labelling shelves and generally mak-
ing the library a useful resource. This gave
her an intimate knowledge of the book-
stock, so when before she died she gave
her private library to the Club, she includ-
ed strict instructions about which books
were to be put in the library, the rest being
offered for sale to members, which raised
$400 for the Club (Allender 1988). The
FNCV benefitted even more after Madge
died in 1988, from a bequest of over
$30,000, with directions that further
monies were to come to the Club after the
death of her sister (Lester 1988).
Discussions about the Club’s buying its
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
303
H is ton ’ symposium
own premises had gone on for many years.
Madge would have been pleased to know
that she had assisted so materially in mak-
ing this possible.
During the 1960s there was a sharp
decline in the number of women prepared
to serve on Council, and when they did it
was in Assistant positions. In the mid-
1970s Margaret Corrick emerged, as
Secretary to the Botany Group, and the
Club's Assistant Secretary from 1973-
1975, then as Vice-President in 1975-1976,
and finally as President in 1976-1978. But
during the whole of her Presidency
Margaret operated without a Secretary, and
for part of that time she was on the
Editorial Committee of The Victorian
Naturalist as well. In addition she was
Secretary to the General Committee of the
Australian Natural History Medallion from
1973-1980, and has been the FNCV repre-
sentative on this committee since 1980.
Margaret Corrick, at the end of the
FNCV's first century, is comparable in
many ways to Flora Martin at the begin-
ning: amateurs who became experts in their
field, benefitting in the way the founders of
the Club intended. Margaret was born in
Hobart into a nature-loving family. She and
her parents and her two sisters were all
members of the Tasmanian Field
Naturalists Club, and when they moved to
Western Victoria in 1962 they were active
members of the Casterton and later the
Hamilton Field Naturalists Clubs.
Margaret’s enthusiasm for native plants
w'as inspired by the flora of the Grampians,
and fuelled by the campaign for the conser-
vation of the Little Desert and the Lower
Glenelg area. The local (lora was almost
completely unknown to her, and there were
few books available, but mentors were at
hand: Arthur Swaby. Lionel Elmore, Fred
Davies, and most particularly Cliff
Beauglehole. In 1965 Margaret was elected
a member of the FNCV (Corrick 2003),
Margaret worked as a bank clerk, but in
1975 she was appointed a Technical
Officer at the Herbarium, a position she
held until her retirement in 1985. When
she was presented with her Honorary
membership certificate in 2005 she said
she had gained much from her membership
of the Club, and that it had contributed to
her being employed by the Herbarium.
Margaret Corrick became an authority on
the genus Pultenaea and wrote 24 articles
on the bush-peas of Victoria for The
Victorian Naturalist to which she has been
a regular contributor from 1976. She pro-
vided the section on Pultenaea in the Flora
of Victoria (1996). and has co-authored
two books with Bruce Fuhrer Wild flowers
of southern Western Australia (1996) and
Wiktf lowers of Victoria (2000). and assist-
ed him in the preparation of A field guide
to A us fra l ion fungi ( 2 005 ) .
There is no doubt the FNCV owes much
to Margaret Corrick. She came to the fore
when membership was dropping, and was
prepared to work hard to keep going the
many activities of the Club, not only the
general administration and the regular
monthly meetings, but also The Victorian
Naturalist and the Australian Natural
History Medallion. The women who sup-
ported her as Council members were Marie
Allender and Madge Lester. A hopeful
sign for the Club was the election to the
Council of Wendy Clark in 1975, and
Susan Beattie in 1977. They were part of a
group of people who graduated from the
Hawthorn Juniors in the mid 1970s. They
came not only with natural history knowl-
edge, but also with some experience of
administration.
Conclusion
Who were the women who joined the
FNCV in the first century of its existence?
Generalisations are always risky, but the
women may be classified into four loose
categories. There are those for whom nat-
ural history was a passion, whose work in
their chosen field led them to become well-
known beyond a Club which provided
them with interaction with other natural-
ists, for example Flora Martin, Jean
Galbraith and Edith Coleman. A second
category contains women for whom the
Club provided a focus for their interests,
who were prepared to support it by accept-
ing office, or taking part regularly in its
activities, like Eudora Freame, Marie
Allender and Madge Lester. The vast
majority would probably fit into the third
category, those for whom natural history
was a hobby. For these the Club provided a
venue in which to meet like-minded peo-
ple, to learn from experts or more knowl-
304
The Victorian Naturalist
History symposium
edgable people in various fields, and to
enjoy the companionship of field excur-
sions. A further category may be identified
of those whose membership was short-
lived. This could include professional sci-
entists who had other claims on their time,
though they may have maintained a con-
nection with the Club; or women who just
came along to see what was on offer and
decided it was not for them. The women
chosen for this paper fall mainly into one
of the first two categories. Margaret
Corrick is an exception. She not only
became a practising botanist, the author of
several books, but also gave unstintingly of
her time and energy to the Club. It may
also be noted that when people disap-
peared from the records, and this applies to
the men as well as the women, many
remained members for many years. The
Club created a bond beyond the purpose
for which it was originally founded.
References
(Unpublished sources)
Atkins K (1966) FNCV Archives 026-016 Atkins to
Colliver 2 March 1966
Best D (1881) FNCV Archives 001-038 Best to
Paterson 30 May 1881
Brewster F. (n.d.) FNCV Archives 038-007
Biographical notes
Campbell FM (1885) FNCV Archives 002-026:
Campbell to Barnard October 1 885
Cochrane SWL (1937) FNCV Archives 048-022
Cochrane to Colli ver 25 November 1937
Colliver FS (1934) FNCV Archives 054-091. Colliver
toNethercote 1 June 1934
Corrick M (2003) Questionnaire: Women Members of
FNCV
Dobson FS (1881) FNCV Archives 001-01 1 Dobson to
Best 22 July 1881
Dobson FS (1884b) INC’V Archives 016-022
Nomination of Mrs R. Simson for membership
FNCV Minutes (1944) Minute book 1941-1954 205
FNCV Archives 073
FNCV Minutes (1952) Minute book 1941-1954 513
FNCV Archives 073
Janes R (2000) FNCV Archives 336 Janes to Houghton
27 February 2000
Leith TAF (1887) FNCV Archives 031-029 Leith to
Barnard 9 March 1 887
Lester MJ (1988) FNCV Archives 101-063 Last will
and testament 16 February 1988
Nethercote CA (1937) FNCV Archives 051-046
Nethercolc to Treasurer | Ingram] 2 May 1934
Taylor A ( 1991 ) UA discourse in a dust-speck?': explor-
ing a natural history tradition in Victoria, 1880-1940,
seminar paper delivered in the History Department,
Monash University 25 October 1991
Watson IM, Tiegs, OW, Bryant. C (1947) FNCV
Archives 025-001 Watson, el at. to Colliver 19
March 1947.
Watson IM (197 ta) Watson to Kloot 10 October 1971.
l ess Kloot Collection. State Library of Victoria.
Watson IM (1971b) Watson to Kloot 3 October 1971.
Tess Kloot Collection. State Library of Victoria.
(Published sources)
Allender M (1988) Obituary: Margery J. Lester. The
Victorian Naturalist 1 05, 1 05
Anon (1881) The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria.
Southern Science Record 1, 62, 78,1 02.
Anon (1882) The field Naturalists Club of Victoria.
Southern Science Record 2, 1 02
Anon (1883) The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria.
Southern Science Record 3, 1 8 1
Anon (1885) The Queen’s birthday excursion to
l.ilydale The Victorian Naturalist 2. 33-34
Anon (1890a) Annual report. The Victorian Naturalist
7,3
Anon (1890b) Ordinary meeting 8 September 1890 The
Victorian Naturalist 7, 69
Anon (1917) Ordinary meeting 13 August 1917 The
Victorian Naturalist 34, 78
Anon (1918) Ordinary meeting Wildflower Show
report 9 September 1918 The Victorian Naturalist 35.
90
Anon (1919) Ordinary meeting 13 October 1919 The
Victorian Natural is i 36, 99
Anon (1962) Botany Group report 9 December 1965.
The Victorian Naturalist 83, 15-16
Bage F (1917) Ordinary meeting: Correspondence 14
May 1917 The Victorian Naturalist 34, 13
Campbell FM (1886) Notes on edible fungi. The
Victorian Naturalist 2, 149-150
Campbell FM (1887) Vegetable pathology. The
Victorian Naturalist 4, 1 24- 1 25
Coleman, E (1922) The Victorian Naturalist 39. 103-
108
Dobson FS ( 1 884a) President's address. The Victorian
Naturalist 1,41
Fuller AV (1915) Some South African scenes and
flowers. The Victorian Naturalist 32, 57-64
Gabriel C.l (1940) Ordinary meeting: Exhibits 9
September 1940 The Victorian Naturalist 57, 1 10
Galbraith J (1980) The Victorian Naturalist 97, 114-
120.
Garnet JR (1962) Honour to Miss M.L. Wigan. The
Victorian Naturalist 78, 357
| Grey E and P and Grey M] Editors (1998) Promontory
Daisy Bush Olearia aUenderae. The Victorian
Naturalist 115,299
Halley JJ (1885) President's address. The Victorian
Naturalist 2, 4-5
Hone JA (1976) Australian Dictionary of Biography
Vol. 6 1851-1891 R-Z, 127-128 (Melbourne
University Press: Melbourne)
Kelly F (1993) Learning and teaching science, in Kelly,
F. (1993) On the edge of Discovery (Text:
Melbourne)
Martin FM (1895) A ramble amongst fertilizers. The
Victorian Naturalist 12, 87-91
Mclnncs DE (1995) Marie Allender. A last excursion.
The Victorian Naturalist 112. 267
McLellan E (1932a) Crinoline fungi- the Papuan
species of Dictyophora Dcsvaux. The Victorian
Naturalist 49. 3-8
McLellan E (1932b) Notes on Australian coral fungi -
Havana L.spp. The Victorian Naturalist 49, 28-34
McLellan E (I 932c) Notes on Mutinus boreensis
Cesati. The Victorian Naturalist 49. 112
Miller B (1934) The Victorian Naturalist 51, 32-38:
1934
Nethercote GMT (1920) A girls’ camp at the National
Park, Wilsons Promontory. The Victorian Natural ist
36. 126-131
Pilcher F (1925) A student of fungi: Mrs Flora Martin’s
work. The Victorian Naturalist 42, 176-177
Sault, TH (1991) Obituary for May Salau. The
Victorian Naturalist 108. 78
Schnackenberg S (1994) Kate Weindorfer. The forgot-
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
305
H istory symposium
ten partner of the Cradle Mountain legend. The
Victorian Naturalist 111, 227-232
Smith BJ and Kershaw, RC (1979) Field guide to the
non-marine molluscs of south eastern Australia
(Australian National University Press: Canberra)
Verso ML ( 1979) Bryce, Lucy Australian Dictionary of
Biography Vol. 7 1891-1939 A-C'h, 470-
471 (Melbourne University Press: Melbourne)
Willis JH (1958) Victoria’s lady wildflower artist. The
Victorian Naturalist 74, 147-150
Woolls W (n.d.) Sydney Morning Herald in Kelly, F.
(1993) On the edge of Discovery , 24. (Text:
Melbourne)
Received 7 July 2005; accepted 26 September 2005
The FNCV’s new century woman
Valda Dedman1
Abstract
Since 1981 women have had an active role in management. They hold key positions as office bearers
and also make a large contribution to the running of the Club’s everyday activities. Women members
today are well-educated, may hold a higher degree, particularly in the natural sciences, and join the
FNCV in their own right. Interest often began in childhood although membership may not Start until
after retirement. Botany is a prime but not exclusive interest. Women also take an active part in natu-
ralist and conservation activities outside the Club, publish on related subjects both in The Victorian
Naturalist and elsewhere. Women gain personal satisfaction from membership of the FNCV. {The
Victorian Naturalist 122 (6), 2005. 306-31 1 )
In 1881 membership of women in the
FNCV began with the first tentative
inquiry, ’if it is not against the rules’, by
the newly-elected Hon FS Dobson. This
paper is about women members’ continu-
ing participation in the Club’s activities.
By the beginning of the F'NCV's second
century, 1981, women were established as
office-bearers-in positions of power, you
might say, having gradually infiltrated the
male domain. Apart from 1885-1886,
when there were two women, Mrs FS
Dobson and Mrs John Simson, on the
Committee (now Council), there were no
others for more than 40 years when Janet
W Raff was elected, in 1928, and stayed
for five years. It took 67 years until the
Club had a woman President. In the Club’s
first 100 years of existence, there were only
three women presidents, lna Watson,
Margaret Chattaway and Margaret Corrick.
The ‘new’ FNCV century started well,
with the election in 1981 of the fourth
woman president and the youngest presi-
dent to that date- Wendy Clark. She has
also entered the FNCV hall of fame, join-
ing Baldwin Spencer, JA Kershaw' and J
Ros Garnet in having been President twice,
her second term from October 2001 until
2004, and she outranks them in the number
1 69 North Valley Road, Highton, Victoria, 3216.
Email: dedmanv@iprimus.com.au.
of years served as President, nearly seven
years to their four. She was also Secretary
for three years, from 1978-1981, the end of
a long apprenticeship leading up to the top
job. Wendy came up from the Hawthorn
Juniors, which she joined in 1966 at the age
of 12. She became Treasurer of the Juniors
in 1971 and was President for three years
from 1975. She came to the senior club via
the mammal survey and field survey
groups in 1972, and was Chair of the mam-
mal survey group for three years from
1977, the year she joined the Council of the
FNCV. Wendy’s interests are wide-rang-
ing. At general meetings she might report
on how she has been caring for three baby
Ring-tailed Possums, or exhibit a Tawny
Frogmouth that she has had stored in her
freezer, or give a talk entitled cEat or be
eaten* on a favourite topic, spiders. She is
currently a member of Council.
In the last 25 years, there have always
been women on Council and they have
tilled vital executive positions such as sec-
retary, treasurer and editor (and their vari-
ous assistants). Although women Presid-
ents have continued to be thin on the
ground, most of the key office-bearers
today arc women-President (Karen
Muscat), one of two Vice-Presidents (Dr
Melanie Archer), Treasurer (Barbara
Burns), two out of three Editors (Anne
Morton and Dr Maria Gibson), Librarian
306
The Victorian Naturalist
His tor y sympos ium
(Sheila Houghton), joint Newsletter Editor
(Joan Broadberry). There have also been
many female special group secretaries,
representatives on Council and other
office-bearers. Noteworthy examples
include Maria Belvedere (Marketing/Pub-
licity/Membership Officer 1998-2000),
Win Bennet (Botany Group), Sally
Bewsher (Fauna Survey Group), Felicity
Garde (Membership Officer 1993-2000,
Fauna Survey Group), Yvonne Gray
( Assistant Treasurer 1985-1986, Treasurer
1986-1989), Karen George (Secretary
2003-2005), Joan Harry (Council Member
1994-1995, Botany Group 1991-1994),
Sophie Small (Fauna Survey Group),
Jenny Wilson (Council Member 1995-
2000, Conservation Co-ordinator).
As well, the women have been there in
the background, working in the office, col-
lating the newsletter, cleaning the toilet,
weeding the garden, making cups of tea or
even providing home-made soup at special
functions. Women often lead excursions,
especially special interest group excur-
sions, and they are frequently the ones who
write the reports of outings and meetings.
They do a lot of the work in keeping the
Club running smoothly and in document-
ing its day-to-day natural history activities.
Without them, much important information
would not be shared and might be lost.
Many of them have made an outstanding
contribution to the Club during the past 25
years. Sheila Houghton goes out to
Blackburn from Gisborne every Tuesday,
to attend to the library and the archives.
She has so many facts about club history at
her fingertips that she is a valuable
resource in her own right. She has been
Acting President, Vice-President, Secretary,
Secretary of the Natural History Medallion
Committee and, of course. Librarian. When
she became Secretary of the Club in 1982,
she immediately reorganized the filing sys-
tem and then saw that the membership
records were transferred to a computer sys-
tem. Then, when the library had to be
removed from the National Herbarium to
the “Tin Shed’ behind the Astronomer’s
House, Sheila was right there, rescuing
many documents from oblivion, as she was
there again when the Club moved to
Blackburn. She made sure that the floor
was strengthened to take the weight of the
present compactus. She had previously
overseen the sale of unwanted books, net-
ting the Club $42 000. She has a genuine
interest in natural history, being especially
interested in fungi, often bringing speci-
mens to meetings. She has become the
Club Archivist, is compiling an index to
some of the archives, including biographi-
cal material on members, and has written
some profiles of office-bearers for an
Honour Book, which is kept in the library.
She has written papers on the Club’s histo-
ry, as well as obituaries and the history of
the Natural History Medallion and profiled
many Medallion winners. She has also
indexed (2004) The Southern Science
Record and Magazine of Natural History
1881-1883, which was the forerunner of
The Victorian Naturalist. Her latest not
inconsiderable effort has been with the
booklet Leaves from our History (2005),
assisted by Gary Presland. In 1996 the Club
awarded Sheila an Honorary Life
Membership in recognition of her services
spanning 24 years, valuable work which
she has continued for another nine years
and will no doubt continue just as energeti-
cally into the future.
What is the typical FNCV woman of
today like? I am basing my picture to a
large extent on the results of a question-
naire that Sheila Houghton sent out in
2003 in preparation for the Club’s 125"
anniversary symposium in 2005. Sheila
sent out 1 15 questionnaires and received
61 replies, which, together with informa-
tion gleaned from Field Nats News and
The Victorian Naturalist, provided a series
of snapshots of women members and their
involvement in the Club.
The questionnaire shows that today’s
Club woman is well educated, probably
holds a degree, maybe a higher degree,
which is in the natural sciences, particular-
ly in biological fields or horticulture, or in
librarianship or teaching. Many are profes-
sional working women; some joined the
Club after retiring when they hoped to be
able to indulge more fully their interest in
the natural world, an interest which had
often started in childhood.
Gretna Weste, for instance, had attended
field naturalist meetings and nature shows
as a child. She first visited Wilson’s
Promontory at age five, when she and her
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
307
H istory symposium
brother slept in an old tank. In 1957 when
she took her own children walking there, it
poured day and night and the horizontal
rain blew ‘quite large fish7 which landed
all around them. She became a profession-
al botanist at the University of Melbourne,
her specific interest being the destructive
Cinnamon Fungus Phytophthara cirmamo-
mi, which causes large areas of bush to die
off. She discovered the fungus, a soil
pathogen, at Wilson's Promontory in 1970
and with her students has monitored the
epidemic ever since, sharing her results
with Park rangers. As a Field Nat she has
led excursions, presented talks and written
reports and papers, including an update on
the Cinnamon Fungus in the Wilson’s
Promontory Centenary Issue of The
V ictorian Nattu -a I ist.
Margaret Dacy spent her 1920s child-
hood in the mallee, where, as she puts it,
‘the wildflowers, when they arrived, were
extravagantly appreciated'. In later life she
went on to write and illustrate a book on
orchids and she still paints flowers in
watercolour.
Annabel Carle was brought up in England
‘in a horticultural family that spoke the
Latin names of plants’. When she retired in
2002 she immediately applied for and won
an Earthwatch Community Fellowship for
work in the Coorong, which led her to
reassess her 25-year-old involvement with
the FNCV, resolving to become more
active from then on.
Women today make up roughly 40% of
the total FNCV membership. About half of
them are married or in a relationship but in
most cases they did not join the club
together with their partners or because of a
family connection These women are
members in their own right and have made
their own mark in the club.
What are their specific fields of interest
today? Number one interest still tends to
be botany, which had a resurgence in the
1980s. At that time Margaret Potter had
become a member of the club. It was
plants that drew her to the FNCV when she
retired after many years as a chemistry
teacher. She became secretary and inspira-
tional leader of the Botany Group, a posi-
tion she held for five years, and was a
member of the Council in the mid-80s and
the Club’s Publicity Officer and
Membership Secretary. She co-ordinated
the Club’s participation in the Maranoa
Gardens Festival in 1991.
Hilary Weatherhead, a member of
Council from 1980-1984 and of the editor-
ial committee in 1982, led many and var-
ied botany excursions, to look at seaweeds
at Black Rock or ferns and mosses at
Warburton. and gave many talks on a wide
range of plant communities.
A number of women, like Linden
Gillbank. are especially interested in the
history of Australian botany and of the
Club, and have contributed to special his-
torical issues of The Victorian Naturalist.
Linden has documented Ferdinand von
Mueller’s wanderings and achievements.
Sara Maroske has also written historical
articles, one of them being the involvement
of von Mueller in the use of the now dis-
credited introduced Marram Grass
Ammophila arenaria as a dune stabilizer
on the coast of south-west Victoria.
Women's interests range far wider than
the pretty plants and fungi. Mammal sur-
veys are popular (and this includes an
interest in bats, for which we can probably
thank Lindy Lumsden), as well as birds,
geology, entomology, and a growing
awareness of ecology.
Cecily Falkingham is a true all-round nat-
uralist. She firmly believes that the wonder
of personal discovery is always much more
exciting than reading facts from books. She
is the sort of person who, when fruit bats
arrive in her garden at 1 1 p.m,, will stay up
watching and recording their actions until
two o’clock in the morning. She has done
much to popularise natural history both
outside and within the Club. She was
Naturalist in Residence in 1995 and her
writings in The Victorian Naturalist reveal
her inquiring mind. She has also been
involved in the Timelines Australia Project
and local conservation issues.
Joan Broadberry keeps a nature diary and
her curiosity about such things as a paper
nautilus shell found on the 90-mile beach
in Gippsland has been shared with us in
articles illustrated with her photographs.
Her Diary of the Saunders Casemoth
(1999) includes a description of the cater-
pillar constructing a silken ladder to help it
climb the slippery side of an Esky where
she was keeping it under observation.
308
The Victorian Naturalist
History symposium
In the past 25 years women have contin-
ued to contribute to The Victorian
Naturalist , though they are still not as well
represented as their male counterparts.
They are more likely to write ‘contribu-
tions’ and ‘naturalist notes’ than research
reports and often provide book reviews.
Their editorial input has been very high,
with Robyn Watson, Pat Grey, Merilyn
Grey, Anne Morton and Maria Gibson as
editors and others in supporting roles.
Many FNCV women members have pub-
lished articles in other journals both in
their areas of professional expertise and in
the wider field of what is loosely called
natural history. Some are authors of more
substantial books-Kathie Strickland on
Mornington Peninsula plants (1992-1994),
Beth Gott on aboriginal plant use (1991),
Jane Calder on the Grampians (1987), to
mention just a few. Pat Grey, with husband
Ed, has worked tirelessly in the cause of
fungi over many years, culminating in their
recently published book. Fungi Down
Under, the Fungi map Guide to Australian
Fungi (2005).
Among the talented and multiskilled New
Century Women we include photographers
such as Wendy Clark and lima Dunn.
Ilma’s collection of 5000 photos is housed
at the Royal Botanic Gardens and has been
used in Viridans CD-Roms and the NRE
Flora Information Service. lima once pre-
sented a memorable slide show of alpine
plants, set to music. Then there are painters
like Ruth Jackson, whose picture of
Common Correa Correa reflex a was used
to update the Club's emblem in 2004.
Dorothy Mahler is a great worker, not
only as Excursion Secretary and Tour
Organiser for 11 years, from 1987-1998
(including a trip to Mungo and Mootwingee
in 1995), but also as an excursion leader, a
speaker at meetings, a newsletter collator
and above all as a report writer. She repre-
sents the indispensable ‘backroom girls',
not on Council, but essential to the Club.
There are many energetic and dedicated
women members who are also active out-
side the FNCV as members of other Field
Naturalists groups or Friends’ Groups, the
Bird Observers Club of Australia, National
Parks Association, the Society for
Growing Australian Plants, Birds Australia
and committees of management of many
local reserves which they have worked
hard to create or preserve.
Dr Elizabeth Turner was a club member
for 30 years until her death in 1999, and a
Council member from June 1981 till
October 1982. During the 1980s she was
Secretary of the Victorian Field Naturalists
Clubs Association (now SEANA). She also
spoke to general meetings of her travels and
wrote for The Victorian Naturalist , using her
medical knowledge to write on ‘Preventive
marsupial pediatrics’ and ‘Botany in the ser-
vice of medicine’. Marie Allender used to
heave a sigh of relief on excursions when
doctor Elizabeth turned up.
Stefan ie Ren nick worked on conservation
issues on the Mornington Peninsula, sav-
ing Greens Bush as part of the process.
With lima Dunn she produced a field guide
to the Mornington Peninsula.
Karma Hastwcll contributed 2596 survey
sheets during live years of the Australian
Bird Count, from 1989 to 1994. That
works out to 1 0 each week. She was in her
70s at the time of the survey.
Helen Aston is perhaps best known for
her work outside the FNCV, although she
has made a great contribution within the
Club, which she joined in 1991 after she
‘officially’ retired from her work at the
Herbarium where she was employed for 34
years. She has been guest speaker at gener-
al and Botany Group meetings, led excur-
sions, and written papers for The Victorian
Naturalist. She was awarded the Natural
History Medallion in 1979, and has served
on both the Award Committee and the
General Committee of the Medallion. She
has a great love of birds and has taken part
in numerous surveys. Her Aquatic Plants
of Australia (1973) has become a classic;
she has made a major contribution to the
Flora of Australia (1982-2004), co-
authored A Bird Atlas of the Melbourne
Region (1978) and written many, many
articles on plants, birds and her numerous
travels. She has also had a plant genus
Astonia and a species Cardamine astoniae
(an uncommon perennial herb of alpine
areas) named after her.
Country members become interested in
finding out about the plants and animals
with which they are unfamiliar when they
move to a new area after marriage. Ellen
Lyndon, who joined the FNCV in 1943
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
309
His tory sympos him
and after the war moved with her husband
to Leongatha, discovered the plants in the
local Crown reserves and was determined
to save them. Rain and gales did not stop
her. Her motto was ‘Get out and face up to
the weather and the day will improve’.
One particular interest was the Butterfly
Orchid Sarcochilus australis , which grew
in Foster’s Gully near Yinnar. Lyndon
Clearing in Morwell National Park is
named after her in recognition of her
efforts towards its declaration as a
National Park. She was awarded the Order
of Australia in 1 088 for her work in natural
history conservation. She continued to
write for The Victorian Naturalist almost
up to the time of her death in 2000. Her
last article was on the Corroboree Frog
Psendopluyne corroboree ; her first, almost
50 years earlier, was on the flowering of
Blackwood Acacia melanoxylon.
The questionnaires were, with a few
exceptions, sent only to women who were
members before the start of the 21 ’ century.
There was a decline in new women mem-
bers during Lhe 1980s, but this has been
remedied, especially since the Club acquired
its own premises in 1996 and we still have
many w omen joining. 2002 being a bumper
year. The most notable ‘new’ member is of
course our President, Karen Muscat, who
like so many before her was willing to step
into a vacancy. She has brought creative and
management skills to the job and a youthful
enthusiasm that is so valuable in such a
long-established organisation as the Field
Naturalists Club of Victoria.
We were sorry to lose Natalie Smith who
joined in 1996 but died after a long battle
with cancer in 2002. at the age of 28. She
had been a Council member and
Conservation Co-ordinator and worked
actively for the club.
Sapphire McMullan-Fisher and Sharon
Morley, both young women, were initially
somewhat hesitant about joining an
unknown bunch of ‘oldies’ for a weekend
in the bush, and for a while they had to
take a big breath when arriving at meet-
ings. Soon, however. Sapphire could feel
she was part of a big community. Sharon
went on to become a member of Council
and organized the 2004 Cryptogamic
Extravaganza.
We found that many of the women who
responded to the questionnaire thought
they had been members of the Club for
several years longer than was the fact.
Once you have joined, you feel you have
been part of it for a long time. That is one
of the great benefits to all members, not
only women.
There are 43 women in the Club today
who were elected during the FNCV’s first
century and of these, eight have been
members for more than 50 years. Eulalie
Brewster is our longest serving woman at
the present moment, with 61 years' associ-
ation with the Club. When she joined she
was 18 years old. but was too young to be
a full member and had to be content with
Associate Membership. Women had to be
21. although boys were apparently men at
age 18. However, she was still only 20
when she married a Gippsland dairy
farmer on 5 April 1 947. and nine days later
she became a full Country Member. She
was a foundation member of the Latrobe
Valley Field Naturalists Club and writes
that she still assists the Victorian Wader
Study Group with netting and banding
activities when they visit Inverloch.
Joan Forster, now 88 years of age, has
been a member for 60 years. Writing in
response to the questionnaire, Joan men-
tioned many field naturalist women who
had influenced her and enriched her life.
She, like many others, especially remem-
bered Laura White, who was a Club mem-
ber from 1955-1990 and an inspirational
botany teacher in the field. ‘1 can still hear
her voice in my mind when I look at plants
which she named so patiently for us from
her extensive knowledge.' Joan wrote. She
continued: ‘My association with the Club
and its members has been important to me,
increasing knowledge, forming friendships
and giving me experiences which expand-
ed my love of the natural world. It has
motivated me to take part with groups that
work to preserve our indigenous natural
world and knowledge and enthusiasm to
share with the children who have been part
of my life for fifty years’.
In the first century or the ‘new’ century,
being a woman member of the Field
Naturalists Club of Victoria brings its own
rewards.
310
The Victorian Naturalist
History symposium
Acknowledgement
1 want to thank Sheila Houghton, especially, for
providing me with so much help and advice for
this paper-lists of members, office-bearers,
dates, and of course the questionnaires. This
paper has been prepared from information taken
from them and from Field Nats News and The
Victorian Naturalist covering the years 1981-
2005.
References
Aston H (1973J Aquatic plants of Australia.
(Melbourne University Press: Melbourne)
Aston H and Balm ford R (1978) A bird atlas of the
Melbourne region. (Victoria Ornithological Research
Group: Melbourne)
Aston H (1982-2004) Aldrovandra, Pontederiaceae.
Sparganiaceac, Podsicmaceac, Juncaginaceae in
Flora of Australia, vols 8, 18. 39. 45 (AGPS:
Canberra)
Broadberry J (1999) A diary of the Saunders Casemoth
Oiketicus elongatus. The Victorian Naturalist 116,
175-178.
Calder .1 (1987) The Grampians, a noble range.
(Victorian National Parks Association: Melbourne)
Gott B and Conran J (1991) Victorian Koorie plants
(Yangennock Women's Group: Hamilton)
Grey P and Grey E (2005) Fungi down under : the
Fungimap guide to Australian fungi (Fungimap:
Melbourne).
Houghton S (2004) Index to Southern Science Record
(Field Naturalists Club of Victoria: Blackburn)
Houahton S and Prestand G (2005) Leaves from our
history (Field Naturalists Club of Victoria:
Blackburn)
Main. B Y (1976) Spiders. (Collins: Sydney)
Heathcote, J and Maroske S (1996) Drifting sand and
marram grass on the south-west coast ot Australia in
the last century. The Victorian Naturalist 113, 10-15.
Stickland K and Stickland P (1992) Peninsula plants .
(Kareeiah: Balnarring).
Weste G (1998) A challenge-75 years of walking in
Wilsons Promontory, 1923-1997. The Victorian
Naturalist 1 15, 274-278.
Received 16 June 2005; accepted 6 September 2005
Marine studies and the FNCV
Brian J Smith1
Abstract
The FNCV has only recently included the Marine Research Group amongst its special focus groups.
Unlike many of the other groups, the Marine Research Group existed as a separate entity prior to its
amalgamation with the Club. As the Marine Research Group ol Victoria, and belore that the Marine
Studies Group and the Underwater Research Group of Victoria, many ot its members earned out
much valuable and wide-ranging research into diverse aspects ol marine studies in Victoria. They
were closely associated with Museum Victoria and themselves built on a rich history ot marine
observations and specimen collecting, stretching back to the earliest days of settlement in this part ot
the nation. (The Victorian Naturalist, 122 (6). 2005, 31 1-314)
Introduction
The marine environment has always
attracted those interested in the natural
world. In Australia, over three quarters of
the human population live within 50 km ol
the sea, and from the earliest days of
European settlement a beach culture and
‘holidays by the sea’ have been an impor-
tant part of everyday life. Many of these
casual encounters have blossomed into a
life-long interest in marine studies that
have added significantly to our knowledge
of this diverse biotic region.
Early Days
From its inception, the FNCV has had
members interested in the marine environ-
ment. Some were professional scientists
'Queen Victoria Museum & Art Gallery, 2 Wellington
Street, Launceston, Tasmania 7250
Email : Brian. Smith (Tjqvmag.tas.gov.au
and academics who combined their schol-
arship and leadership with an infectious
enthusiasm for natural history. These
included McCoy, Spencer and Dendy who
established the early ethos of enquiry,
observation, recording and collecting.
Arthur Dendy was the consummate biolo-
gist. Before he came to Australia he was
employed for a while in the British
Museum of Natural History where he
worked on the Challenger Expedition
sponge collection. Brought to Melbourne
by Baldwin Spencer as Lecturer in Biology
at the University, he became an active
member of both the FNCV (Smith 1980)
and the Royal Society in the 1880s and
’90s. He made a major contribution to the
early study of our marine fauna, participat-
ing in the marine survey of the southern
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
311
Constributions
part of Port Phillip run by Bracebridge
Wilson and sponsored by the Royal
Society, and describing the complex
sponge communities at Port Phillip Heads
(Smith 1981a).
Of equal significance in the development
of the Club was the presence of the gifted
and dedicated amateurs who made valu-
able contributions in describing and
recording our fauna. A good example is
William Bale, one of the foundation mem-
bers of the Club, who was an amateur
microscopist. Bale first published on
microscope techniques but then took up
the study of hydroids and became a world
authority on this group. He was commis-
sioned to compile a catalogue of the
Australian Hydroid Zoophytes by the
Australian Museum and later was asked to
work on the hydroids collected by the FIS
Endeavour. In all. he described over 130
new taxa in 23 publications (Smith and
Watson 1969). Other examples were the
shell collectors John Gatliff and Charles
Gabriel, who turned their hobby into a
serious study that resulted in many new
discoveries and publications (Smith and
Black 1969; Smith 1981b: Smith 1981c).
When the Club formed a series of special
interest groups, such as Botany, Geology
and several others, after the Second World
War, one of these was Marine Biology. In
1949, this was modified to the Marine
Biology and Entomology Group, which
persisted as an active group until 1981,
when it was discontinued due to the loss of
several active members.
URG and MSG - Port Phillip and
Western Port
In this same period those interested in
active marine studies were gravitating
towards the National Museum in
Melbourne with its comprehensive refer-
ence collections and library and an active
and knowledgeable Curator of Molluscs, J
Hope Macpherson (later Hope Black) (Fig.
1). Hope published Marine Molluscs of
Victoria , the definitive text on the
Victorian marine mollusc fauna, with CJ
Gabriel (Macpherson and Gabriel 1962).
With full descriptions of all the major
species and a complete listing of all the
species then known to have been recorded
from Victoria, this was both a checklist
and a field guide. It contained almost 500
illustrations, which were exquisitely exe-
cuted line drawings by George Browning.
These made the book so easy to use that it
still remains the reference of choice for
those working with the southern Australian
tauna, even 40 years after its publication.
This text provided both the amateur collec-
tor and the professional scientist with an
exceptional reference which greatly stimu-
lated future work into our local marine bio-
diversity.
Hope represented the Museum in a joint
research project with the then Fisheries
and Wildlife Department, to carry out an
ecological survey of Port Phillip Bay
between 1957 and 1963. They were assist-
ed by amateur divers from the Underwater
Explorers Club and volunteers associated
with the Mollusc section at the Museum.
Extensive collections were made and the
study resulted in a series of landmark
papers on the various groups that make up
the flora and fauna of the Bay, published in
two v o I u m e s of t h e M e m o i rs of t h e
National Museum of Victoria (vol. 27 in
1966 and vol. 32 in 1971).
In the late 1940s Hope made representa-
tions to the Museum to establish the
Malacological Club of Victoria and allow
it to meet in the Museum. Several years
later some members wished to concentrate
just on shells. They formed a separate
group, the Malacological Society of
Victoria, which later became the
Malacological Society of Australasia.
Others had a wider interest in marine biol-
Fig. 1 . J Hope Black (nee Macpherson), former
Curator of Molluscs at the National Museum of
Victoria.
312
The Victorian Naturalist
History sympos ium
ogy and they formed the Marine Study
Group of Victoria (MSG), which held its
inaugural meeting at the Museum on 4
February 1957. The Group held monthly
meetings in the Museum, and field excur-
sions to various marine localities to
observe, study and collect specimens.
After the Port Phillip Survey work was
completed, other projects were undertaken.
In 1964, a monthly newsletter, Marine
News , was commenced for the information
and interest of members.
In 1966, a sister group, the Underwater
Research Group (URG), was formed from
many of the divers in the Underwater
Explorers Club who were interested main-
ly in study of marine life rather than in
exploring wrecks or underwater fishing. A
leader in this group was Jan Watson, who
later became a specialist in the systematics
of hydroids and an Associate of the
Museum. Roth the URG and the MSG
decided to carry out separate but parallel
survey work on Western Port. They both
published reports on that work which
included comprehensive species lists of
their findings. Members of both groups
started to work together on Museum work-
days to process their Western Port collec-
tions and incorporate them into the refer-
ence collections. Several members became
so interested in the projects that they
became active in both groups. It was no
great step from here to suggest that the two
groups should form some sort of closer
association.
MRG and the Coastal Atlas
After further discussion it was decided
that the best solution would be for the two
groups to amalgamate and form the Marine
Research Group of Victoria (MRG), with
some members who pursued their interest
by diving and others who were bound
mainly to the intertidal zone. The inaugural
meeting of the new, enlarged group was
held on 25 March 1980 in the Theatrette of
the Museum. The Group held monthly
meetings here, continued Marine News as
the newsletter, held both diving and inter-
tidal excursions and continued with the
Museum work-days to identify and process
the material they collected. Their two great
fields of research were in area faunal sur-
veys and broad scale species mapping.
Field trips ranged widely along the whole
Victorian coastline and even included vis-
its to several of the Bass Strait islands. In
particular, three projects stand out from
this period.
Firstly, perhaps the most significant
achievement during this period was a state-
wide project to map the distribution of the
common intertidal animals. This involved
visiting each of 207 reference areas in grid
squares of 5 minutes (of latitude) x 5 min-
utes (of longitude) (9.3 x 7.2 km). A total
of 254 species of common intertidal inver-
tebrates was chosen. Each wras figured and
described in the publication and a state-
wide distribution map for each species pro-
duced. The field work was carried out
between December 1979 and June 1984.
All this resulted in a 168 page publication
called Coastal Invertebrates of Victoria:
an atlas of selected species . This was pub-
lished in 1984 and sold over 2000 copies
(Marine Research Group of Victoria
1984). Secondly, other projects undertaken
by the Group included carrying out a sur-
vey of two proposed marina sites near San
Remo in Western Port. Comprehensive
species lists were compiled and a report
sent to the State Government. This study
resulted in the San Remo marine commu-
nity being listed under the Victorian Flora
and Fauna Guarantee Act, 1988 (O’Hara
1995). The most significant component of
this community is the opisthobranch mol-
luscs, investigated and described by Robert
Burn, a member of both the MRG and the
Malacological Society of Australasia.
Thirdly, a mainly diving project was a sur-
vey of the benthic fauna of the channels at
the southern end of Port Phillip. This was
based on a similar survey of the area car-
ried out by J Bracebridge Wilson and the
Royal Society a century before.
Joining the FNCV
During the last decade of the 20lh century
plans were drawn up to move what was
then the Museum of Victoria from Russell
Street to a new building in Carlton
Gardens. (It should be noted that the muse-
um was originally called "National
Museum of Victoria’, and became
'Museum of Victoria’ when it was amalga-
mated with the Science Museum in 1985.
It is now called "Museum Victoria1, of
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
313
H istozy symposium
which the Melbourne Museum at Carlton
Gardens is one campus). The move to the
new premises involved two moves for the
marine collections and staff: firstly to tem-
porary quarters in Mollison Street,
Abbotsford in 1998, and then to Carlton
Gardens in 2000. During these moves, no
space was available for a meeting room or
storage for the Group’s reference library or
records. Museum work-days had to be cur-
tailed and much of the connection between
I he Museum and the Group was lost
through the upheaval of the move and
change of staff at the Museum. The Group
decided to look for a new home. Work-
days were recommenced in 2001 and have
continued uninterrupted since then, contin-
uing the long and close relationship
between the Group and the Museum.
Talks were commenced with the FNCV,
and on 10 February 1997 a Special General
Meeting was held to approve the dissolu-
tion of the MRG on the basis of its simul-
taneous merger into the FNCV. The
Marine Research Group of Victoria was
dissolved and the Marine Research Group
of the FNCV was bom. The speaker at this
inaugural meeting was Hope Black, who is
still active in the field of malacology and
marine studies. Within the structure and
procedures of the Club, the Marine
Research Group is continuing with its gen-
eral pattern of activities of monthly meet-
ings, regular field-work towards specific
research outcomes and an emphasis on
both teaching and a concern for the marine
environment.
Acknowledgements
I would like to especially thank Clarrie
Handrcck, former President and the longest
serving Secretary of the Group, for supplying
much of the information used in this paper.
Clarrie was the main compiler of an unpublished
history of the Group (MSG/MRG of Victoria:
1957-1997). I would also like to thank Alan
Monger, Joan Broadberry and other members of
the Group, and Win Kershaw of Launceston, for
the loan of photographs that I used in my pre-
sentation to the Symposium. 1 also thank Robin
Wilson of Museum Victoria for his helpful sug-
gestions which improved this manuscript.
References
Macpherson JH and Gabriel, CJ (1962) Marine
Molluscs of Victoria. (Melbourne University Press
and National Museum of Victoria : Melbourne)
Marine Research Group of Victoria (19X4) Coastal
Invertebrates of Victoria - an atlas of selected
species. (Marine Research of Victoria in association
with the Museum of Victoria : Melbourne )
O'llara I (1995) Marine invertebrate conservation at
San Remo. The Victorian Naturalist 112, 50-53.
Smith BJ (1980) Zoology mid the f.N.C.V. - the early
years. The Victorian Naturalist 97. 121-127.
Smith BJ (1981a.) Dendy, Arthur, D. Sc.. F.R.S.. F.L.S.,
F.Z.S. (1X65-1925) Australian Dictionary of
Biography 8. 1891-1939 Ul-Gil. pp. 279-280. Eds. B
Nairn and G Serlc (Melbourne University Press:
Melbourne)
Smith BJ ( I9XIb) Gabriel, Charles John, (1879-1963).
Australian Dictionary of Biography 8, 1891-1939 Cl-
Gil. p. 606. Eds, B Naim and G Serlc (Melbourne
University Press: Melbourne)
Smith BJ (1981c) Gail iff, John Henry. (1848-1935).
Australian Dictionary of Biography 8, 1891-1939 Cl-
Gil. pp. 629-630. Eds. B Nairn and G Serlc
(Melbourne University Press: Melbourne)
Smith BJ and Black. Jli (1969) Biographies, combined
bibliographies and new names lists of John Henry
Gatlil! ( 1848-1935) and Charles John Gabriel (1879-
1963). Journal of the Malacological Society of
Australia !( 12), 32-47.
Smith BJ and Watson, JE (1969). A short biography of
William Mountier Bale F.R.M.S. (1851-1940). The
Victorian Naturalist 86, 1 05- 1 1 0.
Received 9 June 2005 . accepted 17 November 2005
The Junior Group excursion to Kentbruck
Heath, Glenelg River area, in the early 1 970s.
314
The Victorian Naturalist
History symposium
The Junior Group: 62 years of
encouraging young naturalists
Wendy Clark1
Abstract
Early in the history of the FNCV it was recognized that junior membership should be encouraged.
The first group dedicated to junior naturalists was formed in Hawthorn in 1943. In the following
years the club florished and operated essentially independently. The existing Junior Club became a
part of the main FNCV in 2002, thus returning to the fold after 59 years. (The Victorian Naturalist 122
(6), 2005,315-318)
A few years ago the Melbourne Junior
Field Naturalists Club finally returned to
its parent body and became a group of the
Field Naturalists Club of Victoria (FNCV)
rather than a separate club in its own right.
The how and why is a fascinating story,
and it starts right back in 1 883.
Early in the Club’s existence, members
of the FNCV recognised the need and
desirability of providing for junior natural-
ists as well as adults. In 1 883 they attempt-
ed this with a low subscription for juniors
of 5/-. However, this had little success. In
1904 they followed it up with an even
lower rate for under 18-year-olds of 1/-,
and monthly excursions were organised
particularly for juniors. Separate meetings
were sometimes held and approaches were
made to youth organisations. This resulted
in a third of the FNCV membership in
1905 being under 21 years of age (the
majority of these were under 18). This
arrangement was successful for many
years but the practice gradually lost favour
and was discontinued in 1914.
The next time an attempt to cater for
juniors was addressed was in 1941, when a
concerted effort was made to set up
branches, the first one being at Hawthorn.
In conjunction with the Hawthorn Library,
a lot of effort went into promoting the idea
of the club. A show was arranged in the
library for one month, and a book was
there for people to sign if they were inter-
ested in joining a Junior Naturalist Club.
Many hundreds of names and addresses
were obtained. This resulted in the forma-
tion of the club, to be called the Junior
Field Naturalists Club (Hawthorn Branch),
and its inaugural meeting was held on 27
August 1943. Mr SR Mitchell was presi-
1 97 Pakenham Street, Blackburn, Vic. 3130
dent, Mrs ME Freame was Secretary/
Treasurer and Mr Reeves was Lanternist.
The librarian, Mrs Carbines, was to act as
a liaison officer between the Club and the
Hawthorn Council, which was very sup-
portive and allowed meetings to be held in
the Hawthorn Town Hall.
Demonstration evenings were a feature
of early meetings, with up to four FNCV
members showing techniques of collecting
and preserving in various branches of nat-
ural history. Indeed, whenever such meet-
ings have been scheduled, even in recent
times, they have always proved popular.
Excursions were now back on the agenda,
with the first being 'Rocks of the
Hawthorn District' at Studley Park. To
keep up the momentum another Nature
Exhibit was prepared in the Hawthorn
Library. Attendance at these early meet-
ings fluctuated and efforts were made to
encourage the Boy Scouts and Girl Guides
of the district to attend. This was success-
ful for a while. In August 1944 the Club
celebrated its first birthday, and after the
lecture the Juniors all enjoyed a piece of
cake baked specially for the occasion. This
practice of celebrating the Club’s birthday
still continues today. Currently, because of
a younger age group, we have a dress-up
theme concerning some aspect of natural
history, and have games such as ‘bat moth’
and ‘guess the animal’, as well as a birth-
day supper and cake.
Growing stronger
The Club went from strength to strength,
reaching a peak in the years 1948-1951
when attendances at meetings were always
above 50 and sometimes over 100.
Unfortunately excursions were not record-
ed during this time, though we know that
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
315
His tory sympos i um
there were some joint trips with the FNCV.
A feature of the '40s and ’50s was the
Nature Shows and associated Exhibits
organised by the FNCV. The Hawthorn
Junior Exhibits at the FNCV shows held at
the Hawthorn Town Hal! were among the
best. In 1951 the Hawthorn Juniors organ-
ised their own show in the Hawthorn Town
Hall, preparing all the exhibits themselves.
They also had exhibits at the Children's
Exhibition in the Melbourne Town Hall
and the Exhibition Buildings in 1946 and
1947 respectively.
The years 1954-58
These years were a time of low member-
ship. when the efforts of a few FNCV
members kept the Junior Club going. After
an unsuccessful excursion to Seaholme in
May 1954, no further excursions were held
until 1958. Activities seemed to be restrict-
ed to the monthly meetings. At this stage
Mrs M Freame retired as Secretary/
Treasurer after 15 years in office.
The years 1958-1962
Under the leadership of Mr P Fisch as
Secretary/Treasurer and Mr Dickens as
President, the club stabilised its member-
ship of around 12-24 (though attendances
at meetings were somewhat higher). Mr
Fisch reintroduced excursions and they
once more became a regular feature of
Club activities.
1962: the year of change
After the sudden death of Mr Fisch and
the retirement of Mr Dickens, who was in
his 90s, Dan Mclnnes, the outgoing
President of the FNCV, look over the pres-
idency of the Club. Miss E Wallace, Chief
Librarian at Hawthorn, became Secretary/
Treasurer. This change was of great signif-
icance for the Club because for the first
time there was a break with the previous
organisation, as Mr Mclnnes had attended
only one meeting prior to his taking office.
Mr Mclnnes began by encouraging mem-
bers to take a greater part in the Club’s
organisation. He saw that starting a Club
newsletter was a way to expand, and Tim
Shaw, a member of the Juniors, became
the first editor. With the assistance of his
friend Barry Cooper, Tim published the
first newsletter, consisting of a single
duplicated sheet, in September 1962.
Newsletters and publications
In 1963 the Newsletter was called The
Hawthorn Branch and extended to four
pages. Tim Shaw- was in charge of all pub-
lications at this stage, and oversaw the
publication of a booklet titled How To
(Methods o f Preparing and Setting Natural
History Specimens) and The Hawthorn
Branch (a re-edited collection of 1963
newsletters). In August 1965, a
Publications Committee was formed to
organise all publications. In 1965 Paul
Gahan altered the whole format of the
newsletter and it was renamed The Junior
Naturalist , which it is still called today.
A large number of additional publica-
tions have been produced, including
Preserving Marine Specimens by Leigh
Windsor; The Collection and Preservation
of Insect Specimens by Dennis Walsh; and
the Observation and Collection Record
Book by Paul Gahan. A feature of the
newsletter and publications since 1965 has
been the large number of members
involved.
In 1965 an agreement was made with the
FNCV librarian, Mr Peter Kelly, for books
to be borrowed by Junior members. They
could have them for a period of two
months.
Nature shows
Mr Mclnnes. w'ho was also the organiser
of the FNCV Nature Shows in the Lower
Melbourne Town Hall each September,
arranged for the Juniors to have an exhibit
titled ‘How to Polish a Rock Pebble’. This
show and subsequent ones were to prove
instrumental in bolstering membership. By
June 1962 membership had already passed
the 40 mark.
The foregoing text is a brief summary
derived from Cooper ( 1 968).
Grow th of the Club
The club now went from strength to
strength under the inspirational leadership
of ‘Mr Mac’ as he liked to be called. More
and more the Juniors began taking an
important part in the running of the organi-
sation. A Council was formed, with those
over the age of 12 years being eligible to
be invited to become Councilors. In fact,
these junior Councillors now took on every
role except President until the early ’70s.
316
The Victorian Naturalist
His torv sympos i um
The Nature Shows and the Newsletter
played a vital role in increasing member-
ship, which rose during this period to a
peak of 170 members, with attendances at
meetings averaging over 1 00.
An awesome club
Some of my memories of this time are of
meetings in the Hawthorn Town Hall, with
around 120 people attending. The reptile
boys were a bit on the rebellious side and it
wasn’t unknown to have a lizard race at
the back of the hall. One such event was
with a Frilled Lizard. For keen naturalists,
this was an awesome time. The Club pro-
vided an outlet for these teenagers and
younger kids to mix with people who
thought the same way as they did, to learn
more on subjects they were passionate
about and to get involved in running the
Club. There was no other place in those
days that provided this outlet; few if any
TV wildlife shows, and little travelling to
wild places, let alone with people who
could teach them about what they were
seeing.
Excursions and camps
Excursions were now held every month
and were usually well attended, with many
interesting places being visited. Sometimes
travel was by train to places such as
Hurstbridge, but usually we all met at the
Hawthorn Town Hall and those without
transport were allocated spaces in the
available cars. In those years it was a ter-
rific system as the majority of the members
were teenagers and were able to come
along without parents; consequently they
didn’t have transport.
In 1971 the first Easter Camp was
arranged. This was destined to become a
feature of the Club's activities, with some
members in the future vying for the posi-
tion of having attended the most Easter
camps without a break. It has become so
popular that even some parents came along
after their kids had grown up and stopped
coming.
The first camp was to the Little Desert, in
those days an almost mystical place for
teenagers who were unlikely to be able to
get there. We hired a bus, which was easily
filled, and during the trip up. Council
members gave a series of talks on features
we passed on the way. We went on bush
walks, nature rambles and had campfire
discussions and singalongs. On Easter
Sunday morning we woke to find that the
Easter Bunny (now the Easter Bilby) had
visited us all during the night.
Another feature of those early camps was
the fun of having to push the bus when it
got bogged. Our bus company, McKenzies,
always issued us with an old bus that could
be taken on dirt tracks, and a driver who
was comfortable camping. They were fun
times for the bus driver as well!
The first Junior President
In 1971 Mr Mclnnes felt that it was time
to hand the Presidency over to a Junior
member. The Council at this time was
strong, with a reasonable number of older
teenagers and several members in their
early to mid twenties. Michael Coulthard
was elected as our first Junior President in
November of that year. He ran the club
using the same structure that Mr Mclnnes
had established, and the club continued to
flourish. The members of Council them-
selves were forming strong bonds with
each other, which is essential for the
smooth running of a club such as this. To
nurture these bonds Council camps were
arranged to explore new places. The Club
went from strength to strength, the mem-
bers developing a fierce pride in the fact
that their Club was run without any parents
on the Council. In reality they did help in
the background by supporting their kids
with the jobs they took home.
Over the next twenty years the Club con-
tinued in the same vein, with the presidents
and other councillors growing up in the
Club and learning the ropes from the other
members. All subsequent presidents were
Juniors who grew up in the club.
We had several different meeting halls
after the Hawthorn Town Hall started
charging rent that we could not afford. We
met in a church hall in Hawthorn, at Preshil
School Hall, at Balwyn Primary School and
eventually in the FNCV Hall from 1996.
With so many changes of location. The
Hawthorn Junior Field Naturalists Club
changed its name to the Melbourne Junior
Field Naturalists Club in 1996.
During these strong years the Juniors were
involved in helping set up Black Rock,
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
317
H i story symposium
Pascoe Vale, Montmorency and the Preston
Junior FNCs. Montmorency Junior FNC
ceased to be just a junior club and became a
club for all age groups, and the Pascoe Vale
Club is now a general interest club rather
than a Field Naturalists Club. All the other
Junior Groups failed to survive.
While it is terrific to have the Juniors run
their own club, there are a few downsides.
Losing their contact with the Senior
(FNCV) club is one. Initially several mem-
bers of the FNCV would come to meetings
with exhibits and pass on their knowledge.
Over time the numbers dwindled till at pre-
sent adult members are rarely seen unless
they are speakers or parents. This, together
with the current culture of being generally
interested in everything, instead of picking a
subject to learn in greater detail, resulted in
fewer and fewer people having the knowl-
edge to be able to impart-the knowledge
that everyone craves to hear. Maybe at the
150"' anniversary I will be able to give you
the answer to this deepening problem.
Challenges of the future
Membership numbers have waxed and
waned over the years, changing with the
social attitudes, the charisma of the presi-
dent at the time, the amount of promotion
the club has done and other effects we
haven’t quantified. The average age of the
Juniors has changed over the years too. In
the early years the majority of the mem-
bers were teenagers. This made it possible
to have the Juniors run the club. We have
just come through a long period of very
young membership with the average age
around 7 years. Rather than just the
intensely interested person, families attend
these meetings and excursions now, .
Pitching the lectures and trips to young
children results in it being hard to keep the
older teenagers who are needed to run the
club. Pressures of schoolwork and
teenagers being employed on the weekends
also make it hard to keep them working in
the Club.
We are just starting to see the age group
rising once more (perhaps the children in
the surrounding suburbs are all growing
up), and once again we have a Council of
teenagers who have the ability to take on
some of the roles, such as that of Editor.
During those years when there were
almost no teenagers, Wendy Clark reluc-
tantly (as she was now a parent) stepped in
to help re-educate the councillors on the
system of running the Club in the way that
Dan Mclnnes had established so success-
fully. We are now starting to see the results
of this as the teenagers are staying and tak-
ing over once more.
Insur ance and returning to the fold
As all club organisers know, insurance
issues changed the running of clubs. The
cost for the Juniors to have their own
Public Liability and Personal Accident
cover was much more than could be
afforded. Our solution was to become a
sub-group of the FNCV and come under its
insurance. This meant there was little
change in the way the Club was run as we
already met in its hall, used its library and
acted as part of the FNCV anyhow. So
finally in 2002, after 59 years, the Junior
Club returned to the Club from which it
originated. Now the Club is called the
Junior Group FNCV.
References
Cooper B.I ( 1 968) Hawthorn Junior Field Naturalists
Club. 1943-1968. The Victorian Naturalist 85, 232-
237
Received 14 July 2005; accepted 10 November 2005
Hawthorn Junior Field Nats president, Wendy
Clark, at the camp at Lake Tyers, 1970.
318
The Victorian Naturalist
History symposium
From fungs to Fungimap: fungi and the FNCV
TW May'
Abstract
Prior to the formation of the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria, there was no organisation for those
with an interest in Australian fungi, especially their natural history. From its first days, the FNCV
provided a place of interaction for fungi enthusiasts, through the pages of The Victorian Naturalist
and through meetings and excursions. The publication by Jim Willis in 1934 of a guide to Victorian
agarics, and by Bruce Fuhrer in 1985 of a field guide to fungi, with copious coloured illustrations,
were landmarks in enabling field naturalists to put names to fungi. The FNCV was involved with the
publication of some editions of both books. Fungal forays have been held regularly since the 1930s,
with Willis and Fuhrer leading many of them. The Fungimap scheme grew out of interest by the
FNCV Botany Group in carrying out botanical surveys. Fungimap was nurtured by the FNCV, along
with Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne, leading to the establishment of a separate organisation in
2005. Recently, a fungal studies group of the Club has been formally established. ( The Victorian
Naturalist 1 22 (6), 2005, 319-326)
Background
At the time of the formation of the Field
Naturalists Club of Victoria in the 1880s,
there were a number of Australian natural-
ists with an interest in fungi. Mostly, this
interest was manifested through the collec-
tion of specimens, which were sent for for-
mal description to mycologists in Europe,
such as Mordecai Cooke (associated with
the Herbarium at Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew). Most of the collectors sent speci-
mens via Ferdinand von Mueller, at the
Melbourne Herbarium, who was the domi-
nant Australian botanical figure in this
period (May and Pascoe 1996). In fact it
was Mueller who coined the word ‘fung’
(Oxford English Did ionary), which he
introduced as the English equivalent of the
Latin ‘fungus’, along with 4alg’ for ‘alga’,
in the same way that ‘plant' was derived
from ‘planta\
In visualising Mueller's network of rela-
tionships, Maroske (pers. comm.) uses the
analogy of Mueller as the hub, with the
collectors the spokes, but with little con-
tact between the different collectors.
Mueller himself was an inveterate collec-
tor of all plant groups, but his early
attempts at collecting fungi, which began
in his days in South Australia, produced
rather poor specimens. Fleshy fungi, which
can be beautifully coloured, often lose
their colour on drying; and other features
important for classification are also diffi-
cult to discern from dried material. Like
1 Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne, Private Bag 2000,
South Yarra, Victoria 3141
other Australian fungi collectors, Mueller
relied on European experts for the naming
of his collections, and was advised to
accompany dried material with notes and
paintings of the fresh specimens. Mueller,
who was no artist, encouraged collectors to
prepare paintings. Marie Wehl (one of
Mueller’s nieces) in South Australia, and
Flora Campbell (Mrs Martin), Charles
French Jr and Henry Tisdall in Victoria
were among a number of fungi collectors
who produced numerous accurate water-
colours of their collections (May 1990;
May and Pascoe 1 996).
It was not until the early decades of the
20th Century that taxonomic work on larg-
er fungi was undertaken in Australia, com-
mencing with the activities of John
Cleland and Edmund C’heel. For the micro-
fungi, which include important crop
pathogens such as rust fungi, local efforts
commenced somewhat earlier with the
appointment of Daniel McAlpine as
Vegetable Pathologist in the Department
of Agriculture in 1890. McAlpine had
arrived in Melbourne in 1884, and initially
taught at the University of Melbourne. He
published not only on pests of exotic
crops, but also described many fungi from
native plants (May and Pascoe 1996).
As to the natural history of the fungi col-
lected in the 19th century, occasional inter-
esting snippets of information can be
gleaned from letters accompanying the
batches of specimens, such as Mueller's
perceptive observations on the fungus-eat-
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
319
H istory symposium
ing habits of potoroos (Hilton 1980).
However, descriptions of new species were
almost always confined lo the morphology,
and rarely noted even the habitat, let alone
other aspects of the ecology of the fungi.
Fungs and the FNCV (1880-1930)
The formation of the FNCV immediately
provided a meeting place for those with an
interest in fungi. Mueller was one of the
founding members of the C lub, and many
other early members exhibited or wrote on
fungi, including Flora Campbell, who was
referred to as ‘our mycologist’ (Anon.
1885), McAlpine. Tisdall, Felix Reader
and Henry Watts. From the very first vol-
umes of The Victorian Naturalist there are
references to fungi (or fungs) being exhib-
ited at meetings of the Club, or spotted on
excursions. An example is the ‘Vermillion
... Clavaria ’ noted on the 1884 excursion
to Frankston (French and Best 1884). The
scope of member's activities is demon-
strated by the 350 fungi specimens exhibit-
ed by Flora Campbell at the February 1886
meeting ( The Victorian Naturalist 2: 138)
and the ‘close to a hundred distinct
species' of fungi noted on the excursion to
Lilydale in 1885 (Anon 1885). Interest in
fungi was not confined to macrofungi, with
various groups of microfungi featuring in
exhibits and articles. Some reports began
to deal with particular areas, such as
Tisdalfs (1885) paper on fungi ‘east of
Mount Baw Baw\
There is no direct evidence of communi-
cation among those with a mycologieal
interest, but the ‘spokes' who radiated from
Mueller’s hub, and others drawn to the
FNCV, had plenty of opportunities to share
their mycologieal interests at meetings and
on excursions, and also through the pages
of The Victorian Naturalist. There was
even mention of a ‘Cryptogamic Botanical
Section' (The Victorian Naturalist 4: 49-
50), although nothing further seemed to
eventuate in this regard.
McAlpine, as the only professional
mycologist, kept members in touch with
his latest projects, such as the preparation
of a ‘Systematic Census of Australian
Fungi' ( The Victorian Naturalist 10: 36).
In addition, McAlpine published introduc-
tory articles for groups such as entomoge-
nous fungi (McAlpine 1895). Tisdall also
published articles with a didactic tone,
such as ‘Notes on the genus Calocera ’
(Tisdall 1894). Articles in The Victorian
Naturalist also included important obser-
vations on the natural history of local
fungi, such as the first report of the fruit-
body of Native Bread (Laccocephalum
mylittae), until then known only from the
underground selerotium (Tisdall 1886).
Mueller’s neologisms ‘fung' and ‘alg’
rarely seem to have been taken up. Some
of the few examples in print are in the
pages of The Victorian Naturalist , such as
the article by Tisdall (1890) on ‘Victorian
fungs new to science’.
In this period. The Victorian Naturalist
included some calls for material from
overseas mycologists such as Curtis Lloyd,
a puffball specialist from Cincinnati, USA
( The Victorian Naturalist 23: 28) and the
German mycologist Hans Sydow ( The
Victorian Naturalist 23: 96). These led to
direct contact between collectors and
mycologists, without the need for a local
intermediary like Mueller.
The results of activities of fungi collec-
tors in the 19th century were brought
together by Cooke in his Handbook of
Australian Fungi (1892). Although this
book contained a number of coloured
plates, it seems not to have been much use
in identifying fungi. The copy owned by
Charles French Jr [collection of the author]
is in pristine condition and seems rarely to
have been opened. The trouble with
Cooke’s Handbook as an identification
guide was that the author, having never
seen any of the material in the field or
fresh, was not in a position to explain the
distinguishing characters. Even though he
had at his disposal some excellent original
watercolours, only one species per genus
was illustrated in colour, and Cooke is
known to have used some imagination in
preparing plates from more sketchy origi-
nal drawings (May 1990).
An example of the difficulty of putting
names to fungi at this time is the blue
Mvcena interrupter a common agaric of
forest gullies, originally described from
Tasmania by Berkeley (1859). Tisdall col-
lected this and sent material to C ooke, who
failed to recognise it. not surprisingly, as
it is described as ‘livid’ in colour in the
Handbook. Cooke incorrectly placed
320
The Victorian Naturalist
His tory sympos i urn
TisdalPs collection in Agaricus subgenus
Leptonia, despite its habit on wood (May
1990). The Tiny exquisite blue agaric’ was
also incorrectly listed as Agaricus
( Leptonia ) in the report of the 1885 Club
excursion to Lilydale (Anon. 1885).
In the first 50 years of the Club, fungi
were well accepted as a subject of study
for members, and the existence of the
FNCV would have been a boon for those
with mycological interests. However, the
lack of workable Held guides would have
been a problem for those with a nascent
interest in fungi.
Fungi guides and forays (1931-1990)
In an article which occupied most of the
April 1934 issue of The Victorian
Naturalist , James (‘Jim’) Willis presented
a key and succinct descriptions of 70
species of gilled fungi. The article was
accompanied by several colour plates,
from illustrations by Malcolm Howie
(Jim’s brother-in-law), which were readily
recognisable as some of the common fungi
of forests near Melbourne. Willis had a
great knack for expressing the key quali-
ties of each species, so as to facilitate
recognition in the field, and also included
novel information about the habitats of the
various fungi.
A more technical Handbook to the larger
fungi of South Australia appeared soon
after (Cleland 1934-1935). Willis immedi-
ately revised his article, taking up a number
of the new' names introduced by Cleland
(Willis 1935). His 1934 paper was then
published in book form by the FNCV, as
Victorian Fungi in 1941. The popularity of
this guide can be gauged by the fact that it
was reprinted (as Victorian Toadstools and
Mushrooms) in 1950, 1957 and 1963.
The appearance of Willis’s (1934) article
on gilled fungi had an immediate effect in
enabling identification of the commoner
and more distinctive larger fungi. Charles
Barrett wrote: ‘[this] fine paper ... has
already turned the thoughts of many ... to
Fungi, and lured us to trails through a
Fairyland .. of flowerless plants' (Barrett
1934).
Willis originally became interested in
fungi during his studies at the Victorian
School of Forestry, C'reswick, and at the
time of his initial publications on fungi
was employed by the Forests Commission
of Victoria. He later joined the staff of the
National Herbarium, where he worked until
his retirement in 1972 (May 1996).
Although his duties at the National
Herbarium mainly concerned the flowering
plants, Willis maintained a life-long interest
in fungi. He relished being in the field, and
on excursions he was always happy to share
his knowledge with fellow naturalists.
From the 1930s there w ere frequent notes
on fungi in the pages of The Victorian
Naturalist , often from the pen of Willis,
and including documentation of the spread
of Fly Agaric Amanita muscaria (e.g.
Coleman 1945), From the 1930s photogra-
phy wras a valuable adjunct to fungal stud-
ies, and some members contributed fungal
portraits (e.g. Lyndon 1969). However, the
only colour illustrations available were the
few plates by Howie in Toadstools and
Mushrooms of Victoria , and a few plates in
Cleland (1934-35).
In 1968, the FNCV was associated with
the publication by AH and AW Reed of
Flowers and Plants of Victoria (Cochrane,
Fuhrer, Rotherham and Willis, 1968). This
book included numerous excellent colour
photographs, many by Bruce Fuhrer,
among which were a few fungi. The
advent of cheaper colour photography and
printing led to the appearance of well-illus-
trated field guides to various animal and
plant groups. Fuhrer was a pioneer in high
quality photography of cryptogams,
including fungi, which need special tech-
niques due to their often small size, and
growth in shaded places. He produced
images for a loose-leaf guide to Australian
fungi (Cole, Fuhrer and Holland, 1978)
and published A Field Companion to
Australian Fungi in 1985, which was
reprinted by the FNCV in 1993. Fuhrer has
a vast knowledge of cryptogams, and his
photographs always show the key charac-
ters necessary for identification. Like
Willis, he has been an active member of
the FNCV, has led many forays and been a
frequent speaker at Club meetings.
In most years during the decades from
1930 to 1990, fungal forays were included
in the Club's excursions. From the 1940s,
forays were excursions of the Botany
Discussion Group (later Botany Group),
but often there were also forays as General
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
321
History symposium
Excursions. Jim Willis and Bruce Fuhrer
led many of these. The publications on
fungi by Willis (1934) and Fuhrer (1985),
each ground-breaking in its own way,
ensured that a wide audience was able to
profit from the authors' enthusiasm for and
knowledge of fungi.
Fungi surveys and Fungimap (1991-
prcsent)
In the early 1990s, there was some dis-
cussion about ways to invigorate the
FNCV Botany Group. Excursions were
still reasonably well-attended, but it was
felt that survey-based activities, rather than
mere rambles, might be a way of attracting
new (and younger) members, following the
example of the popular Mammal Survey
Group activities. A Botany Research and
Survey Task Force (also called the Botany
Research Group), was set up in early 1994.
largely through the efforts of John Julian
(FNCV Vice-President). By the end of the
year, the survey group had merged with
the Botany Group, but its brief existence
did provide an impetus to alter the scope of
the Botany Group’s activities.
Also, around this time, it was becoming
apparent that the collections held at the
National Herbarium of Victoria (MEL)
were completely inadequate to assess the
distribution and conservation status of
Victorian fungi. In fact, for macrofungi,
there were only 4.2 collections on average
per species held in the Herbarium, and
80% of species were represented by less
than five collections (May and Avram
1997). Therefore, it was not possible to
distinguish common but poorly-collected
species from any rare species that might
need special attention regarding their con-
servation.
Between 1994 and 1996, John Julian
organised regular surveys of the fungi of
Wattle Park, in association with the
Friends of Wattle Park (Schleiger 1994;
Julian, 1994; Eichler 1995; McPherson
1997). This pioneering survey of urban
fungi produced about 500 collections,
which were described and photographed
after the morning’s foraying, thus teaching
participants about the characters important
for fungus identification (even if many of
the specimens were not able to be identi-
fied on the day). These collections were
lodged at MEL, but unfortunately remain
un-accessioned. A similar fate has befallen
numerous collections from regular fungi
forays to the Kinglake East block formerly
owned by the FNCV, and Club expeditions
to Mt Buffalo and Wilson’s Promontory
(May 1998). This material will be of great
value, especially for establishing detailed
inventories of all the fungi from particular
localities, but requires intensive work on
curation and identification before it can be
accessioned and analysed. An indication of
the scope of projects that involve large-
scale collecting of specimens is that the
current Perth Urban Bushland Fungi
Project has a budget of more than
$300,000 (CALM 2004).
In June 1995, I presented a proposal for a
mapping scheme for Australian fungi to a
meeting of the Botany Group, arguing that
there was an urgent need for better infor-
mation on the distribution and ecology of
Australian fungi, especially to allow
informed decisions about the conservation
of fungi (May 1995). A significant feature
of the proposed scheme was that it would
not involve collection of specimens (which
would overwhelm resources at the
Herbarium), but rather sight records of
readily recognisable species would be col-
lated. Eight such species were initially pro-
posed, including such distinctive species as
Pixie’s Parasol Mycena interrupt a and Fly
Agaric Amanita muscaria .
Batches of records soon arrived, at first
from FNCV members, but eventually from
recorders in all states. A number of partici-
pants, particularly those in rural and
regional areas, had been pursuing an inter-
est in fungi for many years in relative iso-
lation, and relished the opportunity to con-
tribute records and later to attend work-
shops and conferences. In 1996 a colour
leaflet with pictures of the eight target
species was produced, along with an
‘FNCV Fungi Kit' which included a guide
to making collections, and a checklist of
fungi illustrated in field guides. The fol-
lowing year the list of target species was
extended to 50 (all illustrated in Fuhrer’s A
Field Companion to Australian Fungi). By
1998, more than 1600 records had been
received, with some individual species rep-
resented by more than 100 records
(Schleiger, 1998). A further 50 target
322
The Victorian Naturalist
His tory sympos i um
species were added in 1999. Currently, the
Fungimap database contains more than
20,000 records of the target and other
fungi species.
The fruit bodies of fleshy fungi are very
sporadic in appearance, reliant on suitable
rain, which is very variable from year to
year. Observations from Fungimap
recorders across Australia have produced
significant extensions to distributions, and
also considerably fleshed out existing dis-
tributions based on the often meagre sets
of herbarium specimens. Collection of the
Fungimap data by means other than a net-
work of volunteer recorders would have
taken enormous time and resources,
because to see fungi, you really do have to
be in the right place at the right time.
As well as enabling production of
detailed maps, Fungimap data confirmed
the rarity of a number of species, including
Hypocreopsis sp. ‘Nyora\ now listed
under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act ,
and records have been provided to the
Australian Heritage Commission to assist
in identification of biodiversity hotspots.
Another project undertaken by Fungimap
was the collection of dung samples from
across Australia for Ann Bell (Lower Hutt,
N.Z.) who was undertaking a study of the
fungi that grow on dung. This led to the
discovery of a number of new species (Bell
and Mahoney 2001).
Fungimap was formally supported by the
FNCV (from 1996) and also by RBG
Melbourne, but the scheme had no other
official status. From 1999 Regional
Coordinators were appointed in most
states: Bettye Rees (NSW), Heino Lepp
(ACT), Pam Catcheside (SA), Katrina
Syme (WA) and David Ratkowsky, fol-
lowed by Sapphire McMullan-Fisher and
then Sarah Lloyd (Tasmania). Initially John
Julian was the Executive Officer, and then
a Fungimap Co-ordinator was employed by
RBG Melbourne (Katy Sommerville, fol-
lowed by Gudrun Evans and Cassia Read).
Representatives of the Regional Co-ordina-
tors formed a Steering Committee, along
with the Fungimap Co-ordinator and the
Convenor, Tom May (RBG Melbourne,
and one-time FNCV President). Notably,
several of the Regional-Co-ordinators also
served on the committees of interstate field
naturalists groups.
Several FNCV members have had signif-
icant roles in Fungimap administration and
communication. John Julian’s zest and
flair for organisation resulted in the estab-
lishment o f Fungimap Newsletter and suc-
cess in securing grants, such as from the
Sydney Myer Foundation and The Ian
Potter Foundation. In 1997, Michael
McBain created an extensive website,
which for some years resided on a server
in the back room of his Fairfield residence,
with the somewhat mysterious URL
<http://caIcite.apana.org.au/fungimap>. In
2001, Ian Bell produced an innovative CD-
ROM guide to the target species, of which
numerous copies have been sold
(Fungimap 2001). Production of the CD-
ROM led to the FNCV receiving a
National Community-Link Volunteer
Award. Fungi Down Under: the Fungimap
Guide to Australian Fungi was published
in 2005, written by Pat and Ed Grey, with
editing and production assistance from
Leon Costermans. This landmark book, the
first Australian field guide to fungi to
include detailed maps, has colour illustra-
tions and detailed text for all 100 target
species.
Communication with recorders was ini-
tially entirely through the website and the
Fungimap Newsletter . The Newsletter has
evolved considerably since its commence-
ment in 1996, and some recent issues (20
and 23) now include high quality colour
images. Issue 1 18 (2) of The Victorian
Naturalist also included colour pho-
tographs of some of the rarer and more
unusual target species, with the cover
image a magnificent portrait of Entoloma
vires certs by lima Dunn. The first national
Fungimap conference was held in 2001 in
Denmark, Western Australia, with more
than 1 00 participants, and further success-
ful conferences have been held at Rawson,
Victoria (2003) and Gowrie Park,
Tasmania (2005 ). A variety of fungi identi-
fication workshops have been organised by
Regional Co-ordinators and in association
with the FNCV.
In the acknowledgments pages of Fungi
Down Under more than 80 people are list-
ed as being directly involved in the pro-
duction of the book and in donating
images. This exemplifies the very strong
volunteer culture that has been a signifi-
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
323
His tory sympos i uni
cant feature of Fungimap (and indeed the
FNCV). Many aspects of the scheme have
been maintained almost entirely by dedi-
cated volunteers, particularly the entry of
records into the Fungimap database.
A few weeks before the symposium cele-
brating the FNCV's 125th anniversary, a
meeting to incorporate Fungimap was held
during the 3rd Fungimap Conference, in
Tasmania. The aims of the new organisa-
tion are to promote the conservation, study
and appreciation of Australian fungi in the
natural environment, with the mapping
scheme remaining a major focus.
The combined support of the FNCV and
RBG Melbourne was crucial in the genesis
and development of Fungimap. Both
organisations provided administrative sup-
port, and RBG Melbourne continues to
host the Fungimap office. It would have
been difficult to start up a new organisa-
tion from scratch, and in any case it was
not at all apparent in 1995 that Fungimap
would grow' to the point where that would
become necessary. With hindsight,
Fungimap is a clear demonstration that
once there is a rationale for data collection
and sufficient supporting information,
there is a great deal of latent interest even
for seemingly less popular groups of
organisms such as fungi.
FNCV Fungi Group (2004-present)
By 2003, the events pages of Fungimap
Newsletter listed activities organised by
various groups around Australia with fungi
as their focus, including Sydney Fungal
Studies Group (founded in the early
1980s), Fungal Studies Group of the Field
Naturalists Society of South Australia
(founded 2001), Fungi Lovers Adventure
Group (from 2003, based in northern
Tasmania) and Perth Urban Bushland
Fungi project (commenced 2004). Perhaps
because of the involvement of the FNCV in
supporting Fungimap, there had not been
earlier moves to set up a formal fungi
group within the FNCV, although annual
Botany Group fungus forays continued dur-
ing the 1990s, and many active Fungimap
recorders were also FNCV members.
In Victoria, at the instigation of Ed and
Pat Grey, a formal special interest group
was set up in 2004, called the FNCV Fungi
Group. The Group already has an active
program of fortnightly forays during the
fungus season, and also meets regularly for
identification sessions following forays.
Detailed reports of forays have been pub-
lished in Field Nats News . Some members
are becoming very proficient in photogra-
phy (particularly with digital cameras), and
there is a growing interest in microscopy,
which is vital for identification, especially
once one strays beyond common and dis-
tinctive species.
A mutually beneficial relationship with
Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne is
developing, with RBG mycologists provid-
ing identification and advice, and the Fungi
Group lodging selected well-annotated
specimens of novel and interesting species
at the National Herbarium of Victoria.
The FNCV Fungi Group compiled results
of their 2004 season as a CD-ROM. on
which are more than 380 images of 62
more or less readily recognisable species,
accessed through a simple but effective
viewing window (FNCV Fungi Group
2005). This method of compiling and pre-
senting images provides an inexpensive
w'ay of building up an electronic library of
the best images from each season, and can
be readily expanded from one year to the
next, by adding further images and also
additional species as they are encountered
and identified.
Conclusion
It is true that for the FNCV, especially as
revealed through the pages of The
Victorian Naturalist , fungi are not as
prevalent a topic as flowers or mammals
(Archer this issue). However, the study
and appreciation of fungi is a thread which
runs through the activities and publications
of the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria
throughout its 125 year history. There have
been periods of greater or lesser activity
fungus-wise, but two factors contribute to
the persistence of an interest in fungi.
Firstly, the "field' part of the Field
Naturalists Club provides something that is
essential for the enthusiast of native fungi,
which are often ephemeral, and fade and
decay readily once picked. The apprecia-
tion of fungi in the natural environment on
such a regular basis as the FNCV forays is
not something offered by many other
organisations.
324
The Victorian Naturalist
History > symposium
Secondly, the Club has always been a
meeting ground (whether at talks or in the
field) for persons deeply interested in vari-
ous natural history subjects, but at the
same time, a welcome venue for beginners.
The wonder of the neophyte mixes happily
with the pleasure of old-hands in convey-
ing their knowledge. However the various
contrasts of amateur/professional,
expert/beginner and scientist/naturalist
might be defined and perceived, on the
whole, persons of all these descriptions
have been happily accommodated in the
life of the Club.
Speaking personally, what attracted me
to the Club in the first place was the oppor-
tunity to observe fungi in the field with a
group of people with such evident enthusi-
asm and knowledge.
The excitement of the fungi hunt is mar-
vellously captured by Willis (1934):
With the approach of winter ... the fungus
enthusiast becomes excited - there arc
dreams of past trophies and pleasant antici-
pations of finds to be made. Once you have
discovered a rare species and your interest
is fairly captivated, it is amazing how the
fungus fever will grow; every patch of
bush ... is ... rich in possibilities ... Perhaps
the greatest thrill in hunting Australian
fungi is the knowledge that few others
have been in the field, that very little is
known about our fungi, and that any speci-
men may prove an addition to the list of
species already recorded.
The Club culture as a meeting place for
sharing knowledge with an emphasis on
the field is no doubt something that has
contributed in large part to the longevity
and success of the FNCV in general, par-
ticularly when mixed across the various
sorts of animals, plants and geological fea-
tures that are to be encountered in Victoria.
Even on excursions with fungi as the
focus, there will be a forayer glancing
upwards at the sound of a bird call, or tap-
ping on a stone tor as others cast their eyes
downwards in pursuit of fungi; and not at
all unlikely that an identification for a slug
or a beetle can be proffered by someone in
the group. It is to be hoped that this happy
mix continues for many years to come.
Much certainly remains to be discovered
about the natural history of our fungi.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to the organisers of the very enjoyable
‘Leaves from our History’ symposium and to
Sara Maroske for valuable feedback, and for
sharing her thoughts on the role of Mueller in
networks of collectors. Sheila Houghton sup-
plied information about Flora Campbell, and
Frank Udovicic, Royal Botanic Gardens
Melbourne, provided helpful comments. 1 have
appreciated the supportive attitude of RBG
Melbourne to my involvement with the FNCV
over a number of years, particularly by Prof. Jim
Ross.
References
Anon (1885) The Queen’s Birthday excursion to
Lilydale, The Victorian Naturalist 2, 33-36.
Barrett C (1934a) A fungus foray, The Victorian
Naturalist 51, 45-46.
Bell A and Mahoney DP (2001) Semidclitschia nanos-
tellaia (Fungi: Dothidealcs: Sporonniaceae); a new
species from Australia. Mitelleria 15. 3-6.
Berkeley M.I (1859) Fungi. In The Botany of the
Antarc tic Voyage of II . M. Discovery Ships Erebus
and Terror, in the Years 1839-1 843 ... Part 111 Flora
Tasnutniae. Vol. 2 Monocotyledones and
Acolvledones , pp. 241-282. hv JD Hooker. (Lovell
Reeve: London)
CALM (2004) Annual Research Activity Report. July
2003-June 2004. Science Division, Department of
Conservation and Land Management, Western
Australia
Cleland JB (1934-35) Toadstools and Mushrooms and
Other Larger Fungi of South Australia. Parts 1 and 2.
(Government Printer. Adelaide)
Cochrane GR, Fuhrer BA, Rotherham ER and Willis
J [ I ( 1968) Flowers and Plants of Victoria. (AH and
AW Reed: Sydney)
Coleman E (1945) Autumn fungi at Emerald. The
Victorian Naturalist 62, 4-7.
Cole EM, Fuhrer BA and Holland A A (1978) A Field
Guide to the Common Genera of Gilled Fungi in
Australia. (Inkata Press: Melbourne)
Cooke MC (1892 ) Handbook of Australian Fungi.
(Williams & Norgate: London)
Eieliler J (1995) Botany Group News. Field Nats News
34, 6.
FNCV Fungi Group (2005) FNCV Fungi Group
Forays 2004 . version 1.1 (CD-ROM] (Field
Naturalists Club of Victoria: Blackburn, Victoria)
French C and Best D (1884) Field Naturalists’ Club
excursion to Frankston. The Victorian Naturalist 1.
112-115.
Fuhrer B (1985) A Field Companion to Australian
Fungi. (Five Mile Press; Hawthorn)
Fungimap (2001) Compendium of Fungi map Target
Species, v.l. (Fungimap. Royal Botanic Gardens
Melbourne: South Yarra, Victoria)
Hilton RN (1980) The potoroo truffle ( Potoromyc.es
loculatus ). Western Australian Naturalist 14, 235-
236.
Julian J (1994) Botany Research Group. Field Nats
News 27, 2.
Lyndon F (1969) Some interesting fungi. The Victorian
Naturalist 86, 350-351 .
May TW (1990) History of the study of Australian
Agarieales. In History of Systematic Botany in
Australia, pp. 265-272. Ed PS Short. (Australian
Systematic Botany Society Inc)
May TW (1995) A fungi map for Australia - Botany
Group. Field Nats News 35, 7.
May TW (1996) James Hamlyn Willis (1910-1995): a
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
325
History symposium
mycological appreciation. Australasian Mycological
Newsletter 15, 3-7.
May TW (1998) Fungi. In A Cryptogam ic
Extravaganza , pp. 11-14. Eds SE Ford and TW May
Report of the FNCV Expedition 22-25 May 1998 lo
commemorate die centenary of Wilsons Promontory
National Park. Field Naturalists Club of Victoria.
May 1 W and A vmm J ( 1997) The Conservation Status
and Distribution Macrofimgi in I ictoria. Report pre-
pared for the Australian Heritage Commission.
May TW and Pascoe IG (1996) History of the taxo-
nomic study of Australian fund. Fungi of Australia
1A, 171-206.
Me Alpine L) (1895) Entomogenous fungi. The
Victorian Naturalist 12. 63-64.
McPherson R (1997) Botany Group Notes. Field Nats
News 52. 5.
Schleiger N (1994) Fungi Survey: Wattle Park. Field
Nats News 22, 5.
Schleiger N (1998) Botany Group Notes. Field Nats
News 66. 5.
Tisdall FIT (1885) Fungi of country east of Mt. Baw-
Bavv. The Victorian Naturalist 1. 169-172.
Tisdall 1 1 r (1886) Fungi of North Gippsland. Part II.
The Victorian Naturalist 2. 106-109.
1 isdaJl II I ( 1890) Victorian lungs new to science. The
Victorian Naturalist 7, 96-100.'
Tisdall II I (1894) Notes on the genus Calocera. The
Victorian Naturalist 1 1 . 1 27- 131.
Willis III (1934) The Agarieuceae or "gilled fungi'.
The Victorian Naturalist 50, 264-298.
Willis J 1 1 ( 1935 ) Revision of 'The Agaricaceae or
aided fungi’. The Victorian Naturalist 52, 68-70.
Willis JII (1941) Victorian Fungi. (Field Naturalists’
Club of Victoria: Blackburn, Victoria)
Received 25 August 2005; accepted 3 November 2005
Australian Natural History Medallion
Ian D Endersby1
Abstract
Since 1940, the Australian Natural History Medallion has been awarded anually. The Field
Naturalists Club of Victoria played a central role in the inception of the award, and has continued to
be centrally involved in the process. The form of the Medallion has changed twice in its 65-year his-
tory. ( The Victorian Naturalist 122 (6), 2005, 326-330)
In 1987 a history of the Australian Natural
History Medallion was written (Houghton
1987) to assemble as much material as
could be gathered, particularly from FNCV
minutes, after the destruction of the ANHM
minute book and all current correspondence
and dossiers. All previous winners are men-
tioned somewhere in the History with pho-
tographs of some selected for significant
reasons such as the first Medal I ion ist, the
first in each of the States, and the first to
receive the new Medallion in 1981. That
history of the medallion is the best source
for details about many of the winners and
much of the administrative background.
Background
John Moir wrote to the Secretary of the
FNCV in March 1939 saying, in part: ‘In
several countries it is the custom for soci-
eties formed to protect flora and fauna to
mark, in some manner, their appreciation of
some person’s signal service in that direc-
tion by awarding them a medallion.' He was
a member of the Bread and Cheese Club
1 56 Looker Rd, Montmorency, Victoria 3094
which had been formed to foster the knowl-
edge of the Australian arts and to cultivate
an Australian sentiment. Moir had written to
six other clubs: Gould League, Royal
Australasian Ornithologists Union, Mitcham
FNC, Wattle League, Bird Observers Club
and the Bread and Cheese Club.
The FNCV was asked to convene a meet-
ing of these clubs and they sent invitations
to a further ten organisations including the
Royal Society of Victoria (Table 1). The
meeting was held on 5 June 1939 and
agreed on a set of Rules, the purpose of
which has not changed in substance to this
day. Significant changes were made in
1947 when a fixed period of nomination
was set at three years instead of one, with
the option of renominating a successful
candidate (previously it had been a ‘once
only' chance which the Award Committee
considered was unfair to worthy nomi-
nees). Also, at that time, a four-year term
was established for members of the Award
Committee. Previously it had been
appointed annually by the General
Committee from its own members.
326
The Victorian Naturalist
Table l.The second list of invitees to the inau-
gural meeting
Australian Forest League (Victorian Branch)
Chief Inspector of Fisheries and Game
Federation of Victorian Walking Clubs
Entomological Society of Victoria
Victorian Advisory Council for Flora and Fauna
Royal Society of Victoria
Royal Zoological and Acclimatisation Society
of Victoria
McCoy Society
Microscopical Society of Victoria
Melbourne Women’s Walking Club
The first medallion was awarded in 1940
to Alec Chisholm who had a wide interest
in natural history with a particular interest
in ornithology. It has been awarded every
year since then-a total of 65.
Current Structure
The current situation is shown in Fig. 1.
The main difference from those early days
is the number of clubs or societies that are
invited to appoint representatives to the
General Committee or make nominations
for the Medallion; it has grown from the
original seventeen to about ninety.
The essence of the Medallion is the nat-
ural history societies which manage it and
make the nominations. Two of these have
special roles:
The President of the Royal Society of
Victoria is an ex officio member of the
committee which assesses the dossiers and
decides on the winner each year. That
Society may also have a representative on
the General Committee and that role seems
to fall on the shoulders of its president as
well.
Under the Rules of the Medallion the
FNCV has certain responsibilities:
• funding, design and procurement of the
Medallion
• appointment of the Secretary
• hosting the Medallion presentation
• having its president chair the General
Committee
To ease the financial burden on the
FNCV a Trust Fund was set up in 1975 to
receive donations from Member Societies
and individuals. Ideally the fund should be
endowed to a level at which it is self-fund-
ing but the structure of the Medallion
administration does not allow it to seek
support from philanthropic organisations.
History > symposium
The FNCV also offers in-kind support by
providing:
• Banking and accounting
• Stationery
• Archiving
• Committee meeting venue
However, there is no reporting relationship
from the General Committee or its
Secretary to the FNCV.
The General Committee comprises repre-
sentatives of natural history societies (nine
at the moment) and is charged with:
• appointment of the Award Committee
• consideration of applications to be repre-
sented on the General Committee
• amending the Rules, and
• any other purpose which may be neces-
sary.
From time to time the General
Committee has had to remind the FNCV of
its independence and there is one example
quoted in the History:
But the General Committee still ordered its
own affairs and an enquiry about the
Medallion rules from the F.N.C.V. secre-
tary in 1957 brought the terse rejoinder
from the General Committee secretary ‘the
F.N.C.V. has nothing to do with making or
altering Medallion rules, except as it acts
through its representatives. (Houghton
1987).
Even though the Medallion is a national
award, there is obviously a strong
Victorian influence because of the involve-
ment of the FNCV and the necessity of
managing it from Melbourne, which pre-
cludes interstate societies from attending
Committee meetings unless they appoint a
Victorian resident as their representative.
Winner Profile
An analysis of the Medallion winners
over the 65 years may indicate if there are
any biases due to the Melbourne-centred
management.
The first characteristic is obviously gen-
der. The first woman to win the Award
was Edith Coleman in 1949, the tenth
award to be made. To date only 12 women
(18%) have received the Medallion. They
conform to a nineteenth century view of
women’s natural history pursuits-botany,
ornithology and a lone entomologist.
Some Medallion winners have had multi-
ple and diverse interests so the number of
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
327
History symposium
Fig. 1. Structure and roles for management of the Medallion
disciplines represented in Table 2 is
greater than the number of Medallions
awarded. Botany (28%) and Ornithology
(29%) are far and away the subjects most
represented, with all of the others having a
similar proportion to each other.
There is no doubt that Victoria (55%) is
over-represented when we consider the pop-
ulation of each State (Table 3). With the
remainder, also on a population basis. South
Australia is possibly more successful.
There are about 90 clubs and societies on
the mailing list and each of them is eligible
to nominate a representative to the General
Committee and/or to nominate someone
for the Medallion. Victoria (40%) is, again,
grossly over-represented (Table 3). This is
not deliberate but probably arises from bet-
ter local knowledge and access to address
lists of clubs that are in some way affiliat-
ed with the FNCV. There seems to be
some sort of correlation w'hen we compare
Medallion winners by State with
Nominating Societies by State. Some peo-
ple might argue that as most Victorian
societies are small, they are unlikely to
make nominations. However, this argu-
ment does not explain the fact that most
recipients are Victorian and the highest
number of nominating societies come from
Victoria.
To investigate this a little more deeply I
have taken the data for the last eighteen
years (1987-2004), that is, since the histo-
ry was published, to show us more recent
trends.
In percentage terms women have fared a
little better, increasing from 12% to 22%.
If anything, botanists and ornithologists
have increased their dominance of the
Medallion (both at 35%) at the expense of
anthropologists and earth scientists. More
than half of the Medallions have been won
by Victorians and the percentage is a little
328
The Victorian Naturalist
H is to ry sympos i um
Table 2. Medallions by Discipline (%). Other
comprises conchology, ecology, herpetology,
ichthyology. (As some Medallion winners have
had multiple interests the number of disciplines
represented is greater than the number of
Medallions awarded).
1940-
1987-
2004
2004
Anthropology
6
0
Botany
28
35
Education
7
4
Earth Science
7
0
Entomology
8
9
Mammalogy
6
9
Ornithology
29
35
Other
9
8
Table 3. Medallion Winners and Societies by
State (%). Societies are those to which invita-
tions are sent to
Award
nominate a
person for the
Winners
1940-
2004
Winners
1987-
2004
Society
mailing list
2004
ACT
1.5
6
3.3
NSW
12.3
0
13.2
QLD
7.7
17
12.1
SA
10.8
6
12.1
NT
0
0
2.2
TAS
4.6
10
11
VIC
55.4
55
39.6
WA
7.7
6
6.6
Table 4. Successful Nominating Societies between 1987 and 2004. Number of Medallions.
Victoria Australian Plants Society (Victoria) 2
Bird Observers Club of Australia 2
Field Naturalists Club of Victoria 2
Victorian Ornithologists Research Group 2
Entomological Society of Victoria 1
Gould League of Victoria 1
Queensland Entomological Society of Queensland 1
Queensland Field Naturalists Club 1
Tasmania Launceston Field Naturalists Club 2
ACT Canberra Ornithologists Group 1
South Australia Royal Society of South Australia 1
Western Australia Western Australian Naturalists Club 1
Table 5 Number ol Nominations each year ( 1999-2004). * indicates successful nominating societies.
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
Launceston Field Naturalists Club*
N
Wildlife Preservation Society of Australia
N
N
The Queensland Naturalists Club*
N
N
Geelong Field Naturalists Club
N
N
Field Naturalists Society of South Australia
N
N
Field Naturalists Club of Victoria*
N
N
N
Western Australian Naturalists Club
N
N
N
Entomological Society of Queensland
N
N
N
Entomological Society of Victoria*
N
N
N
Australian Plant Society (Victoria)
N
N
N
Bird Observers Club of Australia
N
N
N
Gould League of Victoria
N
N
N
Field Naturalists Society of South Australia
N
N
N
The Queensland Naturalists Club
N
N
Canberra Ornithologists Club*
N
N
The Wetland Centre
N
N
Victorian Ornithological Research Group*
N
Angair-Anglesey Aireys Inlet Society
N
Total Number of Nominations
8
9
7
5
7
5
higher in this later period with South
Australia and New South Wales falling.
Both in the short and the long term
botanists and ornithologists from Victoria
have dominated the Australian Natural
History Medallion. It is hard to believe that
it is because Victoria breeds the best
naturalists.
Part of the explanation lies in the fact that
a small group of Victorian societies have
been very active and very successful in
promoting their members (Table 4). Four
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
329
H is toiy sympos i urn
of them demonstrate their commitment by
also serving on the General Committee.
To see il there is a lack of competition we
can look at the nominations for the last six
years (Table 5). The number of candidates
has never been less than five candidates,
and has been as high as nine. However,
there are not a lot of additional nominating
Societies to those that have been successful
previously. Our catchment area is small and
that is probably the main reason for our low
national exposure.
A National Award
The General Committee has a desire for
the Medallion to be truly seen as a national
award. We have been patently unsuccess-
ful in attracting press coverage even when
we have had Vice- Regal patronage to pre-
sent the Award.
Banksia and Eureka Awards and other
environmental awards are better known
through the media exposure they generate.
We seem to have retained a very staid
image, as do many field naturalist activities
(whether it is true or not). The vasculum
and butterfly net are still seen to be our
symbols. That rather pleases me personally
but it does not help in today's world.
The General Committee, and the
Societies which its members represent,
have before them the task of broadening
the list ol nominations and encouraging
specific high-class eandidates-and not just
from their own Societies.
There is still a place for the Australian
Natural History Medallion but we must
work a little harder to maintain its prestige
and status.
References
Houghton S. (1987). The History of the Australian
Natural History Medallion. (Field Naturalists Club of
Victoria; Melbourne)
Information subsequent to 1987 was obtained from the
files of the Secretary of the ANHM General
Committee: all but the most recent years of these are
contained within the FNCV Archives. The Victorian
Naturalist contains articles on many of the later
Medallion winners, describing their natural history
achievements.
Received 2 June 2005; accepted 1 September 2005
SGAP, Swaby and the FNCV
John Walter*
Abstract
Arthur Swaby was both a major player in the formation of the Society for Grow ing Australian Plants
and an active member ol the Field Naturlaists Club of Victoria. Swabv also wrote for the magazine
Your Garden, which was instrunental in the formation of the SGAlf Other FNCV members who
played a crucial role in these developments include Ivo Hammet and Ernest Lord. {The Victorian
Naturalist 122 (6). 2005. 330-335)
1 should preface this paper with a few
comments regarding the structure of the
Society for Growing Australian Plants.
The Society was founded in Victoria as a
single national society with the intention
that regional groups be formed based on
climate and vegetation. These regional
groups quickly became state-based groups
with each State taking on its own name
and managing its own affairs. A percent-
age of the membership fee collected by
each state body is forwarded to a national
body, known as the Association of
Societies for Growing Australian Plants
* 249 Pudding Bag Road, Drummond, Vic. 3461
(ASGAP). In recent years there has been a
trend to ‘modernise5 the name of the State
Societies to ‘Australian Plants Society' to
reflect the wider interests of the member-
ship and reduce the formality of the name.
In this paper, I am dealing with the forma-
tion of the original Society, and will there-
fore refer to the Society by its original
acronym SGAP.
If you ask a member of SGAP who
founded the Society, the odds are they will
not know. Those that do know something
of the formation will mention some fellow
called Swaby and perhaps suggest that ‘he
wrote for Your Garden.
330
The Victorian Naturalist
His tory sympos i um
They are correct in that Swaby did write
for the popular gardening magazine Your
Garden but the roots of the foundation of
SGAP go back many years before that
magazine was first published. While
Swaby is the recognized 'founder’, there
are many other members of the FNCV who
played important roles in its formation, and
the very existence of the FNCV provided a
forum for the sharing of the ideas which
led to SGAP.
Arthur James Swaby was born at Benalla
in Victoria on 14 July 1887 to William
Swaby and Ellen (nee Bain). William was a
foreman at the local flour mill1 who made
visits to the bush on his bicycle, sometimes
with young Arthur as pillion passenger.
Arthur’s formal education began at Benalla
Primary School where he also taught as a
monitor when only 14 years old. He gained
the Diploma of Education at Melbourne
Teachers College and subsequently spent
his whole working life as a teacher, special-
izing in science subjects. He taught at sever-
al country schools including Yea until 1913.
then taught successively at Essen don,
Coburg and University High Schools before
moving to Horsham High School in 1921.
While at Horsham, Arthur met with
Harold Smith (1877-1955), a local
sawmiller, and the two made several
excursions into the Black Ranges and the
Grampians. Arthur could not afford a
motor vehicle on his teaching salary but he
was soon borrowing Harold’s car for addi-
tional explorations of the district, including
the Little Desert. As the friendship
between the men grew, Harold and Arthur
struck an agreement to build a cabin where
they had access to their beloved wildflow-
ers. Harold supplied the timber from his
nearby mill and Arthur, having previously
built the family home in Horsham, sup-
plied the labour. Soon a cabin was erected
close to the bridge in the area now known
as Smiths Camping Ground near the out-
flow of Lake Wartook. The Swaby family
regularly used this cabin in the holiday
season even after they moved to Hampton
at the end of 1927.' Harold Smith joined
the FNCV in October 1927, around the
time he discovered the Mt Byron Bush
Pea, Pultenaea pate/ /[folia. This discovery
and communication with the FNCV led to
the visit in 1930 by Herbert Williamson,
then the FNCV's leading botanist who was
researching the genus Pultenaea. Swaby
also returned for this excursion into the
Black Range/’
Swaby was Science Master at Hampton
High School in 1928 and joined the FNCV
on July 9 1928. 7 He became involved in the
Club’s Wildflower Show in his first year
as a member and for many years after-
wards was the show’s chief organiser.
Arthur Swaby was appointed to the posi-
tion of Assistant Secretary and Assistant
Librarian when Herbert Williamson died
early in 19312 The initial position was to
support the Honorary Secretary, Mr
Rodda, but the sudden death of Mr Rodda
on 16 August 1931 threw Swaby into the
position of Honorary Secretary. Swaby
was in regular attendance at the meetings
and usually brought along a specimen or
two. Jim Willis wrote in his unpublished
obituary of Swaby that:
For years it was unusual for a monthly
meeting of the I .N.C’.V. lo pass without
some meaningful exhibit by Swaby, and
the range of material presented (geological,
plant, insect, mollusc, microscopical)
attested the wide knowledge of the
exhibitor. All his specimens were neatly
labelled, with explanatory notes, for he
always contended that no exhibit was
worthwhile unless the viewer could easily
grasp its significance - in fact, that the
label was just as important as the rock, fern
or cocoon it accompanied. ’
Swaby had his differences with the
FNCV Council but managed to serve as
both Vice President and President in sub-
sequent years as well as serving on a num-
ber of the Club’s advisory committees,
including the Heathland Flora Reserve
Sub-Committee and the Maranoa Gardens
Advisory Committee. Joining Swaby on
the Maranoa Gardens Advisory Committee
in 1947 were two men who would also
play a large part in the formation of SGAP,
I vo Hammet and Ernest E Lord."’
Ivo Charles Hammet (1896-1975) had a
lifelong interest in books. The knowledge
therein had a lasting impact on his life as
his daughter Irma Chelmsworth recalled in
a letter to Esma Salkin in 1981. Salkin’s
summary of the letter records:
[his] motivation to grow native plants was
stimulated by reports in journals of early
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
331
His ton ; sympos ium
exploration, papers etc., in his renowned
library of Australiana. Of particular inter-
est were the accurate and detailed observa-
tions of the French exploration. After read-
ing these documents he had an intense
desire to save I he remaining flora and
made many trips to the Little Desert col-
lecting plants. In the twenties and thirties
any one growing native plants was consid-
ered odd, because the fine foliage of
natives was in direct contrast to the heavy
foliage of plants normally grown."
Hammet joined the FNCV on 8
September 1930' and was on the Council
from 1940 to 1948, taking on the role of
President during the year 1944-45. His
Presidential Address was titled "Preserving
our Flora’ and the minutes record that
Hammet was:
basing his remarks on his own experience
in propagating Australian Flora in his
Ivanhoe garden. He stressed the fact that as
the native flora disappears so do the birds
and insects, and in many cases erosion
takes place. He instanced cases of the
Wattle dying out at Wattle Glen, and the
disappearance of the Sandringham flora.
The only way to prevent the total disap-
pearance of many of our native plants is by
the cultivation of them in home gardens,
and already a move in this direction has
taken place w ith a number of our native
species being offered for sale by nursery-
men. This list should be increased, as more
becomes known of their growth habits
from experiments made under cultivation."
Ernest Edward Lord (1899-1970) is per-
haps best known for his book Shrubs and
Trees for Australian Gardens (1948). He
joined the FNCV on 8 February 1932u and
no doubt quickly became acquainted with
Swaby. Lord was elected to the committee
of the FNCV in 1942 and served continu-
ously until 1954, first as Treasurer, and
later as President for two terms. In both his
Presidential Addresses he tried to prepare
the FNCV for the future he saw for
Australia with rapid increases in popula-
tion and increased pressure on the environ-
ment. The following extract from his June
1951 address records his views clearly.
Let us for a moment look at Australia’s
150 years’ record from the viewpoint of
Natural History. ... Wholesale forest
destruction to clear land for grazing and
cropping and for timber supplies, with until
just recently, no thought whatever of
replanting or provision against erosion. ...
We are short of electric power, short of
gas, short of coal, short of water in a dry
season. Above all, Australia has one des-
perate need: population. ...
What does all this mean when added up? It
means that every bit of country that can pos-
sibly be made to produce food, clothing and
housing requirements must be opened up.
How arc we concerned as field naturalists?
As individuals, if we arc honest with our-
selves, very little. So long as we can get an
outing in the bushlands that remain, and
collect a bit of whatever wc are interested
in to add to our own personal knowledge
on these things, we are content. What does
it matter to us individually if 1000 acres
have been lopped off a national park for
tobacco culture; if the Malice Fowl or a
rare Boronia have become extinct? ...
But as a Club we have a very real concern
in such matters. And a club is no more than
the sum of its members. If we evade or
neglect such responsibilities we have no
right to he a Naturalists' Club. ... The peri-
od of discovery and description of new
species is tapering off- for Victoria at any
rate - and the period of the great battle for
preservation of what natural history
remains is rapidly becoming the supremely
important duty of every truly Australian
organization.15
Swaby had long been expressing his love
for the Australian landscape and his under-
standing of the need for its conservation.
In an undated letter believed to have been
written in the late 1930s to support Mr
HyanTs effort to establish the Council for
the Preservation of National Monuments as
an influential body, Swaby states that
Our Association [Council for the
Preservation of National Monuments]
regards Australia not merely as the soil on
which our passing generation is planted to
wrest from it as much as possible while we
can; but as a going and grow ing concern in
which soil and people are related and inter-
dependent, continuous through the ages
and capable of rising to height of which
few dream today. While wc must cultivate
a spirit of tolerance and cooperation
toward other lands and peoples, it is imper-
ative that we do nothing to check the grow-
332
The Victorian Naturalist
H is to ry sympos i urn
ing pride in our community and its distinc-
tive possessions. ...
The dedication of national monuments -
natural and historic is not for our benefit
alone. We have to think of the coming gen-
eration and to teach them to think of the
future. We must set apart objects and
places typical of the early days of each
locality - something tangible round which
community interest may cluster. Every set-
tlement has something distinctive. Some
localities have priceless features.
What we, as an association, should do is to
fix upon as many of these features as pos-
sible and cultivate in the present and rising
generations a habit of regarding these
things as ours to enjoy and hand on unim-
paired - those magnificent red gums along
the river or creek, ... those bulokes, wat-
tles, or mallee in that lane, ... the spring
gold of the bank yonder, the wonderful
freshness of that hill of broom in the
Mallee in January, ... the lookout rocks,
the fern gully.
As a people we have been too much bent
on destruction. In the race to put every acre
under cultivation, we have forgotten that
man does not live by bread alone. We are
singularly blind to the beauty of the coun-
tryside and the intrinsic interest therein."’
In 1946, another letter from Swaby to the
FNCV Council attracted the following
response in the minutes:
The Committee endorsed Mr. Swaby ’s
view that some reasonably large and repre-
sentative area of the Bayside Heathlands
should be permanently reserved and that a
section of the reservation be maintained in
an Australian Garden which would form an
adjunct to the Melbourne Botanic Gardens.
In the event of a suitable and sufficiently
large area of the Sandringham Heathlands
being unobtainable (a not unlikely possibil-
ity in view of the closely settled nature of
the area ...) the Government should be per-
suaded to examine the practicability of
reserving some large tract of hcathland in
the Frankston, Cranbourne - Piercedale
(sic) triangle.17
While Swaby was not alone in his opin-
ion, he was in communication with the
Trustees of the Maud Gibson Trust via the
trust advisory committee members John S
Turner of Melbourne University Botany
Department and Sir Russell Grimwade.
Turner was a member of the FNCV and
Grimwade was made an honorary member
in 1953. Soon afterwards the Trust was
committed to the creation of such an
annexe and began looking for land in that
region.'*
According to Willis. Swaby was instru-
mental in establishing the Botany
Discussion Group in 1946 and was its first
chairman; presenting a series of lectures in
elemental botany to the group members."'
In 1947 soon after he was elected Vice
President of the Club he was involved in
the formation of the Marine Biology
Group where he lectured on elemental
biology. ' It was the formation of yet
another group in 1947 that concerns us.
The President announced in October 1947
that the FNCV had decided to form a
group of those members interested in the
cultivation of our Native Plants. Interested
members were invited to leave their names
with Miss Adams and the resulting list
included Mr Ham met, Mr Seaton, Mr
Lord, Mr AJ Swaby, Mr J Ros Garnet, Mr
and Mrs P Fisch and Mr Schubert. 1 It was
this group, known as the Wildflower
Garden Section, which became the nucleus
of the Society for Growing Australian
Plants when it was formed 10 years later.22
One of its members, John Stoker Mack1
Seaton (1906-1982) began growing a few
natives in the 1930’s. He told Esma Salkin
that:
Ivo Hammet and Bert Hargraves were
interested in them then. We weren’t grow-
ing many. We were regarded as cranks. On
holidays to South Australia l visited
Kangaroo island and made many trips to
Adelaide where I visited Payne’s garden in
Torrensville and visited the Burdett garden
at Basket Range. The Burdett garden was
terraced on a hill and was one of the best
wildflower gardens in Australia in the
1930V3
Seaton joined the FNCV in 194624 and
immediately became a regular contributor
to the specimens produced at meetings.
In December 1947 the first issue of Your
Garden was published with Ernest Lord as
the founding Editor. This issue contained a
number of articles by FNCV members,
including an article on the culture of native
shrubs by George Althofer* another on the
culture of native orchids by J Ros Garnett
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
333
History sympos him
and the first of a series of articles titled
‘Simple Studies in Plant Life’ written by
‘AJS’ who was, of course, Arthur James
Swaby. Over the next two years Your
Garden carried 14 articles by Swaby. 13 by
Althofer as well as several by Garnet. In
January 1950 Lord was replaced as Editor
and Swaby, Althofer and the others soon
disappeared from its pages, however. Lord
had made the name Swaby known to the
publishers who would soon call on Swaby
for a much larger role in the magazine.
Meanwhile the Maud Gibson Trust
employed Seaton in 1948 as a correspon-
dent to enable contact with amateur garden-
ers growing native plants. Russell
Grim wade had successfully argued that the
Trust employ a professional plant breeder
to work on the culture and improvement of
native flora* The plan was for Seaton to
gather seeds and plant material from the
amateur growers and Schubert's Nursery
was engaged to begin the propagation.
They would then be grown in trial plots in
the Observatory Grounds next to the
Botanic Gardens with the ultimate aim of
establishing Australian Wildflowers in pub-
lic and private gardens. While this proposal
suited the objectives of the Wildflower
Garden Section, it proved to be short-lived
due to the lack of propagation material.''’
Swaby made a return to the pages of
Your Garden in the June 1954 issue with
his series of articles tilled ‘Know Your
Natives' which ran for 6 years. In this first
article Swaby notes that ‘the possibility of
forming some association of growers is
worth considering' . The idea of an associ-
ation quickly caught on. and the founda-
tion meeting of the ‘Australian Growers of
Australians’ was held on 12 March 1957.
Perhaps inspired by the success of .1 Ros
Garnet and Winifred Waddell in taking
committee’s of the FNCV to the wider
world, Swaby ensured that the executive of
the new association were all from the
Wildflower Garden Section of the FNCV
with Hammet as President, Seaton and
Schubert as Vice Presidents, Miss Butchart
as Treasurer and Mr. Pow as Secretary/"
Garnet and Lord were both very active
members and Mrs Fisch soon took on the
role of Newsletter Editor, although the
bulk of the membership of 451 was made
up of readers of Your Garden.
The name was soon changed from
Australian Growers of Australians to the
Society for Growing Australian Plants, but
not before some amusing correspondence
between Swaby and Professor John Turner
from Melbourne University Botany
Department. Turner commented that while
AGA was a good abbreviation the full title
could almost apply to any Australian par-
ent. Swaby replied that ‘Parentage and
Stock Breeding had also occurred to him
as possible interpretations and it would be
a mix up if the idea of eugenics or test tube
babies got abroad. In fact it would be near-
ly as bad as suspecting the very modest
Field Naturalists of nudism.
SGAP went on to become the largest
Horticultural Society in Australia with
over 9000 members, but along the way it
lost its founder who resigned in 1962, a
disappointed man. Why would anybody be
disappointed with what could only be
described as a resounding success? The
answer is simple when you come to know
Arthur Swaby. He sought to create a small
dedicated scientific research organisation
whose aim was to bring more native
species into cultivation in order to save
them from destruction. He believed that
instead he got a garden club only interested
in growing the same old things.-1 Many
years later the Study Groups formed within
SGAP would become extremely successful
at achieving Swaby’s goal, and some indi-
vidual members have been outstanding for
their work in bringing native species into
cultivation, but that is another story.
Arthur Swaby was made an Honorary
Life Member of the FNCV in 1968 after
40 years of continuous membership,'2 and
reluctantly accepted an Honorary Life
Membership at the insistence of the SGAP
Committee when his resignation became
known.” He died on 20 October 1979 at
the age of 92. Finally, it is perhaps worth
noting that the SGAP Victoria Newsletter
published a mere 80 words detailing the
death of its founder Arthur Swaby'4, while
The Victorian Naturalist carried a 1200
word obituary written by Ros Garnet1? Jim
Willis wrote, but never published, a further
tribute of 1 500 words. ‘ The national body
ASGAP, however, docs recognise Arthur
James Swaby at its bi-annual conferences
where the keynote address is titled the ‘A J
334
The Victorian Naturalist
His tory sympos i um
Swaby Memorial Address’. Perhaps the
membership of SGAP will have a greater
appreciation of their founder and the role
played by the FNCV in their society’s for-
mation, after the publication of a compre-
hensive history during their upcoming 50"’
anniversary in 2007.
Notes
1 Interview of Bernard Swaby (grandson of Arthur
Swaby ) by John Walter (Feb 2004)
Interview of Les Swaby (son of Arthur Swaby) by
Estna Salkin ( 1979)
’Willis, JH (1979. unpublished)^ tribute to Arthur
Janies Swaby (1887-1979), Royal Botanic Gardens
Melbourne archives, MSS 316
4 Bernard Swaby, op.cit.
" FNCV Membership records
" JH Willis, op.cit.
' FNCV Membership records
‘ Letter from Mr. Rodda to Arthur Swaby 25/2/1931
advising his appointment. Copy in FNCV File 047-
034
0 JH Willis, op.cit.
Minutes FNCV Committee Meeting 29/4/1947
1 Summary of correspondence by Irma Chelmsworth to
Esma Salkin. Salkin, Esma (1981) Know your
Natives The Native Garden Movement in
Melbourne from the 1920 's to I960's. (BA thesis
Monash University)
' FNCV Membership records
Minutes FNCV Annual General Meeting 1 1 June
1945
'•FNCV Membership records
1 Transcript of Presidential Address delivered June
1951 by EE Lord, reprinted in the The Victorian
Naturalist 68, 1 95 L 41-42
Undated letter from Arthur Swaby to Mr Hyant,
FNCV Hyam File
1 Minutes FNCV Committee Meeting 27 August 1947
Twigg. K. (1996) A Vision Shared - The Maud
Gibson Trust 1945-1995 (South Yarra: Maud Gibson
Trust) p.4I
19 JH Willis, op.cit.
20 68"1 FNCV Annual Report reprinted in The Victorian
Naturalist 65, 1 948, 54
:i Minutes FNCV Committee Meeting 13 October 1947
Readers should not confuse the Wildflower Garden
Section with the Wildflower Preservation Group
which was established by Winifred Waddell two
years later in 1949 and led to the formation of the
Native Plants Preservation Society in 1952.
' Interview of Jack Seaton by Esma Salkin (July 1980)
William Burdett was a member of the FNCV and
contributed each year to the Club’s shows. Frederick
Cyril Payne later established a nursery and display
garden at Athelstone in Adelaide in South Australia.
This garden was later incorporated into the Black
Hill Conservation Park.
' FNCV Membership records
George Allhofer established Nindethana Nursery near
Wellington in NSW in 1938 and later founded
Burrendong Arboretum.
' Maud Gibson Trust Committee Minutes in Twigg op.
cit. pp. 37-38.
: Your Garden - Know Your Natives June 1954, 4
• Minutes of the Inaugural Meeting of the Australian
Growers of Australians, Australian Plants Society
(SGAP Vic) archives
Letter from .IS Turner to AJ Swaby 4 March 1957,
University of Melbourne Archives turner Collection
Box 25B File TURN00231
11 Letter from AJ Swaby to JS Turner 7 March 1957
University of Melbourne Archives Turner Collection
Box 25 B File I URN0023I
Letter from Arthur Swaby to Enid Bowman,
Secretary of SGAP 10/9/1962, Australian Plants
Society (SGAP Vie) archives
Records of General Meeting 8 July 1968, reprinted in
The Victorian Naturalist. 85 ( 1 968), 238-239.
" Letters dated 15 March 1963 and 19 March 1963
from AJ Swaby to Sister Bowman, Secretary of
SGAP South East Region
4 SGAP Victoria Newsletter - Dec 1979, p 5
" Obituary of AJ Swaby by J Ros Garnet - The
Victorian Naturalist 97 (1980), 33-34
56 JH Willis, op.cit.
Received 50 June 2005; accepted 13 October 2005
The organising Committee for the History Symposium. Left to right: Mimi Pohl, Anne Morton,
Sheila Houghton, Gary Presland, Alan Yen.
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
335
History symposium
The FNCV and the VNPA
Malcolm Calder1
Abstract
The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria became the ’parent' body of a number of other groups,
including the Victorian National Parks Association (VNPA). Beginning in the latter part of the 19"’
century there was a popular movement to reserve areas of particular natural value. In Victoria mem-
bers of FNCV were particularly active in this movement, leading to the formation of VNPA in 1953.
(The Victorian Naturalist 122 (6). 2005, 336-339)
Introduction
In the beginning there was the Field
Naturalists Club of Victoria (FNCV).
Today, along with the FNCV, there are
many organisations covering the interests
of natural history, fauna and flora, conser-
vation and environment, field studies,
geology and landscape, intertidal and
marine biology, and so on.
The FNCV has been the nurturing parent
of many of the more specialised societies
and organisations now thriving in Victoria.
In this short paper, 1 look at the role of the
FNCV in the establishment of community
interests in National Parks and the forma-
tion of the Victorian National Parks
Association.
To do this I am going to follow', fairly
superficially, three historical threads that
have been running in parallel or inter-
twined w ith the thread of the history of the
FNCV. The first of these threads is the
global history of the National Park move-
ment. The second is the thread of the bio-
logical/earth/ecological sciences. The third
thread is the socio/political/economic
thread of the State of Victoria.
Global History of National Parks
The concept of National Parks arose in
America with the creation of Yellowstone
(1872) and Yosemite (1890) National
Parks (Nash 1990). Much earlier, in the
1860s, groves of Redwoods had been
reserved in the Yosemite Valley as a
nature reserve - the first legislated reserve
dedicated to the protection of a native
species in the wild. This was the 'New
World’, a pioneering community, where
people and governments recognised the
value of grand nature and the natural envi-
ronment. The motivation for these founda-
tion national parks was very human cen-
tred. It was recognised that they had both a
'375 Pinnacle Lane, Steels Creek, Vic. 3775
recreational and spiritual value to the peo-
ple; visitation would be uplifting and
would benefit the people. The areas were
permanently reserved to ensure their per-
petual survival as a national icon for future
generations to enjoy. The notion of envi-
ronmental conservation was not a major
factor.
At this time Australia was another pio-
neering community, converting a natural
' wilderness ’ to create a productive agricul-
tural economy. In the 1860s the earliest
signs of public concern over the rapid
advance of land clearing were being
expressed. In 1865 The Argus in
Melbourne reported:
Over and over again we have urged that
steps should be taken to protect our forest
lands, not only because extravagance will
lead to scarcity, but also because the local
climate will be affected in all those places
where the forests are removed. In protect-
ing the forests ... we prevent waste of soil,
we conserve the natural streams, and it is
not improbable that we prevent decrease in
rainfall.
(This is a message we still need to hear).
There was no real concern here about
nature conservation, but a distinct self-
interest in protecting resources of timber
and soil, and concern for the potential cli-
matic effect of forest clearing.
With time, the notion of National Parks
reserved for human recreation and spiritual
experience moved also to the recognition
of these areas as vital for the protection of
nature. More and more they became areas
for nature conservation, habitat protection,
education and research as well as recre-
ation. This was especially so in the parts of
the world where European settlement was
advancing-the USA, Australia, Southern
Africa, Canada and. later. South America.
In Europe, including Great Britain, there
was limited opportunity for the creation of
336
The Victorian Naturalist
H [story symposium
large tracts of public land as National
Parks. As a consequence. National Parks in
Europe are largely areas of special land-
scape quality where planning and manage-
ment strive to retain both traditional and
conservative forms of land management.
In Victoria the first area declared a
National Park was the volcanic cone of
Tower Hill, initially reserved in 1866 but
given National Park status in 1892
(Frankenberg 1971). In essence it was a
game reserve and the local Acclimatisation
Society introduced goats, jungle-fowl and
rabbits. 1 882 saw the reservation of Fern
Tree Gully as a Recreational Reserve,
while Wilson's Promontory and Mount
Buffalo were reserved in 1898 and
declared National Parks in 1905 (Gillbank
1998; Houghton 1998). Clearly, the last
two decades of the nineteenth century was
an active period in the development of
National Parks in Victoria and coincides
with the formation and early influence of
the young Field Naturalists Club of
Victoria.
Today our National Parks have dramati-
cally increased in area and number, and
have a diversity of functions including
nature conservation, environmental protec-
tion, education and research and passive
recreation. Management comes under the
broad responsibility of Parks Victoria
under policies established by the Director
of National Parks within the Department of
Sustainability and Environment.
From the formation of the FNCV in 1880
through to the first decade of the 20th cen-
tury, members were extremely active in
promoting the concept of National Parks as
a means of protecting the natural environ-
ment and providing opportunities for peo-
ple to experience and understand the plants
and animals of Australia. Senior members
of the FNCV such as JB Gregory and AHS
Lucas, along with influential academics
and administrators, had the necessary con-
nections into government to advance the
cause of National Parks. The FNCV was
the primary advocate. As we will see, cir-
cumstances between 1910 and 1945 did
not provide for nature conservation and
National Parks to be high on the State
agenda.
Biological/Earth/Ecological sciences
thread
At the time of the establishment of the
FNCV, the scientific world in Australia
was very much taken up with discovering
the great diversity of the plants and ani-
mals that occupied this land, as well as
describing the geology. Gold fever was
subsiding and the great depression of the
'nineties was imminent. Both professional
and amateur scientists were active and
interested in their new environment, and
recognised the need for a recreational and
rewarding outlet for the study of nature
and the documentation of their discoveries.
So the FNCV was formed.
Biological sciences at the time were very
much at the descriptive stage here,
responding to the unusual nature of our
flora and fauna and the great interest from
overseas in what was being discovered.
There seemed to be so many unusual and
unlikely species to be discovered.
Collecting, describing and cataloguing was
the modus operandi and many new and
important discoveries were made by mem-
bers of the FNCV.
Internationally, the biological sciences
were moving from the descriptive phase to
the more analytical aspects of plant and
animal form and function. But most signif-
icantly, the early years of the 20th century
saw the growth of the science of ecology.
Out of this grew the recognition of the
interdependence of plants and animals and
their associations in distinct communities.
Plant and animal species existed within
complex habitats and together made up
complex communities. This science of
ecology had its foundation in the United
States, although it has been argued that its
roots are European (Carpenter 1938). Once
founded, however, the science spread
rapidly to other parts of the world.
By the 1930s and '40s, Australian biolo-
gists, foresters and agriculturalists had
embraced the new science of ecology. The
concept of the ecosystem emerged as an
ecological entity involving the plants and
animals growing in an area as well as the
soil, the base rock formation and the cli-
mate within which they existed. The
ecosystem brings together all these ele-
ments and recognises the interdependence
of species within it. Recognising ecosys-
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
337
His tory Sympos i am
tems and communities provides an objec-
tive basis for recognising the fundamental
units within National Parks. Looking
through the contents pages of The
Victorian Naturalist it is clear that the
members of the FNCV, led by Philip
Crosbie Morrison, embraced the relatively
new science of ecology, recognising the
significance of community and habitat and
the need to protect these if biological con-
servation was to be effective. Ecology
became the foundation of natural history
and strengthened the case for National
Parks.
Socio/Political/Economic thread
In this section I will be very brief, since 1
have no authority or qualification to deal
with it in any depth. Nonetheless, it is
interesting to consider the aspects of local
and world events as they impact on the
natural history movement in Victoria.
Furthermore, history shows that decisions
regarding National Parks are made by gov-
ernments only when there is strong com-
munity pressure, and that community pres-
sure is influenced by the overall wellbeing
of the population.
Through its history, Victoria has experi-
enced periods of economic depression and
economic prosperity. Victorians have been
involved in several overseas conflicts, par-
ticularly World War 1 and World War IF
There have been governments w ith varying
views on rural development and environ-
mental protection, with different policies
on land and water management, with dif-
ferent views on public and private expen-
diture. Against this background of change,
the FNCV and others with interests in nat-
ural history and environment have had to
operate generally as a hobby interest car-
ried out in the evenings and at weekends.
It seems to this writer that such hobby
interests are very sensitive lo variations in
the social, political and especially the eco-
nomic environment of the day. The history
of the FNCV seems to support this conclu-
sion, as does the evidence provided by the
establishment of National Parks in
Victoria. It can be seen that the periods of
greatest activity in the efforts which culmi-
nated in the establishment of the first
National Parks were in the 1 880s and '90s
and the early decades of the 20th century.
The period before World War I and
between the Wars was a period of little
activity for establishing National Parks.
Our minds were concerned with other
tilings.
During World War 11, Crosbie Morrison,
Ros Garnet and the Council of the FNCV
W'ere very active in developing the case for
more habitat conservation in National
Parks. From 1945 through to 1952/1953
they worked at all levels of government
and the community to build a powerful
case for National Parks. Their view was
that the greatest impact would be achieved
with the establishment of a National Parks
Association and a National Parks
Authority. Both Morrison and Garnet held
executive positions in the FNCV during
these years and were the strongest support-
ers of the formation of the Victorian
National Parks Association to act as a
strong advocate and lobbyist for National
Parks in Victoria.
FNCV and VNPA
Gillbank (2005) has provided a general
timetable of the actions that occurred with-
in the FNCV, leading ultimately to the
reservation of land as National Park:
1 ) Ramble with collection and documenta-
tion
2) Talk and exhibits at a Club meeting
3) Publication in The Victorian Naturalist
4) An organised club survey
5) A public meeting
6) Letters and deputation to Government
Ministers
7) Reservation
The history of National Park reservation
in Victoria certainly supports this timetable
and 1 will quickly follow this chronology.
But the formation of the VNPA mark II is
rather more complex.
Our story starts in 1936 when the FNCV
formed its ‘National Monuments and
National Parks’ sub-committee. At this
time there was strong recognition of the
importance of habitat protection for the
survival of species. FNCV member
Crosbie Morrison and J Ros Garnet,
among others w'ere publicly active in rais-
ing the need for greater effort for National
Parks. They worked in close association
with the Victorian Advisory Council for
Flora and Fauna to lobby for the cause.
338
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
However, the 1939 fires and the advent of
World War II intervened. In 1944 the
FNCV was one of 37 organisations sup-
porting the foundation of the ‘Save the
Forests Campaign’ and eventually the
Natural Resources Conservation League.
In June 1946 the FNCV convened a con-
ference attended by representatives of
many conservation-minded organisations
all expressing grave concern about the fail-
ure of current management in National
Parks. Crosbie Morrison was elected
Chairman of the Conference, which con-
tinued to develop its case for a number of
years. The Conference was reconvened in
1948 and adopted a report seeking the cre-
ation of a permanent, adequately funded
Authority, responsible for the management
of all National Parks, with power to rec-
ommend acquisition of any new areas that
should be reserved. In early 1949 a deputa-
tion to the Victorian Government, lead by
Morrison and Garnet, presented ‘National
Parks Plan for Victoria’ (Hyam, et al.
1949). Later, this standing Committee had
a meeting with the Premier TT Holloway
and members of his cabinet. In 1951, the
State Government endorsed many of the
recommendations but there followed sev-
eral years of political turmoil in the Stale
and several changes of Government.
Eventually, in 1957, a National Parks Act
establishing a National Parks Authority
was passed. Crosbie Morrison was
appointed the first Director of National
Parks (Pizzey, 1992).
In 1952 the VNPA was established,
essentially to represent and carry forward
the views and the functions of the 1946
Conference. Morrison was the first
President and Garnet the Secretary. This
new body was launched in the Lower
Melbourne Town Hall on July 23 1953
(Garnet 1953). So another child of the
FNCV was born, with strong parental
blessing and support. The rest is, as they
say, history.
References
Carpenter JR (1938) An ecological glossary (Hafner
Publishing Company: New York)
Frankenberg J (1971) Nature conservation in Victoria
(Victorian National Parks Association: Melbourne)
Game l JR (1953) The Victorian National Parks
Association public meeting The Victorian Naturalist
70. 45.
Gillbank L (1998) Of land and game: the role of the
Field Naturalists Club of Victoria in the establish-
ment of Wilsons Promontory National Park. The
Victorian Naturalist 115, 266-273.
Gillbank L (2005) Rambles, reports and reserves. The
I'NCV’s early conservation of Victoria s natural her-
itage. The Vic torian Naturalist 122,258-271.
Houghton S (1998) Mount Buffalo and the Field
Naturalists Club of Victoria; an historic acount. The
Victorian Naturalist 115. 160-163.
Hyam GN. JR Garnet, SR Mitchell and SC Lewis
(1949) Report of the National Parks and National
Monuments Standing Committee. Field Naturalists
Club of Victoria - April 1949 The Victorian
Naturalist 66, 4-11.
Nash RP (1990) The rights of nature. A history of envi-
ronmental ethics (Primavcra Press/The Wilderness
Society: Leichhardt)
Pt//.ey, G (1992 ) Crosbie Morrison Voice of nature
(Victoria Press: Melbourne)
Received 7 July 2005; accepted 1 7 November 2005
Junior field naturalists finding Graptolites, May
2004. Photo: Wendy Clark.
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
339
History Symposium
Changes in the content of The Victorian Naturalist
between 1884 and 2004
Melanie S Archer1
Abstract
A survey was made of changes in the content of The Victorian Naturalist between 1884 and 2004.
Every second odd volume was censused and articles were divided into categories according to the
purpose for which they were written, the approach that the author took, and their topic. Several main
factors appeared to alter journal content over time: the development of ecology and conservation
biology as scientific disciplines; editorial influence: and the appearance and disappearance of prolific
authors. Special issues also created content peaks in their subject areas, and the birth and senescence
of other local natural history publications may have had some bearing on content changes. The
effects of the two World Wars appeared to be minimal. (The I id or urn Naturalist 122 (6) 2005. 340-348)
Introduction
The content of any scientific journal is
influenced by prevailing social and acade-
mic conditions. Interactions between sci-
ence and culture cause shifts in theoretical
paradigms, allow' development of new'
equipment and techniques, and can modify
community values. These factors inevitably
are expressed in science writing, and tem-
poral changes therefore will occur in the
form, approach and tenor of journal arti-
cles. The Victorian Naturalist makes a par-
ticularly interesting subject for a ‘time
slice’ study of its contents. It has been pub-
lished since 1884, accepts a broad range of
contributions based around the theme of
natural history, and has always featured an
eclectic mixture of professional and ama-
teur contributions.
Variation in the ratio of amateur and pro-
fessional contributions over The Victorian
Naturalist's history may be one factor
influencing content changes. Usually, ama-
teur scientific writing is not as compliant
with academic conventions as that of pro-
fessionals, nor is it as likely to be influ-
enced by scholarly fads and schools of
thought. If there have been changes in the
relative numbers of professional and ama-
teur articles, this stylistic difference could
be manifested by changes in the approach
taken by authors to natural history study
and the purposes for which they write arti-
cles. But this pattern would probably be
difficult to distil from publication trend
data because there is considerable
crossover between amateur and profession-
1 Department of forensic Medicine, Monash
University, 57-83 Kavanagh St, Southbank, 3006.
Email melaniea@vifm.org
al scientific contributions. This is especial-
ly true of scientific writing produced in the
early 20"’ century, before the modern
growth in occupational specialisation.
The influence of individuals or small
groups may have produced significant
changes over time in the content of The
Victorian Naturalist. One way this could
occur is through the influence of the editor
or editorial committee (Sheila Houghton,
pers. comm.). An editor's vision for the
journal potentially shapes the type of mate-
rial either solicited or accepted from con-
tributors. For example, Norman Wakefield
(editor 1953-1957, 1958-1964) wished to
make The Victorian, Natural is t a more
informal publication containing a greater
number of general interest articles
(Houghton and Presland 2005).
The content of The Victorian Naturalist
may have been influenced over time by the
birth and senescence of other natural histo-
ry publications. Local publications that
have overlapped with The Victorian
Naturalist on a broad range of topics
include: Transactions and Proceedings of
the Royal Society of Victoria ( 1 865- 1 888),
which became Proceedings of the Royal
Society of Victoria (1889-present); Wild
Life (1938-1954); Emu (1901 -present);
Australian Journal of Zoology (1953-pre-
sent); Australian Journal of Botany
(1953-present); Muelleria (l 955-present j;
Australian Journal of Entomology
(1962-present, formerly Journal of the
E n t o m o l og i c a l Socie t\ ■ of A u strati a) ;
Austral Ecology (1976-present, formerly
Australian Journal of Ecology)', Wildlife
340
The Victorian Naturalist
His lory Sympos i am
Research * (1977-present); and Australian
Systematic Botany ( 1 988-present).
Changes in the group potentially contribut-
ing to The Victorian Naturalist can also alter
its contents over time. Death, recruitment
and retirement are demographic processes
affecting the output of all disciplines. Some
naturalists also entered the defence forces
during World War 1(191 4-1 918) and World
War II (1939-1945), which could have
reduced content during the wars in one or
more subject areas, or created a number of
overseas and northern Australian correspon-
dents placing their natural history observa-
tions in The Victorian Naturalist (e.g.
Lothian 1944; Givens 1945).
There are likely to be effects on the con-
tent of The Victorian Naturalist resulting
from scientific developments in conserva-
tion biology and ecology. First, an increase
should be seen in articles concerned with
these subjects from around the 1960s
onwards when these disciplines developed
a more tangible identity and following.
Many statistical and quantitative survey
techniques have developed alongside ecol-
ogy, so an increase could be expected in
articles that lest hypotheses and use quanti-
tative methods to describe results.
This study was performed to examine the
influence that various scientific and social
factors may have had on the content of The
Victorian Naturalist between 1884 and
2004. In particular, the effect of demo-
graphics among individual contributors,
editorial approach, rival publications, war,
and development in the fields of ecology
and conservation biology were examined.
Methods
Every second odd volume was censused
(e.g. Vol 1, 5, 9 ... 121) and articles were
identified as eligible or ineligible for con-
sideration by this study according to a list
of criteria.
Eligible items were:
• Original observations and research.
• Reviews of known information on partic-
ular subjects.
• Instruction on technical subjects, such as
taxidermy.
• Descriptions of collecting trips, natural-
ists'’ vacations, or observations made
' First published as CSfRO Wildlife Research and for-
merly known as Australian Wildlife Research
whilst away from home for another rea-
son (e.g. defence force service).
• Reprinted articles from other publications
(these appeared so occasionally that they
could not skew results, and reprints were
also considered representative of con-
tent, although they had appeared else-
where).
• Spoken papers delivered before the
FNCV, if these comprised a paper rather
than a summary of a speech given by the
author or another person.
Ineligible items were:
• FNCV excursion reports (these were
excluded because they are numerous and
usually touch superficially on a wide
variety of subjects. This could over-
whelm some of the more subtle trends).
• Summaries of speeches given at the
FNCV, or elsewhere.
• Presidential reports, meeting reports, SIG
reports, exhibition reports. Conver-
saziones, and other proceedings of the
FNCV, or other society.
• Book reviews.
• Letters or questions to the editor,
editorials.
• Obituaries.
• Submissions to government.
There was no minimum length require-
ment for articles. Each part of a series of
articles or each part of a continued article
was treated as a separate item because each
part often focused on a different subject
matter. Institutional affiliations (including
honorary appointments), author surnames,
and number of pages per volume were
recorded from eligible articles.
Categories of eligible articles
Eligible articles were categorised at each
of three levels, although they were listed in
multiple categories if they fulfilled the
requirements of more than one purpose,
approach or topic. Categories are listed
below:
Category level I : Purpose
• Non club trip (article based on a collect-
ing trip, scientific expedition, natural-
ist’s vacation, or defence force service).
• History (historical people, scientific dis-
ciplines, events and places).
• Technical (instructions and methodology
on animal husbandry, plant cultivation,
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
341
History Symposium
preservation / collection of specimens,
conservation methodology).
• Scientific exposition (research, observa-
tion, scientific policy discussion).
Category level 2: Approach
• Natural history (reviews of current
knowledge, distribution records, behav-
ioural or cultural observations, original
research that is largely qualitative and
not subject to statistical analysis, experi-
mental design, or hypothesis testing).
• Hypothesis testing, survey and analysis
(research that is usually largely quantita-
tive. and incorporates an experimental or
survey design, or chemical analysis).
• Description (policy discussion, historical
narrative).
• Taxonomy, systematics and morphology
(descriptions of new species, taxonomic
relationships, morphological data).
• Mixed approach (work that takes more
than one of the approaches listed above).
Category level 3: Topic
• Vascular plants.
• Non-vascular plants.
• Fungi.
• Birds.
• Mammals.
• Anthropology.
• Geology.
• Microscopy.
• Insects.
• Spiders.
• Molluscs.
• Crustacea.
• Other invertebrates.
• Ecology.
• Conservation.
• Plant palaeontology.
• Vertebrate palaeontology.
• Invertebrate palaeontology.
• Reptiles.
• Amphibians.
• Fish.
• History (people, places, events, exclud-
ing history of scientific disciplines -
these articles are in the topic area of
their discipline).
• Mixed (more than one topic listed
above).
• Other (topic not listed above).
Analysis
For every volume censused, the number
of eligible articles in each category was
342
converted to a percentage of the total eligi-
ble articles in the volume. These percent-
ages were then plotted against year of pub-
lication. The number of pages in each vol-
ume, the number of eligible articles in each
volume, and the percentage of eligible arti-
cles where at least one author was associat-
ed with an institution also were plotted
against year of publication.
Results and Discussion
The trends over lime for all variables
examined usually showed no pattern, and
caution must therefore be used in interpret-
ing the results. This is especially true
because no statistical hypothesis testing was
done, and analyses are therefore subjective.
The dimensions of The Victorian
Naturalist have remained reasonably con-
stant over its history, which made it possi-
ble to compare the number of pages and
articles over time. The page number varied
considerably between volumes (mean =
240. SE ± 12; Fig. 1). There appears to
have been an overall increase over time in
the number of pages, although the number
of eligible articles has fluctuated between
13 and 97, and shows little apparent
increase over time (mean - 45, SE ± 3;
Fig. 1). There are no apparent wartime
effects on either the number of pages or
the number of eligible articles.
Articles where at least one author had an
institutional affiliation increased over time
(Fig. 2). This is a crude W'ay of measuring
the ratio of professional to amateur input,
and must be interpreted cautiously because
many of the earlier authors with institu-
tional affiliations did not always record
them (c.g. Ferdinand von Mueller, David
Fleay), and it was only possible to count
professional addresses for authors whose
affiliations were well known. Today, pro-
fessional bodies are far more strict about
ensuring that their address is recorded on
work produced under their auspices. It is
also possible that the small size of the sci-
entific community in the first part of the
20,h century allowed workers to assume
that others would know their affiliations.
Category level I: Purpose
Scientific expositions have always
accounted for over 50% of eligible articles.
But there are two steep drops in the per-
centage of scientific expositions that corre-
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
1884 1904 1924 1944 1964 1984 2004
Year
4 pages
* eligible articles
Fig. 1. Variation over time within The Victorian Naturalist in page numbers per volume and articles
eligible for consideration in this study.
Fig. 2. Percentage of eligible articles in cen-
sused volumes of The Victorian Naturalist
where at least one author was associated with an
institution.
spond with peaks in the percentage of eli-
gible articles written for other purposes.
The first was a peak of 45% in the number
of non-club trips in 1924, and the second
was a peak of 42% in the number of histo-
ry articles in 1996 because of the Vol.
1 13(4) special issue of The Victorian
Naturalist on Baron von Mueller. Articles
describing non-club trips were the subject
of between 6 and 45% of eligible articles
until 1924, when there was a drastic
decline in this category. The category has
since constituted less than 10% of articles
in subsequent years.
Technical articles have accounted for less
than 10% of eligible articles throughout
most of The Victorian Naturalist's history.
However, there was a peak in technical
articles of 10-14% between 1960 and
1968. These were mainly concerned with
microscopy, and are likely to have been
prompted by the incorporation of the
Microscopical Society of Victoria into the
FNCV (c. 1960). There was a further sharp
peak of 26% in technical articles during
1992 because of a special issue Vol. 109
(4) on vegetation corridors in Victoria.
This contained many articles describing
the methodology employed in various con-
servation programs.
Category level 2: Approach
There was a sharp drop in articles using a
taxonomic, systematic and/or morphologi-
cal approach during Wakefield’s editorship
(Fig. 3), perhaps due partly to his belief
that other journals catered for the needs of
professional scientists (Houghton and
Presland 2005). A selection of local pro-
fessional botany and zoology journals were
founded around this time and, along with
The Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Victoria, may have been the recipients of
any redirected taxonomic work. Most arti-
cles that took a mixed approach were pri-
marily taxonomic, systematic and/or mor-
phological, but also incorporated some nat-
ural history observations (e.g. species dis-
tribution or plant habitat observations).
This may be why the mixed approach
trendline sometimes follows approximately
that of taxonomic contributions (Fig. 3).
Natural history has always been the pre-
dominant approach taken by authors in The
Victorian Naturalist. The percentage of
natural history articles has fluctuated
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
343
H is tory Sympos i um
Fig. 3. Percentage of eligible articles in each censused volume of The Victorian Naturalist taking a
taxonomic, systematic and/or morphological approach; or a mixed approach.
between 51 and 100% over time, but some
trends emerge (Fig. 4). Articles using a
natural history approach comprised more
than 75% of eligible articles between 1900
and 1952, and again between 1964 and
1976. This is interesting given that natural
history contributions fell to less than 75%
of eligible articles during Wakefield’s time
as editor, and then increased again when
he relinquished the position.
Wakefield aimed to popularise The
Victorian Naturalist , but he may have done
this partly by increasing the number of
descriptive rather than natural history arti-
cles. There is a peak in descriptive articles
between about I960 and 1968 (Fig. 4),
which encompassed part of Wakefield’s
period as editor and also the tenure of Dick
Hudson, and part of Griff Ward's time in
the position. The peak in descriptive arti-
cles was inflated by a series of narrative
pieces on national parks and monuments
by J. Ros Garnet, and a series on the origin
of generic names of the Victorian flora by
James Baines. The series of technical
microscopy articles that appeared in the
1960s balanced the increase in descriptive
articles, but as already discussed, this is
likely to have been produced by the incor-
poration of the Microscopical Society of
Victoria into the FNC'V.
There was another apparent downturn in
the percentage of natural history articles
that began around 1980, and this down-
ward trend continued until 1996, when the
descriptive (history) articles in the von
Mueller special issue displaced a particu-
larly large volume of material in other cat-
egories. The natural history trendline has
been erratic since then (Fig. 4). The initial
downturn in natural history articles appears
to coincide with the increase in hypothesis
testing, survey and analysis articles that
began during the editorship of Rob Wallis
(1979-1983).
Wallis did not specifically intend to
increase the number of "hypothesis testing’
articles published, but he believes that the
increase may have resulted from his col-
lege lecturer's position. He was Head of
Biology at Victoria College (a position
held previously by Norman Wakefield),
and he encouraged the students to publish
their third-year research projects. The
Victorian Naturalist provided an ideal out-
let for the data, and also those of Monash
University students. Il is possible that a
"snowball effect’ then occurred because
others saw the increasing number of
research reports appearing in the journal,
and were encouraged to submit their own
(Professor Rob Wallis, pers. comm.).
Category level 3: Topic
There has been a marked rise in the
appearance of conservation and ecology
articles since the late 1960s (Fig. 5).
Articles focusing on more than one topic
344
The Victorian Naturalist
H is tory Sympos ium
Year
Fig. 4. Percentage of eligible articles in each censused volume of The Victorian Naturalist taking a
hypothesis testing, survey or analytical approach; a natural history approach; or a descriptive
approach.
have also increased alongside conservation
biology and ecology contributions (Fig. 5),
which may be because both of these fields
usually deal with multiple taxa, and
because many conservation articles
involve an ecological study. The increase
in ecology and conservation papers was
probably due mainly to the increasing pop-
ularity and professional recognition of
these disciplines, and after 1980, due
mainly to the contributions of university
student projects.
The percentage of articles about vascular
plants has always been high (range 14-
50%), which may be partially due to the
advantages for local naturalists of botany
as a study subject (Helen Cohn, pers.
comm.). Rewarding field sites can be
accessed relatively easily by the urban
biologist, and field surveys can minimise
requirements for collecting and curating
samples. There may have been a slight
decline in vascular plant articles since
around 1960 (Fig. 6). The trend is erratic
(and always has been), but if this repre-
sents a true decline, it may be due to an
upsurge in other topics, or the advent of
botanical journals, such as Muelleria. It
may also be partly due to the death or
retirement of some prolific contributors on
vascular plants (e.g. James Willis, Jean
Galbraith). N on-vascular plants and fungi
always comprised less than 10% of eligible
articles in The Victorian Naturalist,
although this could change in coming
years due to the activities of the recently-
formed Fungi Special Interest Group.
Between 1 896 and 1900 over 40% of eli-
gible articles were about birds, but there
was a fall in articles on this topic after
1900 (Fig. 7), which may have coincided
with the 1901 founding of Emu. There was
another peak in bird articles (35%) in 1952
(Fig. 7), possibly due to the editorship of
the ornithologist Ina Watson (editor 1951-
1952). Alec Chisholm was editor between
1939 and 1948, which corresponded with
another peak of bird articles (32%) in 1944
(Fig. 7). Several of the articles contributing
to these peaks were written by the editors,
but the majority were by a variety of other
authors (e.g. Edith Coleman, Tom
Tregellas). It is difficult to determine
whether editorial policy or invitations to
fellow ornithologists caused this, or
whether the enthusiasm of ornithologists
active in the club at the time simply
inspired others to publish on this topic.
Mammalogy has had a moderate degree
of popularity since 1884 (typically less
than 20% of articles), although there
appears to have been an increase in this
popularity since about 1960 when consis-
tently more than 20% of articles have
addressed this topic (Fig. 7). There have
been several major contributors of mam-
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
345
History Symposium
Fig. 5. Percentage of eligible articles in censused volumes of The Victorian Naturalist in the topic
categories of ecology and conservation biology, and in mixed topic categories.
60
0 ^ , , t , , t
1884 1004 1024 1944 1064 1984 2004
Year
Fig. 6. Percentage of eligible articles in cen-
sused volumes of The Victorian Naturalist in
the topic category of vascular plants.
malogy articles to The Victorian Naturalist
over its history, although no single author
seems to have been responsible for peaks
in popularity of the topic. David Fleay
(Healesville Sanctuary) was prolific
between about the late 1920s to the late
1960s, and John Seebeck contributed many
articles between the late 1960s and around
2000. Many of the mammalogy contribu-
tions have been received from universities,
and the increase is probably due largely to
publication of student projects from
Deakin University, Monash University,
LaTrobe University and The University of
Melbourne.
The peak of 6-18% in microscopy arti-
cles that occurred between 1956 and 1968
has already been discussed in context of
the incorporation of the Microscopical
Society of Victoria into the FNCV. The
percentage of articles on this topic has
been less than 6% at all other times. Daniel
Mclnnes and CS and GJ Middleton were
the predominant contributors on micros-
copy; Mclnnes published between 1956
and 1961, and the Middletons published
between 1959 and 1967.
Geology and anthropology have never
featured heavily as topics in The Victorian
Naturalist. There has never been more than
10% of eligible articles on geology in any
volume, and while many authors have con-
tributed one or two articles on this topic,
only Edmund Gill (National Museum,
Melbourne) could be considered prolific,
due to the numerous pieces he published
between 1938 and 1975. Anthropology
contributions have also been relatively
tow, and are consistently less than 10% of
eligible articles. There was a peak of 8%
for anthropology articles in 1928, most of
which were written by Alfred Kenyon.
This was probably connected with the
Prehistoric Club formed in Kenyon’s home
in 1927, which became the Ethnological
Section of the FNCV (although it did not
flourish). Gill also contributed some
anthropology articles, although Aldo
Massola (National Museum. Melbourne)
was the most prolific: he published over 40
anthropology articles between 1956 and
1974.
Invertebrate, vertebrate and plant
palaeontology have usually comprised less
than 10% of eligible articles in The
346
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
Year
Fig. 7. Percentage of eligible articles in censused volumes of The Victorian Naturalist in the topic
categories of birds and mammals.
Victorian Naturalist. The isolated peaks in
this discipline are due to the activity of
individuals: Stanley Colliver (Geology
Department, University of Queensland)
produced the 1936 peak (9%) in inverte-
brate palaeontology articles, and Frederick
Chapman’s work resulted in a 1920 peak
of 15% in plant palaeontology articles.
The Victorian Naturalist has always con-
tained a variable percentage of articles on
insects (Fig. 8) and spiders. Content on
insects appears to have declined erratically
since the 1930s (Fig. 8), but there have
typically been less than 5% of eligible arti-
cles per volume written about spiders.
Entomology contributions have been
received from a variety of authors, some of
them eminent entomologists (e.g. Alec
Burns and Artis Neboiss, both past ento-
mology curators in the National Museum,
Melbourne). Surprisingly, neither Charles
French Senior nor Junior (both Victorian
Government entomologists) contributed
many entomology articles to The Victorian
Naturalist, although both contributed many
articles to the journal. French Snr pub-
lished little entomological work other than
his five-part series Handbook of the
Destructive Insects of Victoria (1891-
1911). The majority of papers contributed
to The Victorian Naturalist by French .Inl-
and Snr were botanical (Baines 1976). pos-
sibly because much of French Snr’s early
training was in horticulture (Marks 1991).
The most prolific contributor of entomo-
logical articles to The Victorian Naturalist
was the amateur hymenopterist Tarlton
Rayment, who wrote over 80 papers, main-
ly about entomology. The professional
commercial artist produced beautiful illus-
trations to accompany his largely taxonom-
ic and behavioural work. There is a sug-
gestion that he had trouble publishing
some of his work in other journals because
their editors considered his style too
‘whimsical’ (Marks 1991). The Victorian
Naturalist is therefore likely to have pro-
vided a suitable outlet for Rayment’s
unconventional writing.
Papers on crustaceans and other inverte-
brates, reptiles, amphibians and fish have
usually comprised less than 10% of eligi-
ble articles per volume. Molluscs have also
largely followed this pattern, although
there was a peak of 12-14% between 1972
and 1976. This was largely due to the con-
tributions of Brian Smith (National
Museum, Melbourne), and to a special
issue 93 (6) on the Coast.
Articles on historical topics usually com-
prised less than 10% of eligible articles in
The Victorian Naturalist. But 40% of arti-
cles were on history in the 1996 commem-
orative von Mueller issue. ‘Other’ topics,
that do not fit into any other topic catego-
ry, have consistently represented 7-20% of
articles since 1988, although there were
usually less than 10% before that time.
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
347
History Symposium
This may reflect a new diversity in The
Victorian Naturalist. ‘Other’ topics have
included X-rays of Australian fauna
(Fergus 1936) and the therapeutic value of
natural science (Davies 1960).
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Alan Yen who had the initial idea to
do a retrospective survey on the content of The
Victorian Naturalist, thanks also to Sheila
Houghton and Rob Wallis for so kindly helping
me to explain several of the trends.
References
Baines JA (1976) The Victorian Naturalist: Author
Index 1 884- ] 975. (FNCV; Melbourne).
Davies EM (I960) Therapy and natural science. The
Victorian Naturalist 77, 127.
Fergus FS (1936) X-ray photographs of Australian ani-
mals. The Victorian Naturalist 53, 83.
French C (1891-1911) Handbook of the Destructive
Insects of Victoria Vol 1 - V. (Victorian Department
of Agriculture: Melbourne).
Houghton S and Presland <i (2005) Leaves From Our
History. (FNC'V: Melbourne).
Givens I V (1945) From an army post 'up north.’ The
Victorian Naturalist 61, 184,
Lothian TRN (1944) Jottings from my New Guinea
notebook. The Victorian Naturalist 61, 99-100.
Marks I N (1991) Biographical history. In The Insects
of Australia Vol I, pp 198-220. Ed ID Naumann
(Melbourne University Press: Melbourne)
Received 7 July 2005: accepted 27 October 2005
Evolution of Field Nats News : a tribute to our volunteers
Noel Schleiger1
Abstract
The Field Nats News began in 1990, as a means of more quickly providing information to members
of the FNCVabout excursions, and other future events. Since then it has evolved to include a wide
range of material, some of which would previously have been published in The Victorian Naturalist.
Publication of Field Nats News is a testament to the wonderful work of volunteers. (The Victorian
Naturalist 122 (6) 2005,348-350)
How it started
From 1884 to 1990 all of the FNCV's
meeting and excursion notices were pub-
lished in The Victorian Naturalist .
Unfortunately, there were difficulties asso-
ciated with this arrangement. Circulation of
The Victorian Naturalist was delayed and
the six monthly calendar of future events
did not appear in time to advertise events.
These were crucial factors affecting atten-
dance at meetings and excursions as people
either did not know about the events or
were left with insufficient time to organise
their timetables! Therefore, during Dr
Arthur Farnworth’s presidency, it was
decided to publish a newsletter which was
seen as a panacea for ‘difficulties in rela-
tion to communication and co-ordination’.
The first newsletter of the FNCV was
published in November 1990, under the
presidency of Dr Arthur Farnworth. It was
edited by Noel Schleiger and typed by
Dorothy Mahler. Issue No. 1 consisted of a
single A3 sheet constituting four A4 pages.
1 1 Astley St, Montmorency, Victoria 3094
As a result of the success of this first edi-
tion, it was decided to produce a bi-month-
ly publication. It was soon obvious that
one A3 sheet was not enough and by
May/June of 1991 (Issue No. 4) we
expanded to two A3 sheets (8 pages) and
by Issue No. 6 (Sept/Oct) there were three
A3 sheets (12 pages). Up to this stage,
Dorothy Mahler was typing up and laying
out material in her spare time at her work
place and then delivering it to ‘Pink
Panther’, located nearby, to print the 500+
copies required at the time. This arrange-
ment continued until the Dec 92/Jan 93
issue, when Rod Barker took over the lay-
out of the newsletter.
Collation was a problem. Initially,
Dorothy and Noel worked alone. It took
them three nights from about 8-1 1 pm
working ‘flat out’. Enid and Arthur
Farnworth and Ed and Pat Grey joined
Dorothy and Noel to help with the larger
newsletters and work was completed in
one night at Noel’s home in Montmorency.
348
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
The Fauna Survey Group also helped
with collation occasionally in those early
days with Russell Thompson, Ray Gibson
and others joining the group at
Montmorency. Prior to the initiation of the
FNCV newsletter, the Fauna Survey Group
had their own newsletter. As the FNCV
newsletter grew in size, the Fauna Survey
Group decided to amalgamate their
newsletter with that of the FNCV. The
newsletter was then issued every third
Tuesday of the month as the Fauna Survey
Group had done.
The newsletter evolves
Dr Malcolm Calder was President at the
time of the June/July 1993 Issue (No. 16).
During his presidency. Issue No. 21 con-
tained 20 pages, a record which still
stands. That issue contained a IVi page
report on a talk by Bob King (Department
Minerals and Energy) about Victorian
Building Stones.
A further 3.5 pages were devoted to
‘Gold Mining in Australia’, while the
remainder, by lima Dunn and Arthur
Thies, covered Botany excursions.
Rod Barker of Boronia Heights
Secondary College was the layout operator
from February /March 1993 (No. 14). This
involved Noel driving from Montmorency
to Boronia twice a month, firstly to leave
the typing (on disc) that Dorothy had done
and then to pick up the printed copy a
week later. Rod Barker continued until
May 1994.
By August 1994, Malcolm moved that
the newsletter be produced monthly. This
resulted in smaller issues from August
1994 to April 1995. Malcolm began a
‘President’s Report’ in August 1994 (No.
24), when the newsletter changed its name
to Field Nats News (FNN).
John Julian commenced as layout opera-
tor in August 1994, with FNN 24, the birth
of the FNN as we know it today. He used
the ‘box layout’ for important reports or
for coming events.
Newsletter layout
Much experimentation occurred with the
layout of the newsletter by different teams
before a standard format was adopted.
John Julian introduced the style which
evolved into that of the current newsletter.
FNN 24 (August 1994) had a two column
page format, was much more compact and
allowed the inclusion of more material.
By July 1995. with Rob Wallis as
President and the advent of Publisher 2,
the newsletter layout was changed to three
columns per page. The size expanded to
two A3 sheets, producing eight A4 pages.
The Calendar of Events was put on the
back page for convenience. This meant
that when the newsletter was opened the
calendar was the Erst part to be seen, and it
was often the first item of interest for
members - what talks, what excursions,
and where!
FNN 34 (July 1995) was the first issue to
have a Table of Contents on the front page.
One year later. FNN 45 (July 1996) can-
vassed members for help with the layout of
the newsletter at our present location in
Blackburn. The Diary of Events then went
to page 2 instead of the back page. FNN 46
was the first issue to acknowledge help by
volunteers towards the newsletter produc-
tion. Joan Broadberry and Brigid Vaughan
joined the layout team and subsequent
issues greatly benefited from their ser-
vices.
Keith Marshall joined the layout team to
produce FNN 48 (August 1 996) and Ann
Williamson joined the typing team for
FNN 5 1 (November 1996).
By July 1997, the Field Nats Bookshop
was set up and FNN 57 published the first
catalogue of books for sale to members.
Keith edited FNN 58, 59, and 60. By FNN
63 (March 1998) the work of the collation
team was being acknowledged.
With two layout teams in operation, it
was possible to lighten the workload in
producing the FNN. Keith and his team
alternated with Noel and his team depend-
ing on availability. This system worked
well from FNN 73 to FNN 1 1 6 when avail-
ability and membership changed.
Since FNN 1 17 (January 2003) Joan
Broadberry and Noel Schlciger, with the
help of Bob Barron, have been co-editors
of the newsletter. Unfortunately, in the last
few months Bob has had to discontinue
because of health reasons. His expertise
with computer technology will be greatly
missed, and he is wished well with his
recovery.
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
349
H is lory Symposium
The size of both the layout and the colla-
tion teams over the years 1995-2005 has
oscillated between 7 and 19. When the
team membership falls below 10, it is diffi-
cult to have the newsletters collated and
addressed for delivery to the Blackburn
Post Office by the due time.
What is in the newsletter?
Since November 1990, the newsletter has
gradually taken on some items formerly
published in The Victorian Naturalist, in
addition to Calendar of Events, e.g. excur-
sion reports. Reports of talks and field
excursions organised by the FNCV and the
now numerous Special Interest Groups
were comprehensively recorded in FNN,
although it is regretted that, of the six
FNCV tours organised during this same
period (being to Binna Burra Qld. northern
Tasmania, Grampians Vic, Kangaroo
Island SA, Mildura/Broken Hill, and Mt
Kosciusko NSW), only one of these tours,
to Mildura/Broken Hill in 1995, was writ-
ten up in detail. In fact, this tour, called
‘The Big Trip', was serialised over five
newsletters! Other topics now included are
the President’s Report, minutes of general
FNCV Council matters, conservation
issues, nature notes and letters to the edi-
tor, punctuated by special announcements
of workshops and other events, and adver-
tisements. Advertisements on behalf of
outside bodies help to minimise the cost of
production of FNN. The Victorian
Naturalist now concentrates on scientific
reports and nature notes. Probably there
are items in FNN which should be in The
V ic tori an Naturalist.
How many volunteers?
Right from the outset, the newsletter
would not have been possible without the
volunteers to write it, lay it out for the
printer, and then collate and label it for
posting.
It takes at least nine authors to write the
various sections of FNN. It takes at least
two and often five to lay out the newsletter
ready for printing and two more to check
it. which is usually done in a rush. Under
ideal conditions, at least twelve people are
needed to collate the newsletter and label
it. on the third Tuesday of the month.
So. every month 25 to 30 volunteers are
involved in the production of FNN.
Sincere thanks to all who have con-
tributed in the past and, hopefully, will
continue successfully in the future.
Throughout the years, the administrative
officers. Felicity Garde. Maria Belvedere,
Ann Williamson and now Mimi Polil, have
been helpful and supportive with ‘stop
press’ news as well as the layout.
Since 1990, the membership of the club
has doubled and, hopefully, the develop-
ment of FNN has contributed to this. The
way the newsletter has evolved has con-
tributed to the growth and success of the
various Special Interest Groups, and makes
one realise that the FNN is essential to the
efficient functioning of the FNCV.
Received 30 July 2005; accepted 3 November 2005
Dorothy Mahler and Denis
Meltzer, as Excursion
Secretaries for many years,
advertised excursions in the
Field Nats News
350
The Victorian Naturalist
The Kershaw Dynasty
J Hope Black (Macpherson)1
History Symposium
Abstract
The Kershaw family had a long and active involvement with both the Field Naturalists Club of
Victoria and natural history within the museum world. Beginning with the arrival of William in
Victoria in 1849 and ending with the death of Ronald in 2003, the Kershaw dynasty has had endur-
ing and important impacts on the study of the natural sciences in Victoria and Tasmania. (The
Victorian Naturalist 122 (6), 2005. 351-357)
The death of Ronald Calder Kershaw in
March 2003 brought to an end a dynasty of
four generations of Kershaws associated
with the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria
and Museum Victoria. The dynasty dates
back to William Kershaw who arrived in
Victoria with his family in 1849, aged 29.
William Kershaw was born at Ryecroft,
West Yorkshire in 1820, the eldest son of
David Kershaw and his wife Hannah. The
family worked as weavers and, as far as
we know, William was also a weaver but
had developed an interest in natural histo-
ry, particularly entomology. It seems like-
ly that their decision to migrate was the
resuit of the industrial revolution that was
causing unemployment and unrest
throughout England.
William Kershaw married Hannah Lamb
in 1840 and they had a number of children
by the time they migrated, paying their
passage on the Ann Milne. None of these
children survived to adulthood except their
fourth child, David, born at Keighly, West
Yorkshire in 1846. The first recorded birth
to the couple in Victoria was in 1855.
William’s interest in natural history con-
tinued after he arrived in Victoria and his
private collection (see below), acquired by
the Museum in 1940, shows he started col-
lecting very soon after he arrived in
Melbourne. According to family history
Kershaw, lured by gold, spent some time
at Ballarat, but by 1854 he was back in
Melbourne. He and Henry Edwards, the
actor and entomologist who had arrived in
Victoria in 1853, very quickly became
known to each other and began making
joint excursions to collect local
Lepidoptera. These they showed to
Professor McCoy who was so impressed
with the young men’s collection that in
1856 he bought it for the Museum and this
'22 Kurrajong Street, Hastings Vic. 3915
collection formed the foundation of the
Museum’s very extensive and now world-
wide Entomological collection. At some
time in the past, this material was incorpo-
rated into the general collection and now
can only be identified by checking individ-
ual specimens. McCoy also proposed them
for membership of the Philosophical
Institute of Victoria (Royal Society of
Victoria from 1860) which had been estab-
lished in 1854, and they were announced
to the monthly meeting on 19 March 1856.
Four months later McCoy read a paper to
the institute ‘On the Formation of
Museums in Victoria’. McCoy wrote:
Victorian insects have been scarcely
touched by Government collectors but I
have secured for the University a fine
series as a commencement selection from
the beautiful and extensive collections of
Victorian insects made by Mr. H. Edwards
and Mr. Kershaw for their own use.
Henry Edwards (1827-1891) was born in
Ross-on-Wye, Herefordshire, younger son
of Thomas Edwards of Brook House. He
early developed the twin interests of acting
and natural history. As well as being an
early member of the Royal Society of
Victoria, to which he continued his mem-
bership until his death, he joined the Field
Naturalists Club and attended meetings
when he visited Melbourne in 1889.
Unfortunately history is silent on how
William supported his growing family for
the next ten years, except that he did own
several properties in the Collingwood area
from which he would have had income.
His address, recorded by the Royal Society
of Victoria in 1859 and I860, was 142
Johnston Street, Collingwood. He must
have continued his contact with McCoy
because in 1860, ’61 and ’62 McCoy pur-
chased further material from him, consist-
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
351
H i story Symposium
ing of over a thousand Lepidoptera and
three hundred Coleoptera.
In 1864 McCoy employed William as
assistant to John Leadbeater, the taxider-
mist, and he was soon appointed second
taxidermist. So far, it has not been possible
to establish whether he had had some train-
ing in taxidermy in England but Henry
Edwards was known to be a capable taxi-
dermist and would have passed on his
knowledge to his collecting companion.
Working with the very skilled Leadbeater
would have honed his skills also, and fitted
him to be appointed second taxidermist.
Incidentally, John Leadbeater joined the
FNCV in September 1881 and a relative,
Thomas Leadbeater, who had been
appointed assistant taxidermist in 1882,
joined the FNCV in October 1882.
The largest task undertaken by the taxi-
dermists was the articulation of the skele-
ton of an adult Black Right whale, 90 feet
long, which had been washed up at Jan
Juc, Victoria and went on display at the
rear of the Museum at the University of
Melbourne in 1868. Pescott1 gives the
credit for preparing and mounting it to
Kershaw, while Rasmussen' credits it to
Leadbeater. From my own experience of
working at the Museum where manpower
was at a premium. I have no doubt that
both men would have been involved.
When the Museum was moved to Russell
Street in 1901 the skeleton was set up in
the courtyard between the Swanston Street
and Russell Street buildings. Lack of pro-
tection from the weather finally caused its
deterioration and it was subsequently
removed and destroyed.
William’s position as taxidermist did not
prevent him pursuing his other interest of
entomology and he became well known
among those of the community interested
in natural history. When the FNCV was
formed in 1880 he was an original member.
Although he did not attend the inaugural
meeting, his sons David (1846-1883) and
William Henry Briggs (1859-1949) did.
Next to Professor McCoy, Kershaw was
the most enduring contributor to the devel-
opment of the National Museum of
Victoria (now Museum Victoria). In spite
of the heavy workload required of him,
William, as a senior staff member under
McCoy, undertook collecting trips around
Melbourne and the Mornington Peninsula
that resulted in a number of echinoderms,
crustaceans and molluscs being added to
the Museum collections. He also visited
central and eastern Gippsland where he
collected, amongst other items, the large
land snail Pygmipanda atomata kershawi
(Brazier 1871 ) from the Snowy River area,
east of Baimsdale.
In spite of efforts by McCoy to retain his
services. William was retired in 1891; he
died in 1899. Even in retirement he contin-
ued his interest in the institution to which
he had given such dedicated service. Over
the years, McCoy acknowledged receipt of
many donations of specimens from
William Kershaw. In 1940 Kershaw's ento-
mological collection was purchased by the
Museum, having been offered by his son
James. This was an extensive collection
mainly of Lepidoptera (10 005 specimens
including some moth type specimens) and
Coleoptera (12 100 specimens). Also
included was some historical material col-
lected as early as 1 849, soon after Kershaw
arrived in Victoria, and retained by him
when he and Henry Edwards sold a portion
of their joint collection to McCoy.
William’s wife Hannah died in 1860 and
in 1865 he married Elizabeth Boyd (1838-
1907) at St Kilda. Their first child, Mary
Hannah, was bom at Fitzroy in 1865 and
was followed by seven other children,
including two sons who lived to adulthood.
In 1883 McCoy employed William’s son,
James Andrew (1866-1946) as assistant
taxidermist (Fig. 1). In 1890 he was
appointed taxidermist to replace his father
who retired a year later. The position
would have been as senior taxidermist
since Leadbeater had died in 1888. In
checking records wc find that William
Kershaw in later life was referred to as
entomologist, and James as taxidermist
until his appointment as Curator in 1899.
However, designating titles that suggest a
person had a particular area of duty is erro-
neous, as all staff at the time needed to be
multi-skilled.
On the death of McCoy in 1899,
Professor Baldwin Spencer was appointed
Honorary Director. With McCoy’s resis-
tance removed, the government of the day
moved quickly to relocate the Museum to
the Public Library site, between Swanston
352
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
and Russell Streets. Much of the organis-
ing and execution of this move fell to
James Kershaw as the senior staff member.
At Spencer’s instigation James was made
Curator of the zoological collections. This
gave Spencer more freedom from adminis-
trative duties, allowing him to pursue his
ethnological studies in Central Australia.
Spencer was an Honorary Director with
many other commitments, so the day-to-
day running of the Museum fell to James
Kershaw. This included creating exhibi-
tions, and the additional space at Russell
Street enabled him to expand the exhibits.
Thus he was able to prepare a series of
table cases showing representatives of
Recent shells found round the Victorian
coast. Each specimen was labelled with its
scientific name and where it was found.
These cases were very popular with the
public as people could bring their speci-
mens to the Museum, compare them with
those exhibited in the cases, and so identi-
fy and name them. Another popular exhib-
it, set up by Frederick Chapman, appointed
Palaeontologist in 1902, was a similar set
of cases displaying specimens from the
various Miocene fossil beds around
Melbourne and regularly visited by collec-
tors. Both these exhibits remained popular
until the early 1940s when they were
removed to make way for more innovative
modern exhibits, much to the sorrow of
many local collectors.
The increased space available on comple-
tion of a Russell Street frontage enabled
expansion of the exhibition galleries.
Australian mammals and birds could be
adequately displayed in the upper gallery,
above the Russell Street frontage; this
space became known as the Spencer Hall.
Once again, planning and much of the
hands-on execution fell to James Kershaw.
These displays included several that
depicted larger, better known species such
as lyrebird, Brolga, Black Swan and alba-
tross in their natural habitat.
In 1910, James Kershaw visited King
Island, following the report of fossil bones
there, to look for evidence of extinct ani-
mals. He found evidence of wombats and
emus. As a result of this excursion Spencer
and Kershaw wrote two articles for the
Memoir series of the Museum.
Fig. 1. James Andrew Kershaw, 1866-1946
The wealthy pastoralist HL White of
Belltrees, near Scone in NSW, was a keen
ornithologist who was putting together a
representative collection of Australian
birds and eggs; because of this, he was
very much involved with the Royal
Australasian Ornithologists Union. This
latter connection led him to arrange that
his field collectors should send insects and
spiders, obtained as a sideline during their
bird collecting, to the Museum. This
arrangement provided substantial additions
to the Museum’s collections from the
Northern Territory and north Queensland.
Kershaw extended this contact by interest-
ing White in the requirements of the
Ornithology collection and suggested he
might donate duplicate material to the
Museum. This was strongly supported by
Major (later Dr) JA Leach, the Lecturer in
Nature Study at the Education Department.
Later, Kershaw was able to persuade
White to donate his collection of skins and
eggs to the Museum. It arrived there in the
charge of White's curator, Sydney W
Jackson, on 4 August 1927. and White
continued to add to it until his death later
that year.
In 1928 the Federal Government appoint-
ed a three-man committee to report on the
feasibility of establishing a National
Museum in Canberra. The personnel were
Dr ACD Rivett, Chief Executive Officer,
Commonwealth Council for Scientific and
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
353
His tory Sympos him
Industrial Research (later CSIRO)
Chairman, Dr Charles Anderson, Director
Australian Museum, Sydney, and James A
Kershaw, (later Director, National
Museum, Victoria). The recommendation
was positive but it was many years before
the Museum was established.
Baldwin Spencer had many other inter-
ests and was frequently absent, so for
many years Kershaw had been, to all
intents, the Director of the Museum. Thus
it was fitting that on Spencer's retirement
in December 1928 Kershaw should be
appointed Director, a position he occupied
until his own retirement in 1932, when he
was appointed the first honorary curator.
It was Kershaw who, following the
American example, planned a notable inno-
vation and improvement to Museum exhibi-
tions, the first of the Dioramas or habitat
groups. These large exhibits consisted of a
realistically-painted background with a
three-dimensional foreground occupied by
a small group of animals. The lion group
wfas completed in 1929 and the polar bear
group in 1930. The Australian War
Memorial artist, Louis McCubbin, was lent
to the Museum to paint the background,
and Charles Brazenor, at that time the taxi-
dermist and later Curator of mammals, car-
ried out the work of mounting the animals
and arranging the foreground.
As early as 1904. Kershaw had observed
the common eel and w rote about a colour
variation. This work was concurrent with
observations made in northern Europe by
the Danish zoologist Professor Johannes
Schmidt who, like Kershaw, had noted that
eels living in fresh water had not been
found carrying spawn. Schmidt received a
grant from the Carlsberg foundation and
was able to carry out research from which
he concluded, although he did not observe
spawning, that the European species breed
in the Sargasso Sea off Bermuda. Kershaw
(191 1) described in some detail juvenile
eel (elvers) migration in Victoria, known
as ‘eel-fares’. Later workers have been
able to establish that eels seen in
Australian waters breed in the Coral Sea,
to the north-east of Australia.
James Kershaw w as also a keen collector
and was able to venture further afield than
his father had done. Although his specific
interest was entomology he did not neglect
the rest of the animal kingdom. He was a
member of the party that visited the Bass
Strait islands with the Royal Australasian
Ornithologists Union in 1908. He again
visited the islands in 1909. He visited the
Barrier Reef w ith Dr William Macgillivray
of Broken Hill and his son in 1913. They
worked their way up the coast by boat
from Cook town to Lloyd Island where
they obtained supplies, then proceeded by
small cutter to Claudia River on the coast.
From there they penetrated upstream for
some miles, where they established a camp
and made substantial collections (Kershaw
1914 and 1915). In 1921 Kershaw trav-
elled across the continent on the transcon-
tinental railway to Ooldea in South
Australia, to collect zoological, botanical
and ethnological specimens. This resulted
in many specimens being added to the
Museum and Herbarium collections.
Like other members of the Kershaw fam-
ily, he was active in the FNCV from 1883,
and a member from 1888. He served in a
number of capacities: as a Committee
member for over 30 years. Secretary in
1901-1903 and again in 1908. President in
1913-1915 and again in 1 93 1-1933.
Beginning in 1894. he was responsible for
the publication of 69 papers of various
lengths, (Kershaw RC 1948. 1949), most of
which appeared in The Victorian
Naturalist. There were 16 on entomology,
13 on fish, seven on mammals, four on
snakes, three on birds. In additon a further
four were published in Emu. He seemed to
ignore the invertebrates apart from insects
though he did write notes on Paper
Nautilus. This may have been because
there were a number of capable people col-
lecting and writing on a number of phyla,
such as Arthur Dendy on sponges, William
Bale on hydroids, Joseph Gabriel on
hydroids and GB Pritchard. JH Gatliff and
Charles Gabriel on molluscs. James partici-
pated in many club excursions and was
responsible for writing notes on day excur-
sions and camp-outs such as that on the
Buffalo mountains and several on Wilsons
Promontory. He was concerned with
preservation of landscape as well as flora
and fauna, and was a foundation member of
the National Parks Association founded in
1908 in association with the reservation of
Wilson’s Promontory as a national park. It
354
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
had been reserved in 1 898 but without any
formal arrangement for its management.
Professor Baldwin Spencer had a broad
interest in the conservation of the
Australian environment and particularly in
the preservation of its fauna and he saw the
need for an authoritative influential body to
advise the Victorian government. He sug-
gested that a committee should be set up
consisting of representatives from
Victoria’s Royal Society, FNCV, Royal
Australasian Ornithologists Union, Fish
Protection Society, Anglers Club, National
Museum and the Zoological Gardens. Later
he suggested that the Royal Geological
Society of Australasia should be included
and that a conference of delegates should
be held. An important outcome of this
meeting was a deputation to the Minister of
Land for the setting up of a Committee of
Management for Wilson’s Promontory.
This was approved and proclaimed on 18
August 1908. At the first meeting on 22
September, Baldwin Spencer was appoint-
ed Chairman and James Kershaw was
Honorary Secretary, a position he occupied
until his death in 19462
James Kershaw was elected a member of
the Royal Society of Victoria in 1900 and
was a Councillor from 1902 to 1935. He was
President in 1918-19, Honorary Secretary
1920-23, Honorary Librarian 1924-5, and a
Trustee from 1922 until his death. He was a
Fellow of the Royal Entomological Society
of London and a corresponding member of
the Zoological Society of London. At the
January 1935 Melbourne meeting of the
Australian and New Zealand Association for
the Advancement of Science he was elected
Vice-President of the Zoological Section.
James married Elsie Charlotte Brown in
1 889 and they had three sons. She died at
Windsor in 1930 and he on 16 February
1946.
William Kershaw’s other two surviving
sons were also interested in natural history
and contributed specimens to the Museum
collections. William Flenry Briggs
Kershaw, a landscape gardener, collected
insects and molluscs, particularly land
shells. Following his death the Museum
received his shell collection. He had made
several other donations during his lifetime.
Thomas Kershaw (1867-1942) was
employed by McCoy as assistant entomol-
ogist in 1896 and resigned in 1904, proba-
bly because he wanted to pursue his other
interests as farmer, artist and explorer. He
made collections in New South Wales and
Victoria, which he donated to the Museum.
James Kershaw’s eldest son was Harold
Edgar (1890-1962) born at Windsor.
Victoria. Fie was not formally engaged in
natural history studies, his occupation
being as a soldier, in commerce and as a
farmer. However, in his youth he was a
member of the FNCV, and it was there he
met his future wife, Jessie Elizabeth Kelly
(1888-1976) at the end of World War 1.
She was also a keen naturalist and support-
ed her husband’s and later her son’s inter-
est in natural history. The family lived at
Windsor with James Kershaw, who by this
time was a widower, so they became
involved with his interests, particularly the
FNCV and the National Museum. Harold
became a collector and followed his
father’s interest in entomology. But he also
retained a broad interest in natural history
that included molluscs and fossils. Some of
his material ended up in the collections of
both his father and son, and a few speci-
mens in those of the Museum of Victoria.
There are also a few items in the
Museum collections donated by Harold's
younger brother Leslie Norman (1892-
1940) but nothing from the youngest
brother Cyril Boyd (1904-1948), as far as 1
have been able to ascertain.
Harold’s son Ronald C’alder Kershaw,
along with his two sisters, were members
and active participants in the FNCV in the
early 1940s. It was here that his sister Elsie
Mary (1922- ) met her future husband,
Wilfred Habgood Joske. He was not him-
self a collector but inherited a collection of
Thursday Island shells from his father,
Adolf Joske, who had collected them when
stationed there about 1917. Part of this col-
lection he retained but part he passed on to
his brother-in-law Ronald Kershaw.
Ronald was born on 7 December 1920 at
Malvern, Victoria, and died in Launceston,
Tasmania on 15 March 2003 (Fig. 2). He
grew up under the influence of his grandfa-
ther so that his greatest interest was natural
history. From an early age he enjoyed
spending time in the bush with his father
collecting insects, spiders, snails and what-
ever wildlife came to hand. On leaving
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
355
His tory Sympos him
school he studied accountancy but it was
soon interrupted by service with the
Australian Imperial Forces in the Middle
East and New Guinea. When duties allowed,
his recreation was study and collecting of
wildlife wherever he found himself.
In 1947 he met his future wife Winifred
Mary Bull, who had served in the WAAF
during the war, and they married in 1948.
They moved to northern Tasmania, where
they fanned at Clarence Point on the West
Tamar for a number of years. During this
time they had two daughters. Later he was
employed by the Tasmanian State
Government in the Agronomy Division at
the Department of Agriculture Laboratories,
at Mount Pleasant. He retired in 1978. Fie
continued his personal involvement in the
collection and study of molluscs, particu-
larly land snails, and he wrote a number of
papers as the result of his studies. His first
four papers on the family Charopidae were
published between 1954 and 1956 in The
Victorian Naturalist. These were followed
by papers in the Journal of the
Malacological Society of Australia and
Records of the Queen Victoria Museum.
He also collaborated with Brian Smith in
two major publications on land and fresh-
water molluscs.
Ron Kershaw was a member of that
dying breed, the amateur naturalist. His
health was impaired by his war service and
on discharge from the A1F he moved to
Tasmania for an outdoor life. Since it was
necessary to earn a living throughout his
whole life, his scientific work was carried
out in his spare time.
His appointment as the first Associate,
and later the first Research Associate, at
the Queen Victoria Museum in Launceston
meant that he had a working relationship.
However, the Museum was closed at night,
at the only time he had for his molluscan
work until after his retirement.
Unfortunately, by then his health was
already deteriorating.
To appreciate his contribution it is neces-
sary to understand the isolation of his posi-
tion in Tasmania in the latter half of the
last century. Computers were relatively
rare and the Internet was not yet available.
There were no co-w'orkers locally to bridge
the gap, so Ron Kershaw assembled an
extensive reference library and corre-
Fig. 2. Ronald Calder Kershaw, 1920-2003
sponded with researchers within Australia
and as far away as Sweden, New Zealand,
France and USA.
Until the advent of the electron micro-
scope and. through the efforts of Brian
Smith at the Queen Victoria Museum, he
was able to access these facilities, and did
his own photography and produced his
own papers for publication. At weekends
and on holidays he collected throughout
Tasmania and curated his collection. The
occasional visits of shell collectors from
interstate or New7 Zealand and of visiting
scientists helped to alleviate the isolation.
Ron Kershaw had been a member of the
LNCV since his youth and he was also a
member of the Royal Society of Tasmania.
Tasmanian Field Naturalists Club, and the
Malacological Society of Australasia. On
the occasion of Ron's retirement from the
Society, John Stanisic of the Queensland
Museum noted Ron's 40 years of member-
ship, his contribution to malacology, and
his published bibliography. He was an
Honorary Associate in invertebrate
Zoology, Museum Victoria, and Honorary
Associate in Malacology, Queen Victoria
Museum. As an acknowledged authority in
Tasmania on malacology, he was invited to
write the article on VVL May for the
A ustralian Dictionary of Biography
He was always willing to help students
and local collectors. They were encouraged
to reach their potential and make their con-
356
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
tribution to the knowledge of Tasmanian
fauna, particularly land mollusca, which
had been neglected in the past.
Ron was involved in the activities of the
local community but his interests spread
much wider, including areas such as
Aboriginal land rights, conservation and the
environment.
Over the course of his life he had made
large natural history collections, in particu-
lar of Recent and fossil molluscs, and had
also built up a very fine library of natural
history books and reprints. Before his
death, the whole collection was acquired
by the Queen Victoria Museum, under the
Commonwealth Grants Scheme. Ron
Kershaw’s research was greatly helped by
his wife Win, particularly when it came to
accessing information from French and
German publications, as she was able to
translate them.
Acknowledgements
1 have to acknowledge the many people who
have tried to help me find information on the
early life of William Kershaw. His Great -
grandson the late Ronald Calder Kershaw was
the first and probably the most important as he
supplied me with basic information on
William's activities in Yorkshire as handed
down through the family. He also supplied me
with information about the interests and careers
of William’s sons, enabling me, in several cases,
to get further details from other sources.
Specifically I want to thank -
Sandra Winchester, Librarian at Museum
Victoria who has been patient always with my
requests for photocopies; Peter Lillywhite,
Collections Manager Entomology, who provid-
ed information and dates of specimens obtained
from William Kershaw before he was employed
by Professor McCoy; Ken Walker,
Entomologist, who vetted my statement on the
above; Chris Rowley, Collections Manager,
Invertebrates, who supplied me with extensive
lists of specimens received from the various
members of the Kershaw family. Mrs Sheila
Houghton checked the FNCV membership so
that I did not depend on ’hearsay' regarding the
Kershaws' membership and natural history
activities. The staff of the Hastings branch of the
Mornington Peninsula Library have hunted for
references and trawled the Internet seeking
information on the Kershaw family in
Yorkshire. Finally, but not least, Ron Kershaw's
widow has read the manuscript and supplied me
with intimate information on Ron's tenacious
efforts to carry on his scientific work under
great difficulties.
Notes
'Pescott (1954) Collections of a Century, 67
^Rasmussen (2001 ) A Museum for the People , 56-7
'Pescott (1983) Australian Dictionary of Biography.
104-105
References
Annual Report (1892) Royal Society Of Victoria,
Proceedings Royal Society of Victoria 5, 23 1.
Annual Report (1946) Royal Society Of Victoria,
Proceedings Royal Society of Victoria 58, 148.
Anon (1891) Henry Edwards. The Victorian Naturalist
8. 80,
Anon ( 1899) Notes. The Victorian Naturalist 16, 114.
Anon (1947) James Kershaw, Obituary. Proceedings
Royal Society of Victoria. 59,148.
Brown-May A and May, TW (1997) ‘A mingled Yarn'
Henry Edwards. The Thespian and Naturalist, in
Astral Land of Plenty. 1853-1866. In The Scientific
Savant in Nineieenth-Ccniury Australia. Ed R Home
Historical records of' Australian Science , 11, 407-
418.
Burn R (2003 ) Ron Kershaw. Victorian Branch
Bulletin, Malaeologica! Society of Australasia, April
-May, 219. 2
Kershaw JA (191 I) Migration of Eels in Victoria. The
Victorian Naturalist 27. 1 96-201 .
Kershaw JA (1914) A naturalist in North Queensland
Pt 1. The Victorian Naturalist 21. 113-124.
Kershaw JA (1915) A naturalist in North Queensland
Pt 2. The Victorian Naturalist 21, 161-172.
Kershaw JA (1944) John Leadbeater of the National
Museum, The Victorian Naturalist 61, 23.
Kershaw RC (1948) Bibliography of JA Kershaw.
FRES.CMZS. The Victorian Naturalist 65, 169-172.
Kershaw RC (1948) Bibliography of JA Kershaw,
PRES, CM/.S. Addendum. The Victorian Naturalist
66,89
Pescott RTM (1954) Collections of a Century (National
Museum of Victoria: Melbourne)
Pescott RTM (1983) Kershaw, James Andrew 1866-
1946. In Australian Dictionary of Biography 9. 1891-
1939 Gil-Las, pp. 578-9. Eds. B Nairn and G Serle
(Melbourne University Press: Melbourne)
RAK (1946) The late JA Kershaw. The Victorian
Naturalist 62. 243-4.
Rasmussen C (2001) A Museum for the People (Scribe
Publications: Melbourne)
Spencer WB and Kershaw, JA (1910) A collection of
sub-lossil Bird and Marsupial Remains from King
Island. Bass Strait. Memoirs of the National Museum
of Victoria 3, 5-35.
Spencer WB and Kershaw, JA (1910) The existing
Species of the Genus Phaseolomys. Memoirs of die
National Museum of Victoria 3. 37-63,
Stanisic J ( 1997) Retirement. Australian Shell News 95,
7.
Whittel HM (1944) John Leadbeater of the National
Museum. The Victorian Naturalist 60, 180.
Received 14 July 2005; accepted 27 October 2005
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
357
History Symposium
From cabinets of curiosities to black boxes: the future
of the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria
Alan L Yen'
Abstract
Field naturalists have contributed to our understanding of the natural world through their observing,
collecting, identification and storage of objects that interest them. They have been able to achieve
this task more successfully using increasingly complex technologies in their endeavours. Today,
some of the ‘black box1 technologies have reached beyond the interest and understanding of most
naturalists: will these technologies result in the demise of the traditional naturalist and end the Field
Naturalists Club of Victoria? In reality, the FNCV has expertise that is essential, and its long-term
future is bright if it can maintain a balanced membership on the basis of age, amateurs and profes-
sionals. (The Vjrrni’hvi Salnmlisi 122 (6) 2005. 35H-366)
Introduction
In celebrating the achievements of the
Field Naturalists Club of Victoria (FNCV)
over its 125 year history, it is opportune to
speculate about where the Club will be at
its 150"’ or 200th year. Such speculation is
difficult because it is easy to suggest where
the Club is going based on its current activ-
ities, but unforeseen external factors can
have profound influences (both positive
and negative) on what actually happens.
In this paper, I will briefly outline some
historical developments in science - both
technical and theoretical - to see how they
have influenced the way in which natural-
ists, and consequently the FNCV, have
fared. This is reflected in the title of this
paper. The ‘cabinets of curiosities' refers
to the importance of specimens for the nat-
uralist; specimens are the objects that cap-
ture the curiosity of the collector. Many
naturalists assembled a collection of
objects, from potpourris of interesting
unrelated objects (ranging from the com-
mon to the bizarre) to systematic collec-
tions of particular groups of rocks, plants
or animals. These amateur collections
formed the basis of many of the world's
major natural history collections (museums
and herbaria), which in turn are a legacy
for future study. The black boxes' refer to
technological and intellectual advances
that have influenced both naturalists and
science. The ways in which they work
may, at times, be of little or no interest to
the average amateur naturalist; the results
are of primary interest. The main question
1 Primary Industries Research Victoria, 621 Burwood
Highway, Knoxfield, Victoria 3156
here is whether some of these black box
advances are so specialised that they could
permanently deter interest by naturalists in
the future.
By definition, ‘naturalists’ are people
who indulge in natural history activities.
Martin et al. (1996) provide two formal
definitions of ‘natural history': (1) ‘The
study of living organisms in their natural
habitats' and (2) ‘The study of all natural
phenomena.' The first definition immedi-
ately confines the study to the field (more
akin to ‘field naturalists') and implies that
laboratory studies arc precluded. The sec-
ond definition is very broad and is more
akin the Club motto, ‘Understanding Our
Natural World.’ What constitutes ‘natural
history' has changed over time, and a
detailed discussion is beyond the scope of
this paper; a more detailed discussion is
found in Griffiths (1996),
It would also be inappropriate for me to
discuss the origins of ‘naturalists’ as we
define them today. That is a subject tack-
led by others (Allen 1978; Griffiths 1996:
Jenkins 1978), although 1 would note that it
is a subject for which information is readily
available only for Europe, North America,
and Australia. 1 wonder whether there is a
strong tradition in natural history in other
societies such as in Asia and the Middle
East. Jenkins (1978) notes interests in keep-
ing and observing wild animals as tar back
as 3500 BC in Egypt and 3000 BC in
China. In traditional hunter-gatherer soci-
eties, an acute awareness of natural history
was probably essential for survival, and the
thought of studying nature for nature’s sake
358
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
may have been an alien concept. No doubt
similar examples could be found for other
aspects of natural history such as geology,
palaeontology and astronomy.
In western science, there was originally
an overlap between naturalist activities and
biology; the latter was not a distinct ter-
tiary discipline until late in the 19"’ centu-
ry. Naturalists were interested in collect-
ing, classifying and naming species, and
there were two types: field naturalists who
were primarily observers of living organ-
isms in their natural environment, and cab-
inet naturalists who collected trophies
(although many could be classified into
both categories) (Griffiths 1996). The dis-
cipline of natural history arose out of the
amateur tradition, but with technological
advances, natural history separated from
science with the emergence of biology as a
separate, more laboratory-based, discipline
(Finney 1993). Natural history was consid-
ered more the domain of the non-academ-
ic, and naturalists were often relegated to
lower class citizenship because some ‘sci-
entists’ claimed that, compared to post-
Darwinian biology, natural history lacked
a scientific basis.
This demarcation between natural histo-
ry, as practised by amateurs, and academic
science may have been more blurred in
Victoria. Societies that catered to the more
professional members of society were
established in Victoria in the 19'" century,
natural history was initially part of the
Philosophical societies that became the
Royal Societies (Willis 1980). Some State-
based societies were formed for specialist
disciplines; some, such as the Geological
Society of Victoria, still operate: some
have become national societies, while oth-
ers have either closed down (e.g.
Acclimatisation Society of Victoria) or
been incorporated into existing societies.
The FNCV arose as an alternative to the
more socially exclusive Royal Society of
Victoria and the Royal Zoological and
Acclimatisation Society of Victoria. It con-
centrated on field studies as opposed to
laboratory studies (Evans 1982). The
FNCV attempted to popularise science.
While conservative in some aspects (the
FNCV opposed evolution and black-balled
potential members who supported it in the
1880s), it was interested in conservation
(calling to save forest treasures in 1887)
and interested in Australian flora and fauna
(as opposed to the Acclimatisation Society
of Victoria) (Evans 1982). Many of the
early members were office workers, and
FNCV activities provided a weekend activ-
ity for them (Evans 1982).
However, compared to many other natu-
ralist clubs, the FNCV has some very
important characteristics that have enabled
its survival:
( 1 ) It has a long history of amateur natu-
ralists interacting with scientists. Even
though the interests of field naturalist clubs
began to differ from the more experimental
approach of the universities, the FNCV was
really an amalgamation of amateurs and
professionals (Finney 1993). For example,
professional Museum staff (such as
Baldwin Spencer and James Kershaw)
enjoyed a long association with collectors
from the FNCV (Rasmussen 2001). The
then National Museum of Victoria even put
on a major exhibition of Australian
Aboriginal art under the auspices of the
Trustees acting on advice from the FNCV
members Charles Barrett and AS Kenyon
(Rasmussen 2001). The FNCV had a sig-
nificant influence on the biological endeav-
ours of Baldwin Spencer (Professor of
Biology at the University of Melbourne and
Director of the National Museum of
Victoria). Trained in the UK, and arriving
in Melbourne in 1887 to work under
McCoy, Spencer joined the FNCV in
August 1887 and had two terms as
President. Spencer’s participation in FNCV
trips enabled him to collect specimens and
convinced him of the unique nature of the
Australian environment; his FNCV excur-
sion in September 1887 initiated his inter-
est in earthworms, including the Giant
Gippsland Earthworm. A three week
FNCV excursion to King Island in 1887
had a profound influence on him because
he was the only academic among 26 natu-
ralists (Mulvaney and Calaby 1985).
(2) The long-running journal of the Club,
The Victorian Naturalist . The material
published in The Victorian Naturalist was
more like that published in the professional
journals such as the Proceedings of the
Royal Society of Victoria. However, its
first issue emphasised the main object of
the Club in its introduction:
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
359
H istory Symposium
Field work has been the main object of the
Society, and the enlarged cabinets, and the
exhibits at meetings testify to the activity
of members in this direction, while the
number of careful observers of Nature in
the colony has been greatly magnified.1
The black boxes
I want to briefly outline eight factors that
have had profound effects on natural hist-
ory, and in turn, on field naturalists. These
factors have, in most cases, benefited natu-
ralists and broadened the boundaries of
their endeavours. Yet some of these factors
have either led to a drift away from active
participation in field naturalist activities or
moved natural history to a level of special-
isation that is not of interest to the average
naturalist.
The eight factors that I want to discuss
are: (1) the microscope, (2) mechanical
transport, (3) printing, (4) the camera, (5)
the atom, (6) evolution and ecology, (7)
computers, and (8) DNA technology.
There are certainly other factors, and many
will disagree with my selection; the list is
more illustrative than definitive.
(1) The microscope opened up a new
dimension for naturalists in that it enabled
them to see details beyond the power of
the naked eye and to gain an understanding
of the structure of objects (both physical
and biological). However, the advent of
the electron microscope may have alienat-
ed some naturalists.
(2) Mechanical transport gave naturalists
greater mobility and accessibility (both on
land and across seas and continents), but
on the downside it led to development of
other interests that resulted in environmen-
tal change (greater access to marine and
land-based resources and establishment of
international tourist resorts).
(3) Printing resulted in better recording
and dissemination of information to a
w'ider audience.
(4) The camera (still and movie) has had
an incredible impact for improved commu-
nication and education, and has stimulated
interest in natural history and conservation.
It also enables recording of natural history-
objects without the need to always collect
specimens. While television now provides
a broad mixture of programs that range
lrom drama, comedies, quiz shows, docu-
mentaries to junk reality programmes, the
original quality reality programmes were
probably natural history ones. The devel-
opment of cinematography has had two
negative influences on naturalists: ( 1 ) Info-
tainment: natural history programmes
aimed at a market rather than on fact (e.g.
the emphasis on the spectacular predatory
mammals), and (2) the evolution of the
couch potato.
(5) Atomic theory allowed a greater
understanding of the basis of biology and
geology and also resulted in biological
research with a greater emphasis on bio-
chemistry and physiology.
(6) The theory of evolution and the rise
of ecology as a discipline provided a
framework to understand how and why
plants and animals are where they are, and
a way of assessing changes in conservation
status of plants and animals. The theory of
evolution changed the way plants and ani-
mals are identified and classified. Ecology
has provided a better framework for under-
standing the natural world and the relation-
ships between geology, flora and fauna. In
conjunction with mathematics and modern
computers, evolution and ecology have
seen a dramatic rise in application of math-
ematical modelling which in most cases is
relevant, but at times is a poor excuse for
the paucity of empirical data on which to
base decisions.
(7) Computers have resulted in an expo-
nential rise in data and image storage and
transfer technology. This has been of great
benefit to naturalists, although one nega-
tive may be that nerds have turned to com-
puter games and chat rooms instead of nat-
ural history!
(8) The rise of DNA technology has pro-
vided us with a better understanding of the
basis of life and genetics. It could be
argued that with rapid advances in DNA
technology the objects of study have
become secondary to the technology. There
is a generation of graduate biologists who
have less understanding of whole organism
biology and the natural world, and see nat-
ural history as a series of DNA sequences.
There is a danger that DNA technology
could see the rapid loss of traditional skills:
whole organism biology, traditional taxon-
omy, traditional herbarium and museum
collections, and a science that thinks that it
360
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
is so smart that it can identify which indi-
viduals within a species need to be saved if
the species is not to become extinct.
An example of where there is a diver-
gence between naturalist interests and
modern scientific endeavours is the study
of the Giant Gippsland Earthworm
Megascolides australis. This is an example
of an endemic species whose recorded sci-
entific history is closely aligned with the
FNCV or its members. It was described by
a President of the FNCV (McCoy 1878),
and members of the FNCV who researched
the Giant Gippsland Earthworm and pub-
lished in other journals or books include
McCoy (1878), Spencer (1888a, 1888b),
Bage (1909), Barrett (1931, 1935, 1938,
1941a, 1941b, 1942a, 1942b, 1954),
Watson (1947) and Yen el a/. (1990).
Members of the FNCV who published arti-
cles on M. australis in The Victorian
Naturalist include Goudie (1904), Barrett
(1929, 1930), Anonymous (1931), Collivcr
(1944), Stewart (1946), Eve (1974), Smith
(1974), Smith and Peterson (1982) and
Van Praagh et al. (1989). These studies
have used many of the factors listed above.
I am currently involved in a research pro-
ject on translocation of the Giant
Gippsland Earthworm, and one component
of this project is to identify genetic mark-
ers to track the success of the transloca-
tion. In an email I received from one of the
geneticists in this project (Dr David
Runciman, Genetics Department, La Trobe
University) he stated:
Standard universal primers prove to be no
good for this species but one of my cock-
roach-specific primers coupled with a uni-
versal primer (mtDl 1 ) was able to amplify
very weak bands at 40°C annealing temp. I
excised these, re-amplified and sequenced
and got excellent sequence for six individ-
uals. Four identical haplotypes plus two
others differing by 3 & 4 bp with no evi-
dence of n units (no stop codons), all from
-540 bp from the middle of COI. Am now
waiting on Megascolules-spcdftc primers 1
designed from the alignment of these to
arrive. Very small sample size but interest-
ing that we already have three haplotypes
from just six samples.
While this finding (that a potential genetic
marker has been found in the Giant
Gippsland Earthworm) is important, the
technology and terminology involved is
well beyond the interest of many amateur
naturalists (and many scientists). The ques-
tion is whether technology will become so
advanced that naturalists will become irrel-
evant in the future.
The future of natural history
Has technology advanced to the point
where it could become irrelevant to the
interests of the average amateur naturalist?
Or more importantly, will it make the natu-
ralist obsolete? The answer is simply ‘no?
Naturalists will continue their activities as
long as there is nature to be observed. In
the centuries ahead of us, the ‘nature’ may
not necessarily constitute the same envi-
ronments that exist today; these may be
systems that have eventuated as a result of
human exploitation of the planet.
There are several reasons why naturalists
will still be relevant in the future:
(1) Loss of expertise and knowledge
The future of the FNCV is closely tied to
the future of natural history. In Britain, a
House of Lords Select Committee reported
a gloomy picture of Britain’s chronic
shortage of skilled naturalists and taxono-
mists, leading to a decline in field identifi-
cation skills among both amateur and pro-
fessional naturalists (Gates 2003). This is
partly a result of the increased funding
available for biotechnology and biomedi-
cine, and a generation of tertiary biology
students may graduate with inadequate
exposure to the natural world. The report
also noted that the average age of amateurs
is rising, and these are the people who con-
tribute to national bird, butterfly and plant
surveys. Field work at schools is minimal
because of time-tabling pressures and fear
of litigation from possible accidents. In
Britain, 80% of pupils under 16 never do
any field work, and two-thirds of A-level
biology students do one day or less. The
camera has replaced the collecting jar, and
the programmes produced arc generally
exciting and spectacular films of hard to
get to places, and field work in the local
park pales into insignificance. The reduced
interest in the ‘cabinets of curiosities’
could mean that there will be less speci-
men collecting and loss of associated skills
(e.g. specimen preparation) and collections
for future generations.
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
361
H istory Symposium
In the past, nature studies in schools
often led to a future interest in natural his-
tory. The United Kingdom experienced a
reduction in nature studies in schools, and
it was found that many teachers did not
feel confident about identifying plants and
animals; this led to the establishment of the
Field Studies Council and AIDGAP
(Tilling 1987). AIDGAP involved a pro-
gramme of publishing identification guides
and running identification courses. In
Australia, the same situation exists and
there are even fewer identification guides
available. This is a serious situation in
view of the uniqueness of the Australian
environment. The danger is that globalisa-
tion of knowledge could lead to future
teaching of natural history based on non-
A u stra 1 i an in format ion.
(2) The need to study at the organism/
object level
The trend of moving from studying the
whole organism to the molecular level is
seeing a new type of graduate biologist
one that may be a master of technology but
with inadequate skills to identify plants
and animals. Combined with the way ter-
tiary institutions have cut back courses
(Held work, field techniques, plant and ani-
mal identification), this has resulted in a
vacuum that good naturalists can fill.
(3) Need for live observations
In his autobiography. Sir David
Attenborough (2002) wrote:
Zoology had changed since 1 was a student
at Cambridge. Then the science had seemed
to me to be largely laboratory-bound. We
were taught about the anatomy of animals
and peered into the entrails of crayfish, dog-
fish and rats. We sal in lecture theatres
while the complexities of animal classifica-
tion were explained and illustrated with
skeletons and stuffed skins. We heard about
painstaking experiments designed to find out
whether pigeons could count and how quick-
ly rats could learn to run the correct way
through mazes. But there was no suggestion
that we might ultimately, as qualified zoolo-
gists, watch elephants in Africa or crouch in
a hide in the depths of a tropical forest
watching some rare bird at its nest. That was
what naturalists did. Not scientists. .
(4) Inadequate resources to inventory
lesser know n groups of plants and animals
In a continent where much remains to be
discovered and where the scientific com-
munity is quite small, there will always be
a role for amateurs and volunteer groups to
either assist with inventories or undertake
their own work. The FNCV has a history
of such activities that range from smaller
scaled surveys (as currently undertaken by
the Flora, Fauna Survey, Terrestrial
Invertebrates and Marine Research
Groups) or larger longer-term projects
(such as Fungi map).
Where to for the Field Naturalists Club
of Victoria?
While I believe that there will be an
important role for the naturalist in the
future, it is necessary to distinguish
between the activities of individual natu-
ralists and the activities of the FNCV. In
the Centenary year of the FNCV, Willis
(1980) outlined the main activities of the
Club: meetings, excursions, publication of
The Victorian Naturalist and other publica-
tions. specialist groups, branches, shows
and exhibitions, and maintenance of
FNCV property.
In the future, the FNCV could play an
extremely valuable role in science and
conservation by fulfilling the following
objectives:
• Encourage whole organism/ object field
observations;
• Teach field and some laboratory tech-
niques;
• Educate and promote future naturalists
amongst teachers, schools and the pub-
lic;
• Maintain a successful mixture of profes-
sional and amateur members; and
• Continue publication of The Victorian
Naturalist.
These broad objectives need to be assessed
in the scientific, activities and operational
aspects of the FNCV.
Scien lific direct io ns
1 he FNCV has to consider its future sci-
entific directions without losing amateur
interest. This could involve:
(I) Adopting and adapting new scientific
technologies where appropriate. Naturalists
have readily adopted computers, digital
cameras, GPS units and other technologies
to enhance their naturalist outputs.
Naturalists need to be aware of utilising
362
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
new technologies for collecting or record-
ing plants and animals, even to the extent
of collecting DNA samples.
(2) Special Interest Groups (SIGs) have
changed over the years, but those involv-
ing botany and vertebrate fauna will proba-
bly always be active in some form. There
will be new disciplines that arise out of the
current Groups, such as the recent rise in
the fungi SIG and the establishment of the
bat SIG. These groups will assist science
and conservation by filling the gaps: early
FNCV members saw their role as provid-
ing a valuable contribution to scientific
knowledge by collecting natural history
specimens (Watkins 1984). While verte-
brates and vascular plants can usually be
identified in the field now or samples taken
without harming the object of study (e.g.
using hair tubes for mammals), some of
the lesser known groups such as fungi,
bryophytes and invertebrates still need to
be collected.
(3) New areas where FNCV members
could become involved include protecting
the native fora and fauna from exotic plant
and animal incursions (biosecurity). While
the study of native Australian flora and
fauna is the primary objective, knowledge
of overseas fauna is useful to discover
unwanted invasives.
(4) One issue that the FNCV has to keep
in mind is how academic it should be. The
formation of kindred organisations such as
the Bird Observers Club, Australian Plants
Society, Victorian National Parks
Association and Fungimap out of the
FNCV may have affected membership in
the short term, but the separation of more
specialist groups may have reinforced the
more generalist nature of the FNCV. The
FNCV has been fortunate in that many
leading scientists have been active mem-
bers (Pescott 1940) and the Club has main-
tained a valuable mixture of amateurs and
professionals. An example of where a nat-
uralist society has gone the other way is
the American Society of Naturalists, estab-
lished in 1883. The purpose of that Society
is to advance and diffuse knowledge of
organic evolution and other broad biologi-
cal principles so as to enhance the concep-
tual unification of the biological sciences,
which is much more scientific than the
purpose of the FNCV. The American
Society of Naturalists publishes a well-
respected scientific journal, American
Naturalist , and two examples of recent
titles are ‘Alternative life-history path-
ways’ and the elasticity of stochastic
matrix models', and ‘The opportunity for
canalization and the evolution of genetic
networks', both of which would be consid-
ered as too esoteric for amateur naturalists.
Activities
While the FNCV provides facilities and
assistance for its members, it is the activi-
ties that keep the Club in the spotlight.
Some activities will not change, but the
way they are run may change.
(1) Meetings, whether general or special
meetings of the FNCV or meetings of the
SIGs, will be a major activity because they
provide the forum for members to meet.
The problem is that only a small propor-
tion of members attend meetings, and cer-
tainly few rural members manage to
attend. In the future, the FNCV should
consider teleconferencing meetings to
regional areas - this would be an opportu-
nity for regional members to at least hear
guest speakers. As many regional natural-
ist clubs are facing closure because of
falling membership, perhaps the FNCV
can at least provide teleconferenced meet-
ings to some of these clubs.
(2) The Special Interest Groups will con-
tinue, but some groups will wind up or
amalgamate with other SIGs, while new
groups will start. Some societies may
decide to join the FNCV, as the Marine
Research Group has done.
(3) Excursions will continue. These can
be one day excursions or camps. Most
excursions arc run by a SIG and concen-
trate on the area of interest of that SIG.
The FNCV could consider trying to have
excursions with more than one SIG
involved, and perhaps look at field projects
with longer term objectives (such as moni-
toring the effects of climate change on
flora and fauna). Occasional expeditions to
areas in the remoter parts of Victoria or to
other parts of Australia could also be part
of the FNCV excursion programme.
(4) The value of the FNCV in addressing
skill shortages in nature studies could be
highlighted by the Club running work-
shops (or even short courses) on elements
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
363
His tory Symposi urn
of natural history (techniques, identifica-
tion). These could target the general pub-
lic, older (university and TAFE) students,
and teachers.
(5) Publications will be an important part
of the FNCV. Besides The Victorian
Naturalist , the Club occasionally publishes
books. It could consider consolidating
future books into a series of field guides or
naturalist handbooks. In the UK, a non-
profit group of scientists called the
Company of Biologists writes the
Naturalists' Handbook Series to assist
investigators to make novel discoveries
about local plants and animals. The titles
range from individual groups of animals
(e.g. Grasshoppers, Common ground bee-
tles) to microhabitat (e.g. Insects on net-
tles, Animals under logs and stones.
Animals on seaweed).
Operation
While scientific directions are important
for the future of the FNCV, it is otien the
operational aspects that ensure their suc-
cess or failure. For most of its 125 years,
the FNCV has operated on voluntary par-
ticipation by members. Only in the last few
years has the FNCV employed a part-time
administrator. This was partly due to the
need to assist maintaining the FNCV's
own offices in Blackburn, but also to help
with the increased range of activities now-
associated with the Club.
(1) The FNCV now has had more corpo-
rate, financial and legal obligations
imposed on ils operations. Like so many
other voluntary organisations, the FNCV
has been caught up in the ever increasing
burden of insurance premiums. This adds
to the realisation that the FNCV now has
to be accountable for any of its activities in
case of accidents and possible subsequent
litigation. Many members join the FNCV
for the social activities that it can provide -
and rightly so. Unfortunately society is
forcing them to face issues that affect the
running of the Club: privacy laws, intellec-
tual property rights, corporation laws, duty
of care, and the GST! The SIGs collect
information on excursions, and little
thought has been given to intellectual
property rights. These property rights
belong to the FNCV and the Club has a
scientific responsibility to ensure that the
information is used properly.
(2) The Club took a major step in 1994
by purchasing the Blackburn offices. It
now needs to consider that in order to
grow (and increased membership is essen-
tial for survival of the Club), does the
FNCV need to be run more like a business
and employ more staff, each with specific
roles to assist members with those corpo-
rate responsibilities listed earlier? One
only needs to look at other kindred groups
to see that some employ several full time
staff members.
(3) The move to Blackburn had an enor-
mous effect on the demographics of Club
membership. Blackburn was chosen
because it represented the centre of distrib-
ution of members in the metropolitan area.
It is probable that the loss of meetings in
the city has seen a drop in attendance by
members in the western and northern sub-
urbs and an increase in members from the
eastern suburbs. Already there are space
limitations in the Blackburn offices, and in
the next few years, the FNCV will have to
consider whether to renovate or to move. If
Blackburn property values escalate, the
option is for the FNCV to sell, and one
possibility is to set up a field station away
from the city and hold meetings in the city.
This is not a new idea in Australia; the
Launceston Field Naturalists Club has a 50
ha Held centre with accommodation.
(4) The internet has changed the way in
which we communicate. While a majority
of FNCV members currently prefer hard
copies of the Field Nats News rather than
the electronic version, it is likely that the
proportion requiring the electronic version
will rise. An active and up-to-date FNCV
website could be the most efficient means
(both in time and costs) of communication
within the FNCV and also with the public.
Even though electronic publishing has its
value, it is important that The Victorian
Naturalist continue as a hard copy journal
because it exemplifies the scientific stand-
ing of the FNCV. It may be possible that
past issues of the journal could be accessed
on the internet in the future.
(5) Whatever eventuates in the future
with how the FNCV operates, one factor
will not change: the need for members.
364
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
The mean age of naturalists in Victoria is
increasing. For the FNCV to survive, it
first needs more members, and it also
needs a diversity of members: amateurs,
professionals, male, female, young, old.
The FNCV immediately needs to target
two groups: youth (school and tertiary
aged) and the early retiree baby boomers,
to boost numbers. Another section is dif-
ferent ethnic groups; natural history has
been predominantly an Anglo Saxon tradi-
tion (Europe and North America). Does the
tradition exist, although maybe in different
forms, in Asia, Africa, South America, or
the Middle East? Can we encourage more
migrants (and their descendants) from
these regions to join the FNCV? The
FNCV membership is relatively static at
the moment, but any significant decline in
membership could cause problems for the
long-term viability of the Club.
Conclusions
Field naturalists are a diverse and robust
group of curious individuals whose skills
are essential if we are to achieve the objec-
tives of the FNCV: ‘To stimulate interest
in natural history and to preserve and pro-
tect Australian flora and fauna? In 1950,
Em Lord predicted that there would be a
greater need for conservation in view of
The then social pressure for more develop-
ment and larger Australian population
(predicting a population ol 50 million by
2000). He predicted that the naturalists
‘studying birds and wild [lowers’ needed to
formulate a long-term conservation policy.
This required paid officers, a city ol I ice,
and branch offices, and was only achiev-
able with financial backing. Lord (1950)
stated that
... this cannot be done without vision, orga-
nization and means. In the vast flood ol a
new population, the Field Naturalist of the
future faces an almost frightening task -
the task of guarding a national asset tor a
world to come. We have seen the destruc-
tion to our own time and the pace is accel-
erating. Are there men and women in this
Club big enough to meet this future?
While Lord was incorrect in his prediction
of a population of 50 million in Australia
by 2000, his call for long-term policy for
conservation, and the call for members to
meet the challenge still remain. There is a
need for skilled naturalists, and it is up to
the members of the FNCV to set future
directions and objectives and to strive to
achieve them while still enjoying nature
and understanding our natural world.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank David Runciman
and Mike Wcsterman (Genetics Department, La
Trobe University) for their input, and to the for-
mer for allowing me to quote the email message
— I hope you do not take my comments about
DNA technology in the wrong way! I also wish
to thank Beth Gott, Sheila Houghton and Gary
Prcsland for their interesting insights.
Note
Introduction in The Victorian Naturalist I (1), 1884.
References
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Harmondsworth)
Anonymous (1931) Field Naturalists Club
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Attenborough D (2002) Life on Air. (BBC Books:
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Bag* F (1909) Contributions to our knowledge of
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Barrett C ( 1 929) Gippsland's Giant Worm. The
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Barrett C (1930) Grant Earthworm of Gippsland. The
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Barrett C (1931) Mcgascolides, the world’s biggest
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Barrett C. nd (1935?) Giant Earthworm. Wonder
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69-7 1 )
Barrett C (1938) Australia’s Giant Earthworm. Bulletin
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Barrett C (1941a) Megascolides again. Wild Life 3,
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Barrett C (1941b) Meeting an old friend. Wild Life 3,
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Colli ver FS (1944) Field Naturalists’ Club
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McCoy, 1878. The Victorian Naturalist 99. 164-173.
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Further information on the Giant Gippsland
Earthworm Megascolides australis (McCoy 1878).
The Victorian Naturalist 106. 197-201.
Watkins I (1984) Ways of seeing nature: attitudes to
nature in the I utorian Naturalist. 1884-1982. The
Victorian Naturalist 101, 30-47.
Watson I (1947) Listening for worms. Wild Life 9. 9-
II.
Willis JH (1980) The first century of the FNCV. The
Victorian Naturalist 97, 93-106.
Yen AL, New TR, Van Praagh B and Vaughan PJ
(1990) Invertebrate Conservation: Three case studies
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Conservation of Small Populations. Eds T Clark and
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Society; Brookiield, Illinois)
Received 7 July 2005: accepted 27 September 2005
Natural observations: the artists of Frederick McCoy’s
zoology of Victoria
John Kean* and Rebecca Garland*
Abstract
In the production of his Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria, Frederick McCoy was greatly assist-
ed by three men of remarkable artistic ability. Each of these artists-Ludwig Becker, Arthur
Bartholomew, and John James Wild-was remarkable in his own way, and contributed uniquely to
the Prodromus. Their constributions are considered briefly here. ( The Victorian Naturalist 122 (6), 2005,
366-375)
When Ludwig Becker went fishing at the
mouth of the Yarra Yarra in October 1855
he was searching for weed fish, a cryptic
species adapted to life in the varying envi-
ronmental conditions of a temperate estuary.
If the German naturalist and artist were
to have looked up he would have seen a
substantial flotilla at anchor, with men
rowing to shore in smaller boats stacked to
the gunnels, passengers ready for disem-
barkation. At the Railway Pier, a mile to
the south, more sweating men and strain-
ing horses were loading freight on the new
train for delivery to warehouses over the
recently constructed Sandridge Bridge.
There on the northern bank of the river,
Melbourne was still growing, stretching to
meet the demand for goods from the gold-
’ Museum Victoria, GPO Box 666E, Melbourne 3001
fields. The scene was similar two miles
away at Williamstown on the western side
of Hobson’s Bay. But for that moment,
Becker's concentration was fixed on a
small net with which he hoped to catch
female weedfish heavy with young.
After untangling the fish he took some
measurements, noting the sex of the ani-
mal before making a detailed sketch
(Fig.l). He then dissected the females,
counting the embryos, carefully noting
their stage of development. His observa-
tions were soon presented to the
Philosophical Institute, in a paper On a
Viviparous Fish from Hobson's Bay
(Becker 1855-6), and were therefore
among the earliest contributions from the
emergent scientific community in the
young colony of Victoria.
366
The Victorian Naturalist
H is tory Sympos i am
The men, who would go on to pursue and
promote science in Victoria, came together
at the Philosophical Institute to share their
findings, debate new ideas and to shape up
to each other in the tussle to control
nascent colonial institutions. The
Transactions of the Society provided an
important forum where some of the bright-
est minds hoped to contribute to the colony
and establish their reputations by con-
tributing articles.
Frederick McCoy, a well-groomed and
ambitious Irishman, had just been appoint-
ed as the first professor of Natural History
at the University of Melbourne. He soon
joined the Philosophical Institute and wast-
ed no time in cementing his place amongst
his peers. By all accounts Frederick McCoy
was a genial but nonetheless formidable
opponent. In 1856 he famously comman-
deered the museum's collection from its
original home at the Assay Office in
Latrobe Street, and hauled it to the
University at Carlton where it remained
until the end of the century. McCoy’s
audacity paid off, and in 1858, he was
appointed Director of the National
Museum, a position he would hold until his
death in 1899. It was from this solid base
that McCoy set out to describe the zoology
of Victoria and its adjacent waters.
McCoy’s vision, forged in Britain at the
end of the enlightenment, demanded that
he assemble, describe and illustrate all the
animals of Victoria, ‘as opportunity arose’
(McCoy 1878-1885). This ambition was,
in retrospect, naive, as southern Australia
continues to yield new discoveries by the
year. McCoy’s approach to collection and
documentation was ad hoc as he rarely
travelled to the field.
By the time of the inception of the Field
Naturalists Club of Victoria in 1880,
McCoy was anchored at the University,
busily overseeing a laboratory, lecture
room, museum, and working on his publica-
tions. McCoy’s appointment as the first
President of the Field Naturalists Club of
Victoria, a society dedicated to making
observations in the field, is tinged with
irony, as his Australian career was as a lab-
oratory-based scientist. McCoy clearly saw
his role as an honorary one, conferring pres-
tige on the club by his association and that
of the institutions he represented, but rarely
attending its meetings (Houghton 2001).
The specimens that McCoy assembled at
his museum and had illustrated by his
artists were gathered from a range of
sources. It appears that some specimens,
such as the ‘Two-pronged Toad- fish’ were
collected by McCoy himself as he rambled
near his home at Brighton Beach (McCoy
1886-90). More often, correspondents in
the country sent animals to the laboratory
to be identified. Other specimens were
acquired from regular suppliers, such as
Mr. Percy Jenkins, a fishmonger of
Swanston Street (Bennett 2002).
With the benefit of hindsight McCoy’s
approach to collection now seems to mir-
ror the colonisation process. The Professor
/Museum Director sitting at the centre,
(think London) and material sent to him
from the hinterland for identification and
incorporation into the canon of knowledge
under his control.
McCoy’s focus was taxonomic, and he
generally described individual species
without careful analysis of their environ-
mental niche and usually without focused
consideration of their relationship to other
similar species from Australia. McCoy sub-
scribed to a belief in ‘centres of creation’
espoused by Louis Agassiz (Butcher 2001)
in which God created an assemblage of
creatures for each geographic zone of the
world. There is no doubt that McCoy saw
the uniqueness of Australia’s fauna as con-
forming to the theories of Agassiz, this
belief being further strengthened by his
examination of the continuity in Australia’s
fossil record (Clode 2005 pers. comm.).
Agassiz, like McCoy, travelled from
Europe to the New World and established a
great museum in roughly the same period. In
1859 Agassiz opened a Museum of
Comparative Zoology at Harvard. When
Charles Darwin’s ideas exploded on to the
scientific scene in 1859, McCoy did not see
the need to adjust his understanding of the
‘the species question’, a stubbornness that
masked the evolutionary significance of the
Australian fauna, which he studied so fierce-
ly. Both McCoy in Australia and Agassiz in
North America were now at the heart of sci-
ence on their respective continents, where
they remained hostile to theories of evolu-
tion and biogeography being championed by
Darwin, Wallace and Huxley.
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
367
H is tory Sympos ium
McCoy’s determination did, however,
propel him to commission the illustration
of 1000 living species over the last four
decades of the 19'1' Century. The resulting
legacy is a fine collection of images, pro-
duced by a succession of artists. McCoy’s
brief to the artists appears to have been to
create life-sized images (wherever possi-
ble), for morphological exactness and for
taxonomic clarity. Rarely was there any
environmental, atmospheric or behavioural
data recorded. The images are particularly
spartan when compared to the dramatic
compositions of John James Audubon or
even the reconstructed habitats that ani-
mate the albums of John Gould (1845-
1863 and 1865).
The archive of images commissioned by
McCoy remained stored for many decades
under the stairwell of McCoy Hall in the
Museum at 328 Swanston Street. Concealed
within its pages are invaluable records and
incidental observations of the Victorian
fauna on the cusp of ecological upheaval.
Annotations by the artists, as well as the
observations of James Kershawr (the taxi-
dermist and keen entomologist) and McCoy
himself, are made in pencil on the margins
of their original sketches. A fresh examina-
tion of these works can now reveal surpris-
ing biological information as well as pro-
viding a historical lens on the process of
science as it emerged in the highly charged
atmosphere of colonial Melbourne.
Many of these images were eventually
published as lithographs in the two
weighty volumes of the Prodromus of the
Zoology of Victoria (McCoy 1878-1885:
1886-1890). They appeared with detailed
descriptions, and were often accompanied
by McCoy’s arcane but often amusing
anecdotes. During the same period McCoy
also produced the accompanying
Prodromus of the Palaeontology of
Victoria (1874-82) in which significant
fossils finds were similarly described and
illustrated (Darragh 2001). For all their
eccentricity these twin publications remain
the most significant publishing accom-
plishments of the Museum, noted as much
for their scope as for the beauty and tech-
nological sophistication of the images they
contain.
On completion of the first volume,
McCoy outlined his rationale:
The geological and botanical investigations
have approached completion, and their
publication is far advanced, it has been
decided to commence the publication of
the branch completing the subject, namely,
that of zoology or the indigenous members
of the different classes of the animal king-
dom.
As the Fauna is not so well known as the
Flora, it is a necessary preliminary to the
publication to have a large number of
drawings made, as opportunity arose, from
living or fresh examples of species of rep-
tiles, fish, and the lower animals, which
lose their natural appearance shortly after
death, and the true characters of many of
which were consequently unknown, as
they had only been described from pre-
served specimens.1
McCoy followed a well-established
European precedent when he sought out
artists to make detailed illustrations of the
animals that came under his gaze. In the
forty years that he occupied the joint posts
of Professor at the University and Director
of the Museum he commissioned six high-
ly talented artists and draftsmen to provide
the illustrations to accompany his descrip-
tions. He claimed, ‘The originals [speci-
mens] of all the Figures are in the National
Museum Melbourne. ’(McCoy 1878-1885:
1886-1890)
We will focus on the work of just three
of these artists, Ludwig Becker, Arthur
Bartholomew and John James Wild. These
are the artists who made the most signifi-
cant contribution to McCoy’s Prodromus
of the Zoology j of Victoria. Their efforts
encompassed the length of McCoy’s grand
project from its conception in the late
1850s to its demise in the early 1890s.
Ludwig Becker
Ludwig Becker was born in Offenbach-
on-Mainnear. Darmstadt. Germany on 5
September 1808. He had trained as an illus-
trator and contributed to the scientific publi-
cations of his mentor Johann Kaup. He later
studied lithography under Peter Vogel and
went on to be the court painter to the Arch
Duke of Hesse-Darmstadt (Kerr 1992).
Becker came to Launceston via England
and Rio de Janeiro in 1851, and immedi-
ately impressed Lady Denison who
labelled him ‘one of those universal
368
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
1 .
Fig. 1. Becker's drawing of a Weedfish jHeteroclinus tristis. Source: Museum Victoria/Artist: Ludwig
Becker
Geniuses who can do anything; is a good
naturalist, geologist & draws, paints and
plays and sings’.2 An appealing personality
and a peripatetic thinker, Becker was influ-
enced by the ideas of Alexander
Humboldt, who had instructed artists to
draw en pie in air to capture 'a certain
physiogamy of nature particular to each
region of the earth’ (Heathcote 2001).
Becker came to Victoria in 1852, and
was caught in the rush to the Bendigo
goldfields where he tried his hand at min-
ing but, more significantly, produced a
small body of work which captured the
moment of excitement as well as the dis-
placement of the original inhabitants of the
area (Tipping 1978; 1979).
On moving to Melbourne Becker con-
tributed to the emergent intellectual and cul-
tural life of the city. He exhibited his
Bendigo works, designed medals and certifi-
cates, and was a founding member of the
Philosophical Institute, the Victorian Society
of Artists and an active participant in the
Melbourne German Club (Kerr 1992).
Perpetually anxious about money, Becker
appears to have tried his hand at a broad
range of tasks. He published Men of
Victoria , wrote and illustrated in cartoon
style ‘An Australian Song’, created special
events, illustrated scientific papers and
publications, as well as joining expeditions
into the Victorian hinterland with other
notable German-speaking intellectuals
such as Neumayer, Von Guerard and
Blandowski (Tipping 1979; 1984). As a
highly skilled miniaturist Becker had the
capacity to enter into the minutiae of the
scenes and animals he depicted. His draw-
ings are often accompanied by annotations
in an attractive and expansive script, and
his language is always visually charged.
It is likely that Becker’s illustrations, such
as that of the weedfish published in the
transactions of the Philosophical Institute
of Victoria (Becker 1855-6), prompted
McCoy to consider the artist’s potential
contribution to his own more ambitious
project to illustrate the zoology of Victoria.
In 1858 he engaged Becker to create litho-
graphs at a rate of £10 per plate (Becker
1858). Some of the animals, such as the
Australian Fur Seal and the Death Adder,
appear to have been collected by Becker
himself, while the Polyzoa, over which he
had protracted and very agitated correspon-
dence with McCoy, was apparently a more
direct commission ( Becker 1859).
Becker seems to have been persistently
exasperated by McCoy’s tardy payment. In
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
369
H is ton ’ Sympos him
contrast McCoy appears to have held
Becker in high regard, referring to him
posthumously as ‘the late clever observer
and artist’.3
Becker's enthusiasm led him to join the
ill-fated Burke and Wills expedition to the
north of Australia. Exhausted and suffering
from scurvy, his death from dysentery in
Bulloo, southwest Queensland, appears
attributable to Bourke's enmity and poor
leadership. His record of the journey
stands as perhaps the greatest visual record
of an expedition to inland Australia, his
premature death robbing Australia of one
of its most inspired colonial artists.
As well as the sketches and lithographic
proofs commissioned for the Museum,
there is a small collection offish and fossil
studies by Becker that came to the
Museum collection, which together pro-
vide a rich insight into Becker’s previously
neglected zoological observations.
Arthur Bartholomew
Arthur Bartholomew, son of Thomas
Bartholomew, a decorator, was born in
Bruton, Somersetshire, in 1834 (Public
Record Office Victoria 1909). He arrived
in Victoria in December 1852 on the
Oriental (Public Record Office Victoria).
Soon afterwards, he sailed to Tasmania
where he met and married Eliza Ann
Nicholls (Archives Office Tasmania 1 856).
They had two children, Christianna and
Adelina, in quick succession before return-
ing to Melbourne for Arthur to take up the
position that would define his professional
career (Archives Office Tasmania).
In September 1859 Bartholomew was
appointed Attendant to McCoy, in the
department of Natural History at the newly
opened Melbourne University (Melbourne
University Archives). For six months
Bartholomew attended McCoy in lectures
and assisted in the laboratory. In 1860 this
role expanded to take advantage of
Bartholomew’s artistic ability. Obviously
McCoy saw Bartholomew’s potential for
the ambitious projects that lay ahead.
Bartholomew began both a zoological
and geology series for McCoy, which
would form the basis of the Prodromus of
Zoology > of Victoria and the Prodromus of
Palaeontology- of Victoria. During the fol-
lowing four decades he illustrated in detail
more than 700 living animals and an as yet
undocumented number of palaeontological
specimens. Along with his duties as
McCoy’s assistant in the lecture room and
laboratory, Bartholomew also transferred
many of his own drawings and those of
other artists on to stone for the production
of lithographs.
Bartholomew was both methodical and
systematic in his approach, his work charac-
terised by a fastidious attention to detail and
a remarkable technical facility. He mastered
the application of successive water colour
glazes to build richness and depth into his
colour, w hile using layers of varnish to give
the leathery chrysalis of Lepidopiera a
remarkable three dimensionality (Fig. 2).
It appears that most, if not all, of his
illustrations were completed in the labora-
tory where he was at the mercy of McCoy
for the range and quality of the specimens
that were brought to him. The highlights of
his oeuvre are his exquisite watercolour
studies of insects, and his notes on the
metamorphoses of the animals indicate that
it w^as his responsibility to nurture them in
the laboratory. These images reveal an
almost unimaginable level of detail, com-
parable to such masters of scientific illus-
tration as Ferdinand Bauer and Jean
Charles Werner.
His images of larger animals, brought
dead to the university, are equally well
observed but do not have the animation of
the smaller studies. It appears for instance
that some of the specimens brought to him
by Mr. Jenkins, the fishmonger, were not
exactly fresh. Typically Bartholomew
would prepare a precise pencil sketch of
each fish, complete with diagnostic details
and a geometric analysis of the scale pat-
tern. He then rendered a watercolour that
together with the pencil sketch would be
used to guide the lithographic process. Flis
image of a sardine provides insight into the
level of detail required to translate labora-
tory observations successfully into the
printed plates.
This systematic program of recording
continued for 40 years, and the resulting
illustrations stand as testament to an other-
wise neglected career. His relationship
with McCoy was long and familiar, as this
anecdote from a former student illustrates,
‘One of McCoy’s jokes was to address the
370
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
students, “Gentlemen, we will now look at
the strange reptile, Bartholomew!” This
last in a curious falsetto voice as he half
turned himself around to summon [him].*1
Regardless of his obvious submissive posi-
tion, Bartholomew faithfully attended
McCoy through the ups and downs of the
Museum, the Department and their person-
al lives. Less than a year after McCoy’s
death Bartholomew chose to retire from
the Natural History Department at the
University (Melbourne University Archive
1900). He continued occasionally illustrat-
ing for the Museum until his death at age
75 in 1909, when after a year of ill health
he passed away at his home in Newry
Street, North Fitzroy (Public Records
Office Victoria 1909).
John James Wild
John James Wild was born Jean Jacques
Wild in Zurich, Switzerland in 1824. He
taught languages in Belfast. Ireland, where
he met his wife Elizabeth Ellen Mull in.
Wild was appointed to the position of artist
and secretary to Charles Wyville
Thomson, leader of the Challenger expedi-
tion 1872-76 (Rice 2000). The Challenger
explored all the world’s oceans, in what
was the first global project to investigate
deep sea life. This expedition, more than
any other project, established the discipline
of oceanography as a collaborative and
interdisciplinary science.
Wild’s most significant contribution to
the many volumes associated with the
Challenger expedition is Thalassa ; an
essay on the depth, temperature and cur-
rents of the ocean... with charts and dia-
grams by the author (Wild 1877a), for
which he was awarded an honorary doctor-
ate from the University of Zurich. Wild
also published an illustrated popular
account of his travels titled At Anchor
(Wild 1877b), in which he described
Melbourne and produced engravings of
Port Philip Heads and the Mountain Ash
forests.
With these impressive achievements
behind him. Wild must have been brim-
ming with confidence when he immigrated
to Melbourne in 1881. Curiously he was
unsuccessful in finding a position fitting
his formidable expertise, and was forced to
apply, unsuccessfully, for academic work
in New Zealand. In Melbourne he patched
together a living, lecturing in modem lan-
guages and literature at Trinity College, as
an examiner in French and German matric-
ulation, and as a secretary and an artist
(State Library Victoria 91/1 1 1). Frederick
McCoy, no doubt recognising Wild’s
potential to elevate the scientific sophisti-
cation in his own publications, soon
engaged him to create lithographs of both
terrestrial and marine animals.
Wild had a deep appreciation for geomet-
ric patterns in nature, and it is in the depic-
tion of animals such as Echinoderms, whose
bodies are radially symmetrical, that he
excels (Fig. 3). His depiction of marine
invertebrates are generally more convincing
than those of the higher forms, especially
where he is tempted to place reptiles or
mammals in semi -realistic tableaux. Fie was
a parsimonious artist, characteristically
drawing on both sides of a paper and taking
particular care to fit as much information as
he could on to the page. Some of his com-
positions now appear crowded, given our
contemporary taste for white space.
As well as directing his highly disci-
plined mind towards detailed biological
drawings. Wild was an accomplished litho-
grapher. From drawings, transfers and
proofs taken at successive states of the
same image, it is apparent that Wild set out
with a clear conception of the desired
result. In contrast to Becker or Bartholo-
mew he rarely worked his pencil images
up in colour, rather waiting for a proof of
the line work to complete a precise hand
coloured image which would then act as a
guide or ‘pattern plate' for the master
printer to complete. It is clear from instruc-
tions to the printer on his proofs that Wild
possessed an unnerving capacity to plan
for the colour separations that make his
images the most technically sophisticated
of those commissioned by McCoy for his
Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria .
Despite his considerable achievements in
a range of disciplines Wild never gained a
permanent post in Australia, consequently
his most significant Australian legacy is
the images he created for McCoy’s
Prodromus. His skills of observation under
the microscope and high fidelity lithogra-
phy were also recognised by Walter
Baldwin Spencer, freshly appointed as
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
371
History Symposium
Fig. 2. Bartholomew's rendition of the Red Shouldered Phasma Tropidodents rhodomus. Source:
Museum Victoria / Artist: Arthur Bartholomew
Professor of Biology at Melbourne
University. Spencer engaged Wild to illus-
trate an article for the Proceedings of the
Philosophical Society in 1 888.
In the same year Wild delivered the inau-
gural lecture on Anthropology at the
Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science in Sydney, anoth-
er interest he shared with the young
Spencer who w as to become the next
Director of the National Museum.
Wild contributed to scientific societies in
Melbourne at the end of the century, both
as Assistant Secretary to RLJ Ellery at the
Royal Society and as a contributor to the
Royal Geographic Society of Australasia.
John James Wild died largely unrecog-
nised in Australia in 1900.
Epilogue
In 1878 McCoy, proudly and for the first
time, described the Giant Gippsland
Earthworm Megascolides australis in
Decade One of the Prodromus . His
description was accompanied by a two-
colour lithograph by Arthur Bartholomew'.
The worm had turned by 1888, when
Spencer revised McCoy’s description of
the species in Transactions of the Royal
Society of Victoria (Spencer 1888).
Together with Wild, he assembled detailed
and sophisticated images of the worm.
These lithographs presented a new level of
analysis, unprecedented in the Prodromus ,
made possible by microscopy and clinical
dissection to reveal in great detail the vas-
cular and digestive systems of the animal.
McCoy's magpie-like collection habits and
rudimentary descriptions appear amateur
by comparison to this newr work lavishly
put out on large format.
Mulvaney and Calabv assert that in con-
trast to earlier biology in Victoria, Spencer
kset priorities and the work possessed theo-
retical value. Various species were selected
because of their potential evolutionary sig-
nificance or their biogeographical interest,
372
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
Fig. 3. Wild's drawings of Goniocidaris tubaria for McCoy's Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria.
Source: Museum Victoria/ Artist: John James Wild
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
373
History Sympos ium
and they were assessed within the concep-
tual framework of biological evolution’.6
Spencer’s description of the anatomy of
Megascolides australis exemplifies a new
level of scientific rigor that came to char-
acterise Australian science in the 20lh cen-
tury, a period when McCoy's Prodromus
was largely relegated to a historical curios-
ity rather than a vital contribution to the
scientific record.
Spencer had a much liner appreciation of
the relationship between professional and
amateur biologists (explored earlier in this
volume by Linden Gi llbank in her account
of the history of the FNCV). Spencer’s
active participation with Held naturalists
clearly energised the club members,
whereas we can only imagine that
McCoy’s pompous annual address must
have filled them with dread.
Tow ards the end of his own life Spencer
reflected on changes to the scientific land-
scape he had in fact fanned, sparing a
melancholy thought for the intellectually
simpler times that preceded his ascendancy
to prominence in Australian Science.
In study, field and laboratory scores of
eager students relieved from the dead
weight of the special creation theory, were
working under the stimulus of an entirely
new outlook on the world of life. It is diffi-
cult for the students of the present day to
realize the excitement of those times when
everything was new and stimulating and
when further still, it was possible for one
man to have a good all round knowledge of
[...] the salient features of the different
branches of Science.7
The principal artists of McCoy’s grand
project, Becker. Wild, and to a lesser
extent Bartholomew, were just such men.
They possessed a ‘good all round knowl-
edge of science’ and were blessed with
line eyes and steady hands. Persistence and
insatiable curiosity enabled them to empir-
ically and on occasion poetically, describe
the fauna they encountered in colonial
Victoria.
McCoy’s Prodromus created the opportu-
nity for artists and lithographers with a pas-
sion for natural history to portray the fauna
they encountered in their adopted land, but
his intellectual framework constrained both
their artistic expression and advances in
scientific investigation. Nonetheless the
archive of images that he assembled
opened a window in to the practice of sci-
ence in a period of vivid contestation.
Notes
'(McCoy ( 1 885 ) Prodromus , Vol 1 , 1 .
Australian Encyclopaedia (1962) Ludwig Becker,
471.
' McCoy ( 1 879) Prodromus , Vol. 1,51.
I Lucas ( 1937) A.H.S Lucas: His Own Story, 140.
Gibbney and Smith (1987). A biographical register,
343
II Mulvaney and Calaby (1985) 'So Much that is New’.
97.
Spencer (1927), cited in Mulvaney and Calaby (1985),
op. cit. p. 97.
References
Archives Ottice Tasmania, State Library of Tasmania,
Birth Certificates; SLTX/AO/RG/129 RGD 33/35;
576/1439 and 826/1342. Launceston Reference
Library.
Archives Office Tasmania, State Library Of Tasmania,
Marriage Certificate SLTX AO/RG/1 76 RGD 37/15
Launceston Reference Library.
Australian Encyclopaedia (1962) Ludwig Becker Vol
1. (The Grolier Society of Australia: Sydney).
Becker L (1855-6) Viviparous Fish from Hobson's
Bay. Proceedings of the Philosophical Institute 1. (2)
11-13.
Becker 1. (1858) Becker to McCoy, 9 December 1858,
Inward Correspondence, Museum Victoria Archive.
Becker L (1859) Becker to McCoy, 9 February 1859,
Inward Correspondence. Museum Victoria Archive.
Bennett B (2002) The Fish Markets of Melbourne (The
Author: Hawthorn, Victoria)
Butcher B (2001) Frederick McCoy's Anti-evolution-
ism— the Cultural Context lor Scientific Belief. The
Victorian Naturalist 1 18. 226-230.
Darragh T (2001 ) The Prodromus of Palaeontology and
Zoology. In A Museum for the People, A history of
Museum Victoria and its predecessors, 1854-2000.
Ed C Rasmussen ( Scribe: Melbourne)
Gibbney Hugh and Smith Anne G (cds) (1987) A bio-
graphical register ! 788-1 939: notes from the name
index of the Australian Dictionary of Biography . Vol
2 L-Z. (Australian National University: Canberra)
Gould .1 ( 1845-1863) The Mammals of Australia. (The
Author: London)
Gould J (1865) Handbook of the Birds of Australia.
(The Author: London)
Heathcote C (2001) When Science Meets art:
Humboldt von Guerard and (he Australian
Wilderness. Art Monthly 145 November, 27-3 1 .
Houghton S (2001) Frederick McCoy and the FNCV.
The Victorian Naturalist 118,314-318.
Kerr J (1992) Dictionary of Australian artists:
painters, skctchers. photographers and engravers to
1870. (Oxford University Press: South Melbourne)
Lucas AHS (1937) A.H.S. Incas His Own Story
(Angus & Robertson: Melbourne)
McCoy F (1878-1885) Prodromus of the Zoology of
Victoria ; Figures and Descriptions of the Living
Species of all Classes of the Victorian Indigenous
Animals. Vol 1. (Government Printer: Melbourne)
McCoy F (1886-1890) Prodromus of the Zoology of
Victoria , Figures and Descriptions of the Living
Species of all Classes of the Victorian Indigenous
Animals. Vol 2. (Government Printer: Melbourne)
McCoy F (1874-82) Prodromus of the Palaeonto/gv of
Victoria. (Government Printer: Melbourne)
Melbourne University (1859) Archive Accounts
374
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
Voucher Books 82/3 1859.
Melbourne University Archives, UM31 Staff, 1900
Mulvaney DJ and C'alaby JH (1985) 'So Much that is
New': Baldwin Spencer, 1860-1929: a biography.
(Melbourne University Press; Melbourne)
Public Record Office of Victoria (1909) Death
Certificate 8512
Public Record Office of Victoria Unassisted Inward
Passenger Lists to Victoria, 1852-1923 Fiche
020/001, State Library of Victoria.
Rice T (2000) Voyages of Discovery. Three Centuries
oj Natural History Exploration. (The Natural History
Museum; London)
Spencer WB (1927) Joseph James Fletcher.
Proceedings of the tinman Society of New South
Wales, 52, xxxiv, cited in DJ Mulvaney and .III
C’alaby (1985) 'So Much That Is New': Baldwin
Spencer 1860-1929, a biography. (Melbourne
University Press; Melbourne)
Spencer WB (1888) On the anatomy of Megascolides
australis, the Giant Earthworm of Gippsland.
Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria 1, 3-60.
State Library of Victoria, Unregistered John James
Wild File in the Rare Books Collection. 91/111.
Tipping M (1978) The Life and Career of Ludwig
Becker. Unpublished MA History Thesis, University
of Melbourne.
I ipping M ( 1079) Ludwig Becker: artist and naturalist
with the Burke and Wills Expedition. (Melbourne
University Press; Melbourne)
Tipping M (1984) An Australian Song: Ludwig
Becker's Protest Song. (Globe Press; Melbourne)
Wild J.1 ( 1877a) Thalassa: an essay on the depth, tem-
perature and currents of the ocean. (Ward: London)
Wild JJ ( 1877b) At Anchor: A narrative of experiences
afloat and ashore during the voyage of H.M.S.
"Challenger’'. (The Author; London)
Received 25 August 2005: accepted 1 December 2005
From Woodlands to Field Naturalists - What an excursion!
Sue Wright1
Abstract
The Friends ol Woodlands Historic Park, which began 23 years ago, were invited to dramatise the
history ot the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria for the ‘Leaves from our History' symposium. This
paper presents some background information about the Friends, and explains how the theme and
content for the play 'A signal Service' came to rtiosen. (The Victorian Naturalist 122 (6), 2005, 375-
378)
Interpretive theatre has taken our show
team (Friends of Woodlands Historic Park)
travelling back through quite a few years
and across quite a few kilometres. The
most recent trip out of our home ground at
Woodlands Historic Park was to the
Herbarium, where we had the pleasure of
joining the Victorian Field Naturalists cel-
ebrating 125 years of service. The
response to our production of ‘A Signal
Service’ was generous to say the least, and
we were asked how and when we began
this interesting time travelling. The story is
an interesting tale and it illustrates another
signal service - although of a much shorter
nature than 125 years. Perhaps we should
explain howr we ended up on stage at
Mueller Hall.
Our Friends Group began 23 years ago
and we have always valued the diversity of
our wonderful Park. From the earliest days
we have successfully supported the natural
‘Friends of Woodlands Historic Park, Victorian
Friends Network.
environment of the grassy woodlands and
the impressive built environment of the
homestead. As you would expect, some of
us feel more at home in one environment
than the other, but we appreciate both, and
we have a great admiration for the work in
our dual ’worlds'. My own feeling is that
the natural and built environments flow
together in a continuum. I feel very privi-
leged as we take the stories of one to inter-
pret the heritage of the other. I’m proud to
belong to a Friends Group that gives us the
opportunity to conserve both.
Way back in 1997, our Friends Group
faced a challenge. The Park system was in
a state of change and re-orientation as a
new management came into being.
Woodlands had to change, as did a great
many other Parks. We had always con-
tributed to the Ranger-led visitor programs
over Easter, but staff cutbacks and other
constraints meant that there would be no
program unless the Friends ran the pro-
gram themselves. Phone calls went left and
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
375
History Symposium
Mrs C French writes the Argus notice, which led to the formation of the FNCV, as portrayed in a
play by the Friends of Woodlands Historic Park. Photograph: Wendy Clark
right and we thought we could support at
least pari of the program on our own. We
decided to try a new idea and dramatise a
piece of the homestead history as a theatre
production at night. This meant that our
volunteer efforts were spread over a wider
time scale, and we evolved a presentation
called ‘Chaffey’s Woodlands'. Looking
back, it was unrehearsed, haphazardly pre-
sented and. even though the characters did-
n't have great costumes, the costumes cer-
tainly had character. At the end of Easter
we looked at the results. There must have
been something interesting in the show
because there was an influx of people
wanting another show. Somehow we had
done something right.
To summarise, we were doing a show a
month for the rest of the year and the story
evolved each time we performed. We
applied for a Council grant and were suc-
cessful. We purchased light and sound
equipment and costumes, and the bookings
kept rolling in. Eight years later we're still
in business. Interpretive theatre proved to
be a brilliant way to create awareness of
Woodlands and a very' effective fundraiser
for us. It was also a wonderful experience
for the presenters. We revelled in the the-
atre process. It has remained an exhilarat-
ing experience for us, and we continue to
be grateful to have the opportunities to
write, produce and act our shows. In 1999
and 2001 we presented new shows. The
repertoire was grow ing and so was our
belief in the very powerful messages that
interpretive historical dramas could deliv-
er.
Woodlands continued to be our "stage*
until 2002 when I offered the show team to
perform at the VNPA picnic to be held at
Steiglitz Flistoric Park. There was some
misgiving that a show in the Steiglitz
Courthouse would be well received. The
VNPA was more used to outdoor nature
based activities. We took the risk. There
were crowds at each performance and
we’ve been regulars at the VNPA picnics
ever since. This opened up the idea that we
could travel venues as well as time. After
the first effort at Steiglitz, we received an
invitation to perform at the 2003
International Ranger Conference at
Wilson's Promontory. This was a pretty
tall order for the team from suburban
Woodlands, but by then I had a few' differ-
ent interpretive experiences under my belt.
It was a matter of applying the ’recipes' that
had worked well before and trying not to be
intimidated by the international audience.
376
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
I chose to interpret the beginning of the
Field Naturalists 1905 Excursion to the
Prom led by Alfred and Anna Hardy. To
research them, and their excursion, I
sought Sheila Houghton’s excellent assis-
tance and in a very short time I was initiat-
ed into the amazing world of the Field
Naturalists. Our interpretation of their
camp at Darby River was extremely well
received. The only down side was that we
performed for one day only and Anna and
Alfred had such a brief interpretive rebirth.
After the Prom experience we continued
with our interpretive theatre at Woodlands.
We also performed at Point Nepean and at
Point Cook. Then came 2005 and the inde-
fatigable Sheila rang to invite us to do
'something' at the 125"’ Anniversary
Symposium.
To tty to encapsulate 125 years of won-
derful history to be presented in three short
acts requires signal inspiration and encour-
agement. Fortunately I had both, and
somehow, some way, Anna and Alfred
would come back to life. Once you bring
characters to the stage they don’t recede
very easily.
The sheer wealth and diversity of the his-
tory of those 125 years meant that I had to
be very focused finding the 'something'-
otherwise we would all be sitting right
through to the 1 30,h Anniversary.
Ultimately, we decided on a theme of
'service' and after enormous discussion and
selection chose early, middle and later
episodes that hopefully define the initia-
tive, inspiration and breadth of service to
natural history and community awareness
that the FNCV has performed so
admirably. In interpretive theatre, you start
from the message and then work back-
wards to the stories and the characters.
Sheila was a goldmine of anecdotes and I
had no trouble weaving her amazing oral
and written stories to the theme.
The name 4 A Signal Service’ leapt out at
me when I read the letter proposing the
Natural History Medallion. Considering
A re-enactment by the Friends of Woodlands Historic Park of the FNCV packing up to move to its
own premises in Blackburn. Photograph: Wendy Clark
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
377
II istory Symposium
what we were interpreting, it was a natural
choice for a title. Not surprisingly, Sheila
inundated me with material and 1 bom-
barded her with a million questions, all of
which she answered very patiently. 1 sin-
cerely regret that so many wonderful anec-
dotes had to be put aside. Forgive me if
your favourite FNCV episode or personali-
ty didn't come to light in this performance
of 'A Signal Service'. As 1 said, 1 was con-
strained by lime, certainly not by material.
I have to thank the theatre team from
Woodlands they arc great interpreters
and even greater friends. The stress levels
were high as we all dealt with ultra busy
lives having to fit in rehearsals, practise
Latin names, find costumes and Pride of
Erin music. There were times when we
felt, perhaps, that we should have stayed
safe within the confines of Woodlands.
Then again there was the very happy feel-
ing you get as you travel back to a time
gone by, find a message and a wealth of
characters begging to interpret a theme for
today. It's like plunging into a treasure
chest - you never know what treasure
you'll find.
The single suggestion that Mrs. French
wanted, just once, to have Sunday lunch on
time, the beautiful letter about the fairy
lights in war time New' Guinea and the
busy emotional packing up for new
premises all stretched to great interpretive
vehicles. The results were seen at the
Hiustory Symposium on May 28"’. We had
the time of our lives and I was very glad
that the recipe worked so well. Anna and
Alfred had their small mention and I had a
secret delight in the reference.
We are performing again at Woodlands
and would welcome any of the FNCV
members to join us. The reports of your
1911 and 1953 visits to Gellibrand Hill
(part of Woodlands) has given us a wealth
of new interpretive material, so the stories
continue just as the efforts to preserve our
diverse heritage continue. It occurs to me
that if we find a story in every FNCV
excursion we'll be needing an enormous
supply of costumes, if nothing else.
It was a pleasure and privilege to join the
FNCV for part of the 125"1 Anniversary.
Celebrate a wonderful achievement and
enjoy that celebration. If you would like
another interpretive adventure, please ask
us back. Once you bring characters to the
interpretive stage they don't recede very
easily. Anna and Alfred might be quiet for
now, but look at all the others that are
waiting!
Received 14 July 2005; accepted 20 October 2005
Junior naturalists checking for
pondlife in a backwater on the
Goulburn River, 2000. Photograph:
Wendy Clark.
378
The Victorian Naturalist
H is tory Sympos ium
The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Inc.
Reg No A003361 IX **
Established 1880
In which is incorporated the Microscopical Society of Victoria
Understanding our natural world
Membership is open to any person interested in natural history and includes
beginners as well as experienced naturalists.
Registered Office: FNCV, 1 Gardenia Street, Blackburn, Victoria 3 130, Australia.
Postal Address: FNCV, Locked Bag 3, Blackburn, Victoria 3130, Australia.
Phone/Fax (03) 9877 9860; International Phone/Fax 61 3 9877 9860.
email: fncv@vicnet.net.au
www.vicnct.net.au/-fncv
Patron
John Landy, ac, imbe, The Governor of Victoria
Office-Bearers
President : Ms Karen Muscat
Vice Presidents: Dr Melanie Archer and Dr Alan Yen
Hon. Secretary : Ms Rosta Buc
Hon. Treasurer: Ms Barbara Burns
Librarian: Mrs SHEJLA HOUGHTON
Field Nats News Editors: Mrs Joan Broadberry and Dr Noel Schleiger
Special Interest Groups of the FNCV
Botany: Ms Karen Muscat Geology: Mr Rob Hamson
Fauna Survey: Ms Sally Bewsher Microscopical: Mr Ray Power
Marine Research: Mr Leon Altoff Fungi: Mr Geoff Lay
Bat Group: Mr Ian Kitchen Junior Group: Ms Wendy Clark
Terrestrial Invertebrate: Dr Ai.an Yi n
The Victorian Naturalist is published six times per year.
Editors: Mrs Anne Morton, Dr Gary Presland and Dr Maria Gibson.
Address correspondence to:
The Editors, The Victorian Naturalist, FNCV, Locked Bag 3, Blackburn, Victoria 3130, Australia.
Phone: (03) 9877 9860. Email: \ . at@vicnet.net.au
All subscription enquiries should be sent to FNCV, Locked Bag 3, Blackburn, Victoria 3 130,
Australia. Phone: 9877 9860. Email fncv@vicnet.net.au
MEMBERSHIP
Members receive The Victorian Naturalist and the monthly Field Nats News free. The Club organis-
es several monthly meetings and excursions. Members are welcome to attend all activities. Visitors
are also welcomed, but a $5 fee applies to non-members per excursion and $2 per meeting.
Yearly Subscription Rates -The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Inc.
Membership
Metropolitan
$55
Concessional (pensioner/student/unemploycd)
$45
Country (more than 50 km from GPO)
$45
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$15
Family (at same address)
$70
Institutional
Libraries and Institutions (within Australia)
$100
Libraries and Institutions (overseas)
AU$110
Schools/Clubs
$55
Vol. 122 (6) 2005
379
Speakers on the second day of the History Symposium, May 2005. Back row left to nght:Nevil
Amos Malcolm Calder, John Kean, Gary Presland. Front row, left to right: Ian Endersby, John
Walter, Alan Yen, Noel Schleiger, Ian Mansergh, Melanie Archer. Photograph: Wendy Clark.
The audience paying close attention to one of the speakers in a session on the second day of th-
History Symposium. Photograph: Wendy Clark.
Naturalist
Volume 123 (1)
February 2006
From the Editors
This issue of The Victorian Naturalist contains one of the last of the presented papers
from the History Symposium, too large for inclusion in the previous issue. Presented
here, also, is Eric Bird's paper from the Symposium ‘Digging in the Bay’. The slightly
amended ‘Guidelines for authors’, are included and will be found at the end of the issue.
The Victorian Naturalist would not be successful without the enormous amount of time
and effort given voluntarily by a large number of people who work behind the scenes.
One of the most important editorial tasks is to have papers refereed. The Editors would like
to say ’thank you’ to the following people who refereed manuscripts that were published
during 2005:
Eve Almond
Andrew Bennett
Dave Britton
Barry Butcher
David Cheal
Mike Clarke
1 lelen Cohn
Raelene Cooke
Joan Dixon
lan Endersby
Paul George
Maria Gibson
Linden Gillbank
Martin Gomon
Greg Holland
Sheila Houghton
Kim James
Laurie Laurenson
Peter Menkhorst
Pina Milne
Catherine Pickering
Melody Serena
Dianne Simmons
Peter Tyler
Ken Walker
Rob Wallis
Robin Wilson
Alan Yen
The Victorian Naturalist publishes articles for a wide and varied audience. We have a
team of dedicated proofreaders who help with the readability and expression of our
articles. Our thanks in this regard go to:
Andrea Ballinger
Ken Bell
Andrew Bennett
Melanie Birtchnell
Arthur Carew
Leon Costermans
Amis Dzedins
Ian Endersby
Linden Gillbank
Ken Green
Pat Grey
Murray l laby
Jamie Harris
Virgil Hubregtse
Michael McBain
David Meagher
Sharon Morley
Fiona Murdoch
Geoff Paterson
Simon Townsend
Christine Tyshing
Lyndsey Vivian
Rob Wallis
Gretna Weste
Alan Yen
Sincere thanks are also extended to our book reviewers for 2005, who provided interest-
ing and insightful comments on a wide range of books and other materials:
Peter Beech
Melanie Birtchnell
Ross Field
Brian Finlayson
Don Garden
Linden Gillbank
Greg Holland
Virgil Hubregtse
Tess Kloot
Sarah Lloyd
Anne Morton
Bill Pemberton
Fred Smith
Christine Tyshing
Anneke Veenstra-Quah
Rob Youl
As always wc particularly thank our authors who provide us with excellent mateiial for
publication.
On the production side, thank you to:
Ken Bell, who prepares the annual index,
Virgil Hubregtse for editorial assistance,
Mimi Pohl and Helen McNally for printing the mailing labels,
Dorothy Mahler for administrative assistance, and
Printers, BPA Print Group, especially Steve Kitto.
February
The
Victorian
Naturalist
Volume 123 (1) 2006
Editors: Anne Morton, Gary Presland, Maria Gibson
From the Editors 2
History Victoria’s living natural capital-decline and replenishment
Symposium 1 800-2050 (Part 1 ). by Ian Mansergh, Heather Anderson,
and Nevil Amos . 4
Research Reports Changes in vegetation structure and floristics under a
powerline easement and implications for vegetation
management, by Trevor Meers and Robyn Adams 29
Notes on diving behaviour of Hardhead Aythya australis
in a sewage pond, by Andrew J Hamilton and lain R Taylor 38
Studies on Victorian bryophytes 2. The genus Bazzania Gray,
by David Meagher 41
Honour Australian Natural History Medallion 2005-Pauline Reilly,
by Ian Endersby
Contribution The effects of a higher sea level on the coasts of Port
Phillip Bay, by Eric Bird 49
Book Reviews Owls - Journeys around the world by David Hollands ,
reviewed by Raylene Cooke 54
Australia’s volcanoes by Russell Ferrett, reviewed
by EB Joyce 55
A Naturalist’s life by Rica Erickson , reviewed by lan Endersby 57
The Big Twitch by Sean Dooley , reviewed by David Geering 58
Snakes, lizards and frogs of the Victorian Mallee by Michael
Swan and Simon Watharow , reviewed by Nick Clemann 59
Guidelines to Authors 6 1
ISSN 0042-5184
Front cover: Pauline Reilly, recipient of the Australian Natural History Medallion 2005.
See Tribute on p. 47. Photograph by Jenny Porter
Back cover: Male (top) and female (bottom) Hardhead Aythya australis. See article on p
38. Photographs by Geoffrey Dabb.
Web address: http://www.vicnet.net.au/-fncv/vicnat.htm
Email vicnat@vicnet.net.au
History Symposium
Victoria’s living Natural Capital-decline and replenishment
1800-2050 (Part 1)
Ian Mansergh’, Heather Anderson' and Nevil Amos'
Abstract
This paper examines Victoria’s land-use history and the range of environmental, economic and
social forces that resulted in the significant depletion of the state’s natural assets. Historically, a suc-
cession of differing management practices has been applied to Victoria’s natural assets, from Koori
husbandry, through pastoralism to the more intensive agriculture of settlers. In the 20th century
agronomy and technology further intensified and industrialised production across most landscapes.
Land-use activities of one generation frequently caused management issues for the following genera-
tion, continuing a decline in the living natural capital. Environmental assets and processes were not
considered and remained as external factors to economic production. Analysis suggests current and
future drivers of land-use are changing and thus that future landscapes will change. There are there-
fore opportunities for the community to reverse some of the adverse effects of past practices. This
increased knowledge, plus the affluence gained through past consumption of natural assets, should
be used to replenish the living natural capital. ( The Victorian Naturalist 123 ( l). 2006, 4-28)
Introduction
In Part 1 of this paper we provide an
overview of Victoria’s land-use and envi-
ronmental history.1 This is done through:
1. constructing a simple framework
through which to view land-use and eco-
logical change;
2. analysis of various statistics in broad
periods: Koori management, 1770-1850:
1851-1900; 1901-1939; 1940-1970, and
1971-2004;
3. observations and reflections of partici-
pants in our history.
Part 2 of the paper will provide an assess-
ment of the prospects for replenishing
some of Victoria’s depleted living natural
capital, and examine some of the future
drivers of land-use change.
The present landscape condition is the
expression of past natural events and man-
agement of the natural capital (Figs. 1 and
2). Economics, demography, environment,
culture and public policy all have played a
part in shaping Victoria’s landscapes.
From the 1840s, traditional Koori land
management was replaced by an exploita-
tive colonial view of the landscape. Early
Fig. 1. Victoria - Modelled Pre-1750 Landsat TM Satellite Image (DSE 2003)
‘Department of Sustainability and Environment, PO
Box 500, East Melbourne 3002
The Victorian Naturalist
H istory Symposi 'um
squatters were replaced by intensified land-
uses and, in the 20th century, agronomic
practices such as the use of fertilisers. The
introduction of pesticides and herbicides
led to the increasing industrialisation of
agriculture and the rise of agribusiness.
With a few notable exceptions, land and
water use has been driven by commodity
production (Wadham et al. 1957), and
environmental assets and processes have
not been treated as costs of, or benefits to,
production. Generations after Major
Thomas Mitchell's overly optimistic
assessment of western Victoria as
‘Australia Felix’ (Mitchell 1838), we are
now coming to terms with living in the dri-
est inhabited continent (McKernan 2005).
By 1982 about 67% of Victoria had been
transferred from the Crown to private own-
ership, making it the most alienated state in
the Commonwealth (i.e. the greatest
amount of land that has been transferred
from the Crown to private ownership). At
the same time, Victoria also has the great-
est concentration of bioregions under high
environmental stress (Fig. 3). Large seg-
ments of our biodiversity have been deplet-
ed and declines in ecosystem function and
services are evident. Victoria’s tree cover
has been depleted by 62%, which is associ-
ated with the decline in other assets: threat-
ened species, rivers and streams, wetlands
and soils. Only 22% of river and stream
length in Victoria is in good or excellent
condition and many environmental indica-
tors are predicted to worsen in the next
decades as effects of past land-use become
manifest ( VCMC 2002).
The land-use activities of one generation
frequently led to management issues for the
following generation (Smith 2000), with a
legacy of continuing decline in natural cap-
ital. Historic drivers of land-use are chang-
ing, creating novel opportunities, if not
imperatives, to reverse historic trends and
improve the condition of our future land-
scapes and natural capital. Positive changes
are evident in our evolving use of public
land, and indeed perceptions of all land and
water use and management.
Framework for examining Living
Natural Capital
Living natural capital is defined here as
biodiversity assets and the processes they
support and provide. Our native biodiversi-
ty is ‘the variety of all native life forms ...
the different plants, animals and micro-
organisms, the genes they contain, and the
ecosystems of which they form a part’
(Commonwealth of Australia 1996).
Economic and social capital are tradition-
ally measured by growth (toward an
unknown or undefined point), whereas nat-
ural capital is measured by its variance
Fig. 2. Victoria - Landsat TM Satellite Image 2000. (DSE 2003)
Vol. 123 (1) 2006
5
History Symposi urn
from an ideal or benchmark. Thus there are
fundamental differences in accounting for
these asset types. Natural capital is finite -
it cannot be increased beyond a ‘natural1 or
benchmark value, but may be diminished
through unsustainable use of natural
resources or replenished through appropri-
ate management. Some depletion of natur-
al capital (e.g. extinction) is irreversible.
Natural capital costs of economic and
social development have been viewed tra-
ditionally as economic ‘externalities’
-costs that are not incorporated into the
economic transaction (Herath 1998; see
also Daly 1991).
Three perspectives are useful when
examining living natural capital. The first
is the natural capital expressed at a site
(e.g. Fig. 4; Parkes et al. 2003). The sec-
ond is the amalgamation of these effects at
the landscape level (Fig. 5), which magni-
fies the ecological consequences of each
site and may reach ecological thresholds
(Radford et al. 2005), Removal or change
in species composition (e.g. elimination of
higher order predators) may affect ecosys-
tem function. (See Mansergh et al. 2004
for a discussion in the context of alpine
areas.) The third is the landscape-scale
effects that arc expressed elsewhere -
either regionally (e.g. water in rivers and
streams) or globally (e.g. atmospheric and
climatic conditions). This paper concen-
trates on native vegetation as a high-order
indicator of our natural capital, and relates
this to other natural capital assets such as
soil, water and associated biota.
Photosynthesis converts atmospheric CO.
to organic carbon, which builds soil carbon
and soil fertility-major elements in natural
capital. When forests are converted to cul-
tivated land, the natural living vegetation is
lost immediately. Organic carbon reserves
and nutrients continue to decline over
decades (Fig. 8). although productivity can
be increased using external inputs. Exotic
animals grazing on natural vegetation will
cause depletion of probably intermediate
proportions, but changed fire and grazing
regimes do affect ground cover species
(McIntyre and Lavorel 1994). Clearing
trees also changes the distribution of avail-
able microhabitats (water/light availability)
tending to simplify understorey and ground
cover. The removal of deep-rooted peren-
nials affects groundwater and increases the
risk of soil erosion, depending on topogra-
phy and landscape.
Vegetation clearance and land-use
change alters the original intact vegetation
in a systematic manner: firstly to a varie-
gated pattern of vegetation, then to frag-
mented vegetation, and finally to relict
vegetation (Fig. 5; see Radford et al. 2004.
2005 for woodland birds). Recent debate
and research suggests that there are eco-
logical thresholds (reviewed in Huggett
2005)-points along a continuum of change
(e.g. loss and fragmentation) at which a
qualitative change lakes place in the
ecosystem, such as its ability to support a
prior suite or richness of species. (See
Soule et al. 2004 for a more complete dis-
cussion in relation to connectivity.)
A further issue is that of unequal repre-
sentation of habitats in the landscape. Even
subtle variations in the soil fertility,
hydrology, etc. may affect the ability of an
ecosystem to support populations of flora
and fauna, particularly at a time of stress
such as drought. (See, for example.
Soderquist and Mac Nally 2000; Mac
Nally et al. 2000). More productive sites
would have been cleared first so all exam-
ples of a particular habitat could be lost
even where much of the vegetation has
been retained.
Victoria has a sound mapping base of our
vegetation (Ecological Vegetation Classes
|EVC|) and measurement of the extent of
vegetation cover is periodically updated by
remote sensing information (e.g. Gilbee
1999). As our understanding of the pattern
and extent of habitat loss becomes clearer,
the development of robust measurements
for assessing changes in condition of nat-
ural capital will be critical in determining
our starting point and success in restora-
tion (Parkes et al. 2003) (Fig 4).
Koori land management
At the time of European settlement, the
natural capital of Victoria had been influ-
enced by Kooris for more than 40 000
years. This natural capital existed in a
largely ancient isolated continent charac-
terised by low nutrient soils and a high
biodiversity. In the course of the long
Koori management there were probably
faunal extinctions (e.g. of the megafauna;
6
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
Roberts et al. 2001). Fire was a natural
occurrence, but it was also an important
management tool in the hands of Kooris.
Its use probably played a large part in the
spatial expression of Victoria’s vegetation
communities and their composition. The
Koori population was spread across
Victoria in accordance with their knowl-
edge of the long-term and seasonal carry-
ing capacity of the natural environment
and their owrn technology (Smyth 1878;
Lourandos 1997).
Koori life and land management in the
19th and early 20th centuries were record-
ed by contemporary Europeans (e.g. Smyth
1878; llowitt 1904), but modern research
(e.g. Lourandos 1997) and recent Land
Title Cases (Clarke v State of Victoria
[2005] FCA 1795) have provided more
detail and often different perspectives. In
south-western Victoria, eel traps were used
by people who were more sedentary than
previously thought. Research following the
2003 fires in eastern Victoria suggests that
there was an active occupation of the
forested/alpine areas (Freslov et al. 2005).
The landscape that Europeans exploited
with new animals, technology and belief
systems was a manifestation of both Koori
management and the ‘living natural capi-
tal’ available in Victoria.
1771-1850: Koori - frontier
Squatters took up land in Victoria, from
the 1830s onwards. Edward Henty settled
illegally at Portland in late 1834; John
Batman procured 243 000 ha around Port
Phillip from the Kulin in 1835; the Omeo
district and parts of Gippsland were taken
up around the same time (Brodribb 1883;
Prcndergast 1968). Before Victoria was
legally opened for settlement in 1836, there
were about 180 Europeans and 25 000
sheep (Catrice unpubk). Squatters in search
of pasture came from Tasmania and, urged
on by Mitchell's optimistic observations,
south from New South Wales, to take up
prime grazing land (Roberts 1935). This
occupation was extremely rapid. By the
1850s most of Victoria except the Mallee
and parts of Gippsland were available to
the squatters (under a £10 licence) and
there were more than six million sheep and
about one million cattle (Powell and
Duncan 1982; OCE 1992). Later licences
were for the more inhospitable areas, such
Vol. 123 (1)2006
as the Wild Cattle Run (forests of South
Gippsland) of over 100 000 acres and a
‘carrying capacity’ of 640 cattle, taken up
in 1848 (South Gippsland Pioneers’
Association 1966). Transport was overland
(droving) and on water, and durable com-
modities such as wool and tallow provided
exports and financial return.
Grazing sheep and cattle favoured the
open grasslands and grassy woodlands
(Prendergast 1968; Lunt et al. 1998).
Access to permanent water became impor-
tant and carrying capacity varied (Garder
1896; Smith 2000). Squatters exploited
existing native vegetation (grasses and
forbs) and landscapes (grasslands) previ-
ously husbanded by the Kooris, and con-
verted natural capital into food and fibre.
Some native species declined very' rapidly;
for example, Murnong or Yam Daisy,
which had been a staple Koori food (Gott
1983). The selective grazing of the sheep
and cattle must have caused local extinc-
tions of ground-cover species and inhibited
regeneration of others. Many local histo-
ries recorded the early disappearance of a
range of plants and animals, and gradual
changes in the structure of the vegetation
through fire and ringbarking (e.g.
Prendergast 1968).
In some areas the collapse of natural sys-
tems was already evident under the
onslaught of introduced ungulates. In 1853
John Robertson, who had taken up land in
the Wannon region in May 1840,
observed:
A rather strange thing is going on now. One
day all the creeks and little watercourses
were covered with a large tussocky grass,
with other grasses and plants, to the middle
of every watercourse but the Glenelg and
Wannon, and in many places of these rivers;
now that the only soil is getting trodden hard
with stock, springs of salt water are bursting
out in every hollow or watercourse, and as it
trickles down the watercourse in summer,
the strong tussocky grasses die before it,
with all other. The clay is left perfectly bare
in summer. The strong clay cracks; the win-
ter rain washes out the clay; now most every
little gully has a deep rut; when rain falls it
runs off the hard ground, rushed down these
ruts, runs into the larger creeks, and is carry-
ing earth, trees, and all before it (quoted in
Jones 1999).
7
History Symposium
Landscape Health
Highest stress
2nd highest stress
3rd highest stress
3rd lowest stress
2nd lowest stress
Lowest stress
Fig. 3. Bioregional landscape stress for Australia (Source: NLWRA [2002a])
Fig. 5. Vegetation pattern in the landscape (after McIntyre and Hobbs 1999) and its effects on reveg-
etation (D Parkes, pers. comm.).
8
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
Fij;. 4. The natural capital of vegetation and soil at three stages of landscape degradation (habitat
score, see Parkes et at. 2003 ).
Fire was an important tool of the Kooris.
Europeans used fire to create green pick
for stock, although this was modified as
fencing and closer settlement progressively
restricted burning to ‘the bush’. Of the
uncleared Gippsland forests-probably the
montane areas-Howitl (1891) observed
that ‘These annual bush fires [of Kurnai]
tended to keep them open and to prevent
the open country from becoming over-
Vol. 123 (1) 2006
9
History Symposi um
grown. In the same area (although varying
in different forest types), dendrochronolog-
ical studies indicate that fire became more
frequent in the colonial period than under
the Kooris (Banks 1989).
1851-1900: Colonial pioneers
The gold rush raised the population of
Victoria from 77 345 in 1851 to 540 322 a
decade later. Local landscapes, particularly
streams, were radically changed in the
search for alluvial gold. The need lor
durable beams in gold mines, wood for
buildings, piers and railways, and timber
for fuel (including for paddle steamers
along the Murray River) drove timber har-
vesting in the Box-Ironbark and Red Gum
forests and rapidly depleted many areas of
mature native forest (NRCL 1957). By the
end of the colonial period mining was still
a major activity in more than 28% of the
729 Victorian townships, although some
areas had been abandoned and natural
regeneration was occurring.
During this period Koori land manage-
ment was curtailed and negative attitudes
and actions against the Kooris rapidly
developed in the colonial population
(Cannon 1982) and by 1861 the Koori pop-
ulation was estimated at only 16%' of pre-
settlement levels (Coutts 1982). Watson
(1984) concluded that 'far from being
inevitable, the destruction of the Kurnai
(Gippsland region) society was gratuitous
and grotesque*. (Sec also Leslie and Cowie
1978; Christie 1979). By 1886. after dis-
ease, resistance and dispossession, the
Koori population had been reduced to
about 6% of its pre-settlement level (800
people) (Christie 1979).
The concept of terra nullius- land unoc-
cupied and thus free to be taken-emerged
as the underlying paradigm of European
settlement and allowed alienation to pri-
vate property. From the 1860s. a series ot
Acts were passed for closer settlement
requiring 'improvements* to the properties
(Catrice unpubl.) and government survey-
ors ‘squared* up the landscape for alien-
ation and agriculture of the pioneers
(Chappel 1966; Dingle 1984). Agrarian
idealism was reinforced by Jeffersonian
ideas of social democracy in which free,
independent, small land-owning primary
producers would form the basis of a new
society. The Christian philosophy of sub-
duing the earth, as expressed in Genesis 1;
28, also underpinned this view. A Scottish
pioneer of the Monaro, John Dunmore
Lang, envisaged future landscapes as val-
leys of Christian villages (Watson 1984, in
Seddon 1994).
The change in land tenure was to have a
profound effect across a range of Victorian
environments (Bromley 1991). Closer set-
tlement meant more labour available for
intensive clearing, both of the preferred
grassland and woodland environments and
the higher-rainfall forested areas-the
colony was to be ‘Europeanised*. Native
vegetation and species disappeared at the
site and at the regional level prior to any
detailed knowledge of their favoured habi-
tats. For example, forest dependent
Lead beaters Possum Gymnobelidus fead-
beateri is known from only a single record
in south Gippsland (Bass River). The
depletion of large areas of forests of south
Gippsland and the western Strzelecki
Ranges was rapid after being opened for
settlement (1870s) when 90% of the work
in the first 5-10 years was axe-work (South
Gippsland Pioneers' Association 1966). In
the Narracan region, dairy pastures
(Adams 1978) were to dominate after the
technique of ringbarking (a unique
Australian invention) eliminated the tallest
hardwood forest on Earth. The transition
from pastoral ism to intensive agriculture in
this region eliminated native trees to create
a new landscape ‘that reminds one of the
grassy hills and valleys of glorious Devon
(Western 1966).
Howitt (1891), an astute observer of
nature, reflected on the interaction of land-
use, soils, climate, insects and water on
vegetation of the Gippsland Red Gum for-
est during this period:
The long continued use of the country for
pasturage, the trampling of the surface of the
ground by stock, has greatly hardened the
soil, so that rain formerly, in ... the ‘normal
state for Eucalyptus', soaked in, now runs
off. In the course of successive droughty sea-
sons, the soil of such places becomes thor-
oughly dry and hard, so that the red gum is
deprived of much moisture which it other-
wise would have in reserve. The trees are
wanting in vigour and thus unable to with-
stand the attacks of insect pests.
10
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
The selective grazing of sheep and cattle
would have inhibited regeneration of
canopy and shrub layer, and properties
were improved’ by tree removal, chang-
ing the composition of the understorey. In
some landscapes, such as the Gippsland
Plains, lack of regeneration began in this
era, leaving only senescent Red gums in
the 1980s (Kile et al. 1980).
Pastoralism, based on native pastures,
remained the primary land use (in terms of
area) with increased clearing across the
landscape in more closely settled areas.
Licensed grazing of public land became a
legitimate use for land not yet alienated.
Many local towns quickly established
Agricultural/Pastoral Societies to aid settle-
ment and production, for example Port
Fairy in 1853 (Earle 1975). However, there
was little evidence of pasture improvement
(Smith 2000). In 1900 only two tonnes of
seed for improved pasture was produced in
Australia (Smith 2000). Improvements such
as fencing and buildings made fire less
desirable, and the consequential change in
fire regimes and greater herbage production
may have increased organic matter (Smith
2000) and lowered soil pH. Over two thirds
of the state (Figs. 6 and 7) was undergoing
the degradation trend evident in the differ-
ence between Figs. 4a and 4b.
The fragility of the Australian environ-
ment to introduced plants and animals was
unknown, and acclimatisation of exotic
species was part of Europeanising the land.
Two major vertebrate pests were released
on some of the large squatting-derived
properties, as on the Western Basalt Plains,
and spread very rapidly-rabbits in 1859-
1860 (Williams et al. 1995) and foxes
around 1870 (Rolls 1969). Plants were also
introduced, both consciously and inadver-
tently. Pastoralism also meant that native
predators such as dingos, quolls and other
species were persecuted and were to
become regionally extinct.
Cropping, initially for feeding horses for
transport, moved to wheat growing and
was to become the second agricultural sta-
ple, particularly in the drier regions. The
repeal of the English com laws opened the
largest global market for wheat and a new
durable commodity that could be grown in
the Antipodes (Wadham et al. 1957). In
1850 the area of cropping was negligible,
but by 1860, 18 of the 37 counties had
minor cropping (wheat) areas (13 of these
< 5000 ha) concentrated in the south-west-
ern, central and north-eastern regions
(OCE 1992). By 1880 the Wimmera,
Malice and Rivcrina had been ‘opened up\
and most of the one million hectares under
wheat was north of the Divide (OCE
1992). The coppicing nature of mallee
eucalypt meant that until the roots died or
were removed, selectors faced substantial
ongoing work (McKernan 2005). The
invention of the stump jump plough and
McKay’s ‘Sunshine’ harvester, and the
expansion of the railway network (which
reached Swan Hill in 1890) facilitated land
clearing, a requirement of closer settle-
ment. On a ‘good day’ a bullock or horse
team could clear 10 acres, and this was
increased with the introduction in 1880 of
traction engines, 2600 of which were used
in the Mallee over several decades (Garder
1986). By 1900 the residual natural capital
of the natural vegetation (in soils) was
being depleted (Fig. 8)-the wheat yield per
hectare had declined by more than 50%
between 1870 and 1900 despite more land
being ‘opened up’ (OCE 1992) (Fig. 9).
In the semi-arid Murray Mallee and
Riverina, pastoralism, cropping and rabbits
led to the loss of 10 of the 14 mammal
species now extinct in Victoria-including
rodents, bandicoots, dasyurids and
macropods (Menkhorst 1995). One third of
the semi-arid mammal fauna was to
become extinct. Selective and excessive
grazing by sheep and, subsequently, rab-
bits, utilisation of all fertile areas, and
clearing for crops eliminated species and
habitats. ‘Regeneration of some trees and
shrubs, notably Slender Cypress Pine
Callitris gracilis subsp. murrayensis , has
been a rare event ... following rabbit inva-
sion7 (Menkhorst 1995). Natural capital
depletion includes both absolute loss and
degradation in condition and processes in
uncleared environments.
Major droughts occurred during the period
(Keating 1992). The native biodiversity had
evolved with periodic drought, but this was
the first period where the flora and fauna
had to survive in much reduced habitat with
increased grazing pressure. Water, or lack
of it, was emerging as a limiting factor of
the Victorian environment for the trans-
Vol. 123 (1) 2006
11
History Symposium
Parks Debates LCC
» mi
tarn rt oBur Kcpton
&ms#
US1-4W*
fl tMfflWU
ire MmUfi ty
********
1S30 1840' 1150 1M0 1870 1810 189C 1900 1910 1929 1930 1940 1M I960 1970 19W 1*90 2000 2010 2020 ZMO 2W0
Fig. 6. Changes in land tenure and status in Victoria. (Adapted from: OCE 1992)
Fig. 7. Total area and proportion of crops, pastures and other uses of agricultural land in Victoria.
Source: ABS Agriculture Commodity Survey, Australia (7113.0 and 7121.0), various years. Note:
there was no ABS data available for the area of native pasture prior to 1910-11 or for the total area
of agricultural land between 1860-61 and 1910-11. The dotted lines provide an extrapolation of these
values.
planted agriculture. The socio-economic
effects of the drought of the 1880s on the
ill-prepared farmers (and their stock) were
dramatic. When the Archbishop of
Melbourne visited the drought stricken
areas his spiritual advice was ‘Don’t pray
for rain - dam it’ (McKernan 2005). The
extremity of the droughts and the slow reali-
sation of their periodicity was to prompt a
search for ‘solutions’. As early as 1884, a
New South Wales Royal Commission con-
sidered diverting the ‘unlimited’ water of
the Snowy River to the Murrumbidgee
(Miller 2005).
The high country would not be alienated,
but instead licensed for summer grazing,
12
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
CLEARING
YEARS
Fig. 8. Loss of soil carbon following clearing and cultivation. Adapted from Houghton et al. (1983)
in Attiwill and Leeper (1987).
O Mxn paM (rnvna » yw>
Fig. 9. Wheat production and yield
in Victoria 1848-1901. Source: ABS
Yearbook Victoria (1301.2), various
years.
augmenting the viability of some of the
small selectors and established squatters
(Prendergast 1968) and providing drought
refuge. Within the remaining Crown land
estate the concept of reservation, for spe-
cific public purposes (forestry, parks,
roads) developed. The need for long-term
protection of forests for timber had
emerged and Wilsons Promontory was
reserved fora national park in 1898.
The policy of retaining unbroken Crown
land frontages along the coast began as
early as 1856 and was extended to inland
rivers and water bodies (SRWSC 1983).
The water frontages provided water for
stock and prevented the squatters denying
access (Cabena 1983). By the 1880s a
legal framework for management was
established. However, in 1903 private use
was formalised by licensing to landhold-
ers. The opportunities of this far-sighted
policy that could have protected our rivers
and streams were squandered with 50% of
frontage licensed and a further 20% ille-
gally grazed (SRWSC 1983). There were
dramatic consequences of this conversion
for the degradation of riparian and in-
stream habitats (SRWSC 1983).
By 1900 railway infrastructure was in
place across Victoria, opening up new agri-
cultural areas, particularly the northern
cropping and dairy districts where refrigera-
Vol. 123 (1) 2006
13
History Symposium
tion assisted getting product to markets.
However, this was after many closer settle-
ments failed, as the economic viability of
the extent of land ‘selected’ depended on its
inherent productivity over time, the fre-
quency of drought, and the economics (e.g.
depression of 1890s). The net land-use
result was that most land suitable for agri-
culture had been alienated, and over halt of
the remaining public land (wasteland of
Crown) licenced for grazing and other uses
(Fig. 6).
‘Native game' species declined rapidly
around Melbourne from the 1860s
(Wheelwright 1979) as it became a larger
urban centre. Intensive horticulture in
areas such as Geelong-Barrabool (Wynd
1992), the Yarra Valley and the
Mornington Peninsula developed to supply
Melbourne, and was accompanied by
large-scale removal of native vegetation.
By the 1890s, Victoria’s urban-rural pat-
terns and perhaps cultural perceptions of
this divide (McKernan 2005) were largely
set; Melbourne’s population was 43% of
the state’s 1.14 million, with regional pop-
ulations concentrated around the major
goldfields (Powell and Duncan 1982). At
that time Melbourne was at the forefront of
innovation in water supply and sanitation,
and its water supply catchments were
closed - providing unique ‘reference areas'
for montane wet forest. Alter a typhoid epi-
demic killed 560 people in 1889, engineers
designed an underground sewerage system
that went to a ’sewage farm’ (Werribee)
that, while destroying natural swampland,
would provide substantial habitat tor a vari-
ety of waterbirds, particularly international
migrants, up to the present day.
20th Century: 1901-1939-Federation,
agrarianism and agronomy
After World War 1 (WW1), soldier set-
tlements brought about major clearing of
vegetation in the northern Mallee. The size
of blocks proved to be uneconomical and
of the 12 635 soldiers who settled there
only half remained by 1934, (Priestly
1984, in OCE 1992). Most land was con-
verted to cropping which, compared to
grazing native pasture, eliminated natural
vegetation at the site level (Figs 4, 8 and
10). The largest cropping areas were in the
Wimmera-Mallee and Riverine Plains. The
absence of deep-rooted trees and initial
crop rotations induced severe soil erosion
(OCE 1992) and major dust storms
occurred in the semi-arid zone in the 1930s
and 1940s (Garder 1986). Wind erosion,
periodic plagues of the introduced House
Mouse Mus musculus (e.g. in 1917) and
rabbits affected both production and natural
capital. The area under cropping in Victoria
peaked in 1930 and 1931 at 3.7 million ha,
with vegetation patterns in many of these
landscapes becoming fragmented or relict
(Fig. 5). Productivity increased with the
adoption of fallowing, phosphate fertilisers
and improved varieties (OCE 1992).
However, many farms were not economi-
cally viable even with a level of government
assistance (Wadham et cil . 1957).
Throughout the period, small farmer pas-
toral ism remained the most extensive land-
use and continued to be based on clearing
trees, and using native pastures with some
pasture species introduced. In some inten-
sively grazed (dairying) landscapes, native
trees had been eliminated. For example,
around Leongatha in 1918:
‘...there is ..., in many instances, a total
absence of live timber in the paddocks, set-
tlers having evidently been so intent upon
clearing of the heavy timber ... that the bene-
fits of trees as shelter belts was not perhaps
fully appreciated’ (Watkinson 1966).
Over the period, small owner-farmers were
assisted with technical information derived
from the emerging body of applied sci-
ence. But biological information on man-
aging the natural capital related, exclusive-
ly, to production. For example, The
Fanner's Handbook (Department of
Agriculture NSW 1946) had 30 pages
devoted to clearing techniques.
In 1924, the Waite Institute was estab-
lished in South Australia for the purposes
of calling ‘science to our aid' in agricul-
ture. CSIR (later CSIRO) was established
soon after, with the soil research division
close to the Institute. Knowledge that had
been acquired in the English grasslands
(e.g. soil-plant relationships and the con-
nection with productivity) was combined
with local knowledge of the Tow produc-
tivity’ of Australian soils (Harvey 2002).
The first Director of the Institute, A
Richards, expressed concern at the loss of
native grasslands, but early work on native
14
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
Fig. 10. Tree cover in Victoria 1869 (after Everatt and von Mueller) and 1993 (from Landsat TM)
DSE Corporate GIS.
pastures, for example by Cashmore on
Danthonia (Smith 2000), was largely
abandoned when the productivity of exotic
species such as perennial rye grass and
nitrogen-fixing clovers became evident.
With the application of phosphate and
trace elements to different soil types,
potential increased farm production and
potential erosion mitigation became possi-
ble across a range of landscapes including
new areas that were not previously arable.
The Dry Sheep Equivalent became the unit
of productivity in the Australian pastoral
landscape, allowing comparisons of man-
agement systems.
In 1929 the Australian Government intro-
duced a superphosphate subsidy to stimu-
late pasture development, and this became
Australia’s primary fertiliser. Widespread
chemical use of fertilisers and pesticides
came to underpin productivity in this period.
The record drought of 1902 came at the
end of a seven-year period of aridity and
nurtured concepts such as 'drought protec-
tion’, culminating in the River Murray
Waters Agreement of 1915 (Jacobs 1990).
This agreement led to the establishment of
storages such as the Hume Weir and a
series of 26 locks along the Murray River
(Fig. 1 1). The Long Lake water scheme
channelled water over an area of 1600 km2
north-west of Swan Hill (Garder 1986).
The Hume Weir was completed in the late
1930s, beginning the large-scale regulation
and storage of Murray River waters. Flood
controls (levee banks) and irrigation would
begin to affect the natural hydrological
cycle, and consequently the health of adja-
cent riparian forests and ecosystems. The
cost-effective landscape-scale engineering
of the time involved open channels, creat-
ing very ‘leaky’ systems. Major droughts
remained a recurring feature, and occurred
in 1914, 1927, 1938 and 1940-41.
The effect of loss of deep-rooted perenni-
als on a landscape scale became apparent,
firstly in the soil erosion (Mallee dust
storms), and then through rising water
tables and increasing salinity in some land-
scapes. In the Cohuna district in 1901
salinisation emerged as a regional problem
soon after irrigation commenced. The
opening of Torrumbarry Weir in 1924
accelerated the problem, so that by the
early 1930s salinisation seriously affected
300 000 ha in the Reran g region (Mackay
1990; Macumber 1990). Drainage projects
were evoked. Barr Creek became and
remains the largest single input of salt into
the Murray system.
The remnant vegetation patterns in many
agricultural landscapes were reduced to
fragments or relicts (Fig. 5). Importantly,
on public land that traversed these land-
Vol. 123 (1)2006
15
History Symposium
Fig. 13b. Machinery crushing
basalt rocks in situ in native
pasture. Note the rock fences
from past removal.
Fig. 13. Recent intensification of land use in SW Victoria. (Photos:
Perret; (c) Ian Mansergh).
Fig. 13c. Stubble burning and
elimination of mature Buloke/
redgum.
(a) Greg Campbell; (b) Phil
16
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
CAPACiT* A* SyWM
Fig. 11. Growth in volume
of water storages in
Victoria. (OCE 1992, after
State Rivers and Water
Supply Commission
1980).
scapes (such as stock routes, stream
reserves, rail and road (including unused)
reserves, along with other areas such as
cemeteries and reserves), remnant vegeta-
tion was maintained as reservoirs of local
native vegetation in the landscapes.
Uncleared land and the ‘wastelands of the
Crown’ supported the largest reservoirs of
biodiversity (Fig. 6).
A State Forests Department was estab-
lished in 1907 (Forests Commission of
Victoria (FCV) in 1918) and gradually
increased the area under its control with the
forestry school at Creswick established in
1910. Log volume from state forests (1919-
40) was about 80-100 M super feet p.a.
(423.9 super feet = 1 cubic metre). Native
vegetation cover increased in some areas
under the auspices of forestry and a slow
recovery of some aspects of natural capital
probably occurred. There was virtually no
virgin Box-Ironbark or River Red Gum
forests of any extent, and adjacent
Stringy bark- Peppermint Gum forests had
been "mined* (FCV, in NRCL 1957). In the
1930s, the discovery enabling the use of
short-fibre eucalypt wood for paper was to
have a long-term effect on the management
and use of forests. The APM Kraft pulp
mill at Maryvale was built in 1939 to
exploit the discovery, after the Victorian
Wood Pulp Agreement Act 1936 guaran-
teed the supply of eucalypt pulp from state
forest.
A variety of exotic softwood experimental
plots were established, and Monterey Pine
( Pinus radiata) was to emerge as the pre-
ferred softwood species. In 1924, the FCV
established a 30 000 acre plantation at
Anglesea (Wynd 1992) and about 50 000
acres of plantation in ‘waste land’ the
Crown provided for employment during the
Depression (NRCL 1957).
An emerging consciousness about the
environment was articulated by the
Australian Nature Association’s support for
the introduction of Arbor Day in Victorian
state schools in 1904 and Wattle Day (1
September) in 1911. The Koala, Phasco-
larctos cinereus, near extinction in the
1920s, was able to recover largely because
settlers in the 1890s had placed a population
on French Island, which was the source of
re-introductions over a 70 year period from
1923 (Mcnkhorst 1995). Late in the period,
natural history became popularised.
Wildlife: Australian Nature Magazine was
first published in Melbourne in October
1938. A consciousness about the contrast
between European and Koori world views
was also to be artistically articulated during
these times (Roberts 1986).
During this period Victorian Government
agencies such as the FCV, Department of
Agriculture, and State Rivers and Water
Supply Commission began to assist in the
Vol. 123(1)2006
17
History Symposium
Fig. 12. Extent of forest vegeta-
tion (shaded) at Naringa! in
1 942, 1 966, 1971 and 1980.
Reproduced with permission
from Australian Wildlife
Research vol. 17: 325-347
(Bennett AF). Copyright
C’SIRO 1990. Published by
CS1RO Publishing, Melbourne
Australia
h ttp :// www.p uhlish.csiro.a u/
journals/wr .
resources (NRCL 1957). The period ended
with the beginning of WW 2 and the 1939
bushfires that burnt approximately 6-8%
(1.5 to 2 million ha) of Victoria, including
approximately 20% of public land (DSE
2005). The conclusions of the subsequent
Streeton Royal Commission were signifi-
cant in public land management, particular-
ly the use of fire. Reinforced by the grass-
land fires of 1943 that killed 51 people and
250 000 sheep, future efforts were to be
directed to suppression (Arnold 1973).
1940-1970: Science for production and
emerging problems
The Korean War helped to initiate a
‘boom’ in wool prices - 1950-51 wool
earnt 18% of Australia’s export income
(Wadham el al. 1957). New land was
cleared, and land uses changed. Use of
Subterranean Clover and superphosphate
(Sub and Super) techniques became wide-
spread from the 1940s to 1950s (Smith
2000), resulting in a rapid decline in the
area of native pasture (Fig. 7). This had a
major effect on the grasslands and grassy
woodlands of Victoria and set the Western
Basalt Plains on a course to becoming the
most endangered Australian ecosystem by
the end of the 20th century, bringing asso-
ciated declines of dependent species such
as Eastern Barred Bandicoot Perameles
gimnii and a suite of grassland plants. The
fate of grasslands in Victoria is not unique;
indeed, a parallel decline occurred in 20th
century England because of the intensifica-
tion of agriculture and the use of nitroge-
nous and other fertilisers (Harvey 2002).
Compared to the previous period, deple-
tion of natural capital had accelerated. Sub
and Super was a mixed blessing: it ‘sta-
bilised’ many landscapes but also gave the
economic drive for additional clearing and
elimination of native pasture, changing the
biochemical make-up of the soil.
A public outcry prevented a large part of
Wilsons Promontory from being cleared
for ‘marginal’ farmland under the auspices
of the Soldier Settlement Commission of
Victoria (Marshall 1966). Native vegeta-
tion removal was concentrated in, but not
restricted to, the Malice where several of
the issues following WW1 efforts were
replicated. In the 1940s and 1950s, new
techniques were established in some crop-
ping landscapes, increasing productivity. A
pasture phase (ley system) was included in
the rotation; planting annual medics and
18
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
Subterranean Clover and stubble retention.
This was aided by good seasons (OCE
1992). In 1947-48, 76% of wheat farms
carried sheep which totalled 34% of the
Victoria’s total herd (Wadham et al. 1957).
Productivity increased, becoming increas-
ingly reliant on external inputs such as fos-
sil fuels, fertilisers and pesticides.
Following WW2, transport, new machin-
ery (bulldozers) and Sub and Super turned
intact and variegated landscapes to relics
(Fig. 5). Most of the landscape around
Naringal (west of the Otways) was alienat-
ed prior to 1900 and finalised in the 1930s.
Although logged of mi liable timber, parts
of the area remained ‘intact’ up to the early
1940s but these had become relict by 1970
(Figs 5 and 12). The forest-dependent
mammalian fauna became greatly restrict-
ed with many species declining in abun-
dance (Bennett 1990). This clearing was
replicated in many areas of Victoria,
including smaller settlements such as
Mario in East Gippsland. A 1956-57 sur-
vey of 149 sheep farms, between Benalla
and Stawell (de Laine and Vasey 1961)
found that scrub or timber and swamps
constituted respectively only 2.5% and
0 5% of the farm area, with 94% being
pasture (native and improved) and 2.5%
crops. Native canopy was almost com-
pletely removed and moderate to severe
erosion was observed on 45% of farms.
The drought of 1944-45 resulted in a
decrease of 4 000 000 sheep and 200 000
cattle in Victoria (de Laine and Vasey
1961). This period saw a threefold increase
in the water storage capacity, most of
which was Murray River flow (Fig. 1 1).
This opened up new areas to irrigation.
Perhaps the symbol of the period, the tri-
state Snowy Mountains Scheme was
approved in July 1949 and completed in
1974. To satisfy the irrigation lobby, this
diverted 99% of the upper Snowy River
flows to the Murrumbidgee and Murray
Rivers (Miller 2005). In 1967 the upper
Snowy River flow stopped. The Kiewa
Hydro Electric Scheme (the second-largest
in mainland Australia) began in the late
1930s and was fully operational in 1961,
creating dams and channels on the Bogong
High Plains.
The fires of 1939 and the pulpwood
obligations prompted intensive manage-
ment of the mountain forest, and research
(e.g. by DH Ashton and TM Cuningham)
indicated that adequate regeneration
required a heavy cut (clearfelling, later to
be termed ‘full sunlight regeneration’) to
create a seedbed (AATSE 1988). Even-
aged forest management based on clear-
felling became ‘widely accepted in the
1960s and has remained the preferred
method in many areas’ (AATSE 1988).
The forestry estate was consolidated and
markets were strong, with housing booms
in the 1950s and 1960s. By 1947 the log
volume had risen to 260 million super feet
p.a. (about 300% more than in the previous
two decades) harvested from state forest,
and to 460 million in 1957 (NRCL 1957).
This rate of expansion was possible
through the exploitation of new areas with
new technology now including bulldozers
and chainsaws. Between 1939 and 1957,
1 6 000 km of roads and tracks were con-
structed (NRCL 1957). Timber was an
essential commodity for the war effort
(Arnold 1973). The previously depleted
Red Gum and Box-Ironbark forests were
yielding a ‘new crop’ of valuable poles,
fencing, fuel, etc. (NRCL 1957) and thus
would not reach maturity for tree hollows
-a resource upon which many of our fauna
depend. In 1957, the FCV observed that,
while production from private sources was
bound to decrease, that from State Forests
could be sustained and ‘with the exception
of sawn timbers, very greatly increased’
(NRCL 1957). The future of forestry and
what was to become the ‘woodchip debate’
was set.
At the beginning of the period, major
land-use issues were clearly emerging in
the agricultural landscapes. The Soil
Conservation Authority was established in
1950, replacing the Soil Conservation
Board. The Authority had jurisdiction over
all land, whether public or private. In the
public estate, the National Parks Act 1956
established the National Parks Authority,
which oversaw a very small but significant
estate (less than 1% of Victoria). These
advances in public policy were to have a
profound influence during the next period.
From 1959 Victoria led the way in
wildlife conservation under A Dunbavin
Butcher, Director of Fisheries and
Wildlife. Until then, no land had been set
Vol. 123 (1) 2006
19
History Sym posi um
aside and managed for wildlife (Marshall
1966). The introduction in 1959 of game
licences (costing one pound per annum)
prompted game management and impor-
tantly wetland protection. In the next seven
years more than 100 000 acres of State
Wildlife Reserves were created, both for
wetlands (e.g. Kerang) and other environ-
ments (e.g. Rocky Range Reserve in the
Snowy River for protecting Brush-tailed
Rock-wallabies), and Serendip research
station was established.
The publication of Silent Spring (Carson
1962) provided sobering evidence about
the adverse ecological consequences of
organo-chlorines and other chemicals on
the environment and wildlife. In Australia
there began an understanding of the impor-
tance of protecting the environment, from
a local point of view, and constructing a
record of what remained. This led to works
such as The Great Extermination (Marshall
1966), and Handbook of Victorian Plants
(Willis 1962, 1973), a work critical to the
inventory of Victoria’s natural capital.
1971-2004
In the 1980s, broad-scale alienation and
conversion of native forest to pine planta-
tions on public land ceased. Direct, large-
scale ‘consumption’ of natural capital, typi-
cal of previous periods, declined in some
sectors. Tree clearance, which had averaged
1150 knr p.a. for over 100 years (Gilbee
1999), was reduced to an average of 107
km p.a. between 1972 and 1987 on private
land-mainly used for irrigated farmland
around Mildura and wheat cropping near
Horsham (Woodgate and Black 1988).
Native Vegetation Retention regulations
were established in 1989. and reduced
clearing to 2000-5000 ha p.a. in the first
decade". By 2000, about 900 000 ha of
native vegetation survived on private land.
‘Net gain', where native vegetation removal
was to be avoided, mitigated or offset,
became a government policy objective from
1997 (The State of Victoria 1997 ).
In 1970 and 1971, the area under pasture
in Victoria peaked at 12.3 million ha,
including I million ha of former crop land
(OCE 1992). The decline in wool prices
induced more landscape change and inten-
sification of agriculture (NLWRA 200 Id).
By the 1990s this was concentrated in
western Victorian bioregions, already
under high environmental stress (Fig. 3).
Pastoral areas were converted to cropping
and plantations; ley systems to cropping
and irrigation/horticulture. Treed land-
scapes, native pasture and wetlands were
converted under intensification processes
such as laser levelling pivot irrigation,
raised bed cropping, Blue Gum planta-
tions, in situ basalt rock crushing and stub-
ble burning (see Fig. 13 a.b,c). Combined,
these endeavours covered hundreds of km".
For example, the area of Blue Gum planta-
tion in Victoria was very small in the early
1990s, yet 114 749 ha of hardwood planta-
tions (predominantly Blue Gum) were
planted between 1999 and 2001 (National
Forest Inventory 2004). In the south-west,
a large proportion of the tree cover was in
pine plantations (Gilbee 1999). Red Gum
and Bulokc 'pastoral' landscapes north of
Horsham began to change as inappropriate
stubble burning eliminated these trees (Fig.
13 a,b,c). The sustainability of these prac-
tices, where quality native vegetation
removal is required, has been challenged in
the planning system (Alexander 2005).
Depending on location, such intensifica-
tion has the potential to affect a suite of
threatened species, such as the Red-Tailed
Black-Cockatoo Calyptorhynchas hanks ii
graptogyne, Regent Parrot Polytelis
anthopeplus mondrchoicies , and Striped
Legless Lizard Deima impar. The imple-
mentation of the policy and spirit of net
gain (NRE 2002) should ensure that natur-
al capital is not further degraded at the
landscape and bioregional scales.
Increased chemical use, and progressive-
ly more expensive inputs (Fig. 14) was
another trend in the further industrialisa-
tion of agriculture. ‘Organic’ farming
arose as a partial response to this, and has
been an expanding sector by area and
value since the 1990s. The National
Standard for Organic and Bio-Dynamic
Produce requires landholders seeking certi-
fication as organic growers to develop,
within five years, 5% of their property as
treed areas, grassland or other reserves
which are uncultivated and not intensively
grazed. Recently, genetically modified
(GM) crops are seen by some as the next
agricultural advance. In Victoria, commer-
20
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
600
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
Year
Fig. 14. Australian sales of Agrochemicals. (Hei ath 1998)
cial cultivation of GM canola is currently
under a four year moratorium.
However, agricultural productivity
increased over the century and had out-
paced demand (Barr 2005). Farmers’ terms
of trade declined steadily from the early
1970s, the number of Victorian farms
halved from the 1970s to the 1990s while
their area doubled (OCE 1992). The era of
the yeoman farmer was past its zenith and
a family farm of one generation could not
necessarily support the family of the next
(see Barr 2005). The relative importance of
agriculture to the Australian economy
declined over the period,-' yet about two
thirds of Victoria had been historically
alienated for agriculture and the sector
consumed more than 77% of the water
resources (DSE 2004). New socio-eco-
nomic drivers of land-use change were
emerging across Victoria, e.g. value of
land (Fig. 15). The implications of these
for natural capital will be discussed in Part
2 of this article.
The National Land and Water Resources
Audit (NLWRA 2002b) concluded that
Agricultural development has disturbed the
rate and sometimes the direction of the eco-
logical processes of natural landscapes.
Some types of degradation (e.g. soil loss by
erosion and dryland salinity) have long-term
or irreversible consequences; other forms
(e.g. leaching of nutrients, surface acidifica-
tion) can be remedied with appropriate
actions.4
As Smith (2000) observed, past advances in
agronomy ‘may well sow the seeds of their
own ultimate decline (as successful Sub and
Super has caused acidification)’. The envi-
ronmental costs of native vegetation loss,
altered flow regimes and water budgets, and
changes in soil chemistry and structure, were
being quantified at site, landscape and
regional scales. The existing condition of
many natural assets in both terrestrial and
freshwater environments were poor, with
future projections showing high risk of fur-
ther deterioration (e.g. VCMC 2002;
NLWRA 2001 a-c). Modelling of groundwa-
ter hydrology indicated that Victoria may
face a fivefold increase in the area affected
by dryland salinity by 2050 (NLWRA
2001b). This is the legacy of excessive
clearing of vegetation from recharge areas
(Fig. 16). The area affected by soil acidity is
projected to double over the same time
frame (VCMC 2002). The amalgam of these
assessments found Victoria with a very high
concentration of bioregions under high envi-
ronmental stress at the national level and
these were all landscapes historically allo-
cated to agriculture (Fig. 3; Table 1).
Vol. 123 (1) 2006
21
History Symposium
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The building of water impoundments was
a major response to drought. However,
damming of rivers affects flow regimes,
one of the major determinants of the health
of freshwater biodiversity (Koehn and
O’Connor 1990). Major dam construction
peaked during this period (focused on
Murray River flow) and stopped in 1983
(Fig. 1 1), leaving the Ovens River the only
substantial Victorian river flowing unregu-
lated into the Murray. The Murray River’s
mouth in South Australia closed for the
first time in 1981, and has required periodic
dredging since 2003 to keep it open. The
Murray- Darling Basin Commission capped
water extraction in 1 992 and rights to water
became tradeable, on the assumption that
the rights would migrate to the most eco-
nomic use. The effects of the changing
flow regime (seasonality, frequency,
extent) and water extraction on the Murray,
its biota and adjacent vegetation (c.g. Red
Gum forests wetlands) has been dramatic
(see Mackay and Eastbum 1990). The con-
cept of environmental water and flows for
all inland waters became an issue in the
1990s, and in 2003 commitments were
made by government for an environmental
flow of 21% to the iconic Snowy River
(Miller 2005, see also part 2). Now, Lake
Mokoan in north-east Victoria, which was
built for irrigation in the late 1960s, is to be
decommissioned and drained in 2007-2008
and the Winton wetlands are to be restored
(DPC 2004). Water allocation, conserva-
tion and use remain key environmental
issues as the finite nature of the resource is
recognised.
Community awareness of environmental
decline saw new programs developed in
Victoria, a notable one being Landcare in
1986, which became a national program in
1989. Developed to help landholders com-
bine their efforts to tackle environmental
problems that directly affected productivi-
ty, such as rabbits and soil erosion, it
evolved to become more holistic, including
biodiversity conservation. The Land For
Wildlife scheme was introduced to encour-
age and promote improved biodiversity
stewardship across landholders’ properties
including habitat remnants. From an initial
six properties (totalling 1055 ha) having
179 ha (17%) of retained wildlife habitat in
1981, the scheme now has 5936 properties
22
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
Fig. 15. Ratio of land value to agricultural value in Victoria (1997). Source: Barr and Karunaratne
2002
100 .
m
% Native V*««»atton
Fig. 16. The relationship between tree cover and stream condition.
(totalling 561 244 ha) of which 161 409 ha
(29%) is being retained or restored as
wildlife habitat (DSE Land For Wildlife
Database, unpubl.). Trust for Nature, the
oldest conservation land trust in Australia,
has 30 000 ha of habitat and native vegeta-
tion permanently protected under
covenants with 600 landholders (Di
Lorenzo et al. 2005).
The rise and expression of a ‘conserva-
tion ethic’ is evident in the expansion of
the parks estate. Public debate in the late
1960s and early 1970s concerning clearing
the Little Desert for farming led to the
Vol. 123 (1)2006
23
His tory Symposi um
establishment of the Land Conservation
Council (LCC) to examine systematically
the best uses of public land. Credence was
given to uses that had been neglected in
the past, such as national parks and
wildlife conservation (LCC 1988). The
LCC’s process of developing a public
report on the history and assets was to
have profound and beneficial effects on the
public estate. The LCC sponsored a range
of systematic surveys of the flora and
fauna that formed databases that are still
expanding and being used today (e.g. The
Victorian Department of Sustainability and
Environment Flora Information System
and Atlas of Victorian Wildlife). Over 25
years this unique Victorian innovation, and
its successors the Environment
Conservation Council (ECC) and Victorian
Environment Assessment Council
(VEAC), recommended a series of expan-
sions to the conservation reserve system,
resulting in a growth from 4% of the
State's area in 1970 to over 16% in 2004.
This growth was complemented by inter-
national reserve systems; for example,
Victoria now has 10 Ramsar wetlands of
international signi licance.
The rising community concerns and
articulation about our natural heritage were
promoted by a range of community-based
organisations such as the FNCV, Bird
Observer’s Club of Australia and Victorian
National Parks Association, and provided
the LCC with information. Although the
core of the reserve system was to be based
on existing public land, other important
initiatives such as the Roadside
Conservation Committee sought to have
biodiversity conservation incorporated into
the management of other public land.
In the late 1960s, Greens Road was con-
structed into the Errinundra Plateau, and
the last major area of Victorian virgin for-
est was made available to logging.
Intensification of forestry (wood chipping,
short rotations) on public land became a
source of consistent national debate from
the 1970s (sec Rawlinson 1977). The com-
munity came to expect more from forests
than commodities, and the conservation of
forest-dependent flora and fauna, many of
which were reliant on mature forest or tree
hollows, became featured in the debates.
Concepts such as the CAR (comprehen-
sive, adequate and representative) reserve
system (Commonwealth of Australia 1997)
and the national Regional Forest
Agreement processes arose from these
debates. As part of a sustainable forests
agenda, the Victorian Government
announced in 2002 that it intended to
reduce logging in the Otway State Forest
by 25% and phase it out by 2008.
The value of applied science to agricul-
ture, demonstrated in the prior period, saw
the Department of Primary Industries estab-
lish 19 research centres across Victoria by
2002. However, in contrast to earlier peri-
ods there was an increase in the study and
application of the ‘new’ sciences of ecolo-
gy and conservation biology. One focus of
this was threatened species and communi-
ties. The Flora and Fauna Guarantee Art
1988 (Vic.) and Environmental Protection
and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999
(Commonwealth) sought, among other
things, to list threatened species and com-
munities and threatening processes/
Recovery actions prompted the develop-
ment of new knowledge. Many of the listed
threatening processes are the biological
consequences of past land and water use
and management.
This new knowledge led to a better
understanding of species and ecosystems,
and the need for a more holistic landscape
approach and use of concepts, such as
ecosystem services. Mistakes in the distant
past might have been caused by ‘igno-
rance1, but increased knowledge means
that present and future judgements must
weigh a broader range of evidence that
includes effects on biodiversity.
Historically, Victoria has set trends in
many aspects of land tenure and manage-
ment. Compared to other States Victoria
has: a high percentage of alienated land; a
high level of clearing; a low level of lease-
hold land; a very low level of indigenous
land management; a high level of public
land dedicated to conservation: and a high
percentage of stressed bioregions (Fig. 3;
Table 1). Victoria has entered a ‘maturing’
phase in land-use and management that
now recognises some natural capital assets.
The International Panel on Climate Change
(2001a, 2001b) concluded that
‘Greenhouse Effect’ climate change is hap-
pening at an unprecedented rate and
24
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
anthropogenic causes are implicated. The
predicted climate change threatens biodi-
versity assets and related ecosystem ser-
vices at the global scale, with 15 to 37% of
the world’s species at risk of extinction
(Thomas et al. 2004; for Victoria see
Brereton et at. 1995). Adaptation to this
novel threatening process will be the chal-
lenge of the present century and Victoria’s
natural capital will require additional pro-
tection and systematic replenishment in
future.
Summary of Part 1
The history of land use in Victoria in the
19th century broadly follows patterns seen
in North America, Canada and Argentina,
and was a product of the colonialism of the
time. Indigenous peoples were displaced
and Europeans invaded the landscape, first
as pastoral ists and then as cultivators and
‘owners’. The effects on natural capital
were probably more rapid in Victoria
because of the unique and isolated biodi-
versity, the climate (droughts), fragility of
the soils, novelty of the exotics (ungulates,
rabbits and foxes) and the spread of small
farms encouraged after the gold rushes.
This mode of production, augmented by
agronomy and water engineering, would
dominate the landscape for well over a
century. Natural capital across many land-
scapes was converted to economic and
social wealth. Lessons from this new land-
scape (drought, soil fragility) were slowly
learnt and land management problems
related to depletion of the natural
capital-soil, air. water and biodiversity-pro-
gressively manifested themselves in the
1 9th and 20th centuries.
The rise of conservation on both public
and private land expanded in the latter part
ol the 20th century. As we have gained a
better understanding of our natural capital
and landscape processes, sobering realities
have become apparent. Some past land-
scape debt has already been incurred and is
yet to be expressed. Even if all the active
processes that have depleted our living nat-
ural capital could cease today, many of the
degrading processes would continue for
decades. But we are more mindful of this
than ever before. The breadth and depth of
these issues are enormous, as society
aspires to reach an ecologically sustainable
state. The historical imbalance between the
triple bottom line elements of economy,
society and environment is clear. In part 2
of this paper we will examine how the past
trends might be reversed, and the balance
somewhat restored.
Notes
'This paper is a modified version of a talk given
al the FNC’V 1 25th anniversary Symposium in
May 2005. The arguments and evidence in this
paper and other images were presented on that
occasion. Reconstructed sequences of images
were used to visualise an impression of his-
toric changes at a statewide and landscape
scale and the results of these changes in terms
of on-site natural capital loss. Copies of the
presentation (PDF format on CD), including
images that could not be reproduced in this
article, arc available from the authors or
FNCV.
2003: Victorian plantations: Tree ownership -
hardwood 154,650 ha (0.6% public) and soft-
wood 21 1,961 (1% public); Land ownership -
hardwood (public 6.7%) and softwood (53%
public) (National Forest Inventory 2004)
The gross value of Australian agricultural pro-
duction as a proportion of total factor income
was about 22% in 1975 but had declined to
about 5% in 2004 (ABS).
The national Standing Committee on
Agriculture definition of ‘sustainable agricul-
ture’ included ‘adverse impacts on the natural
resource base of agriculture and associated
ecosystems arc ameliorated, minimised or
avoided' (cited in NLWRA 2001c).
5 As of October 2005, 530 ta.xa. 36 communities
and 36 potentially threatening processes had
been listed under the Flora and Fauna
Guarantee Act, and 198 Action Statements had
been prepared.
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Received 1 December 2005: accepted 31 January 2006
Editors’ note
The tribute to Bary Dowling, published in The Victorian Naturalist, 122 (5) on pages
246-247, made no mention of Bary having spent part of his childhood in Ballarat.
Because this experience was the subject of Bary’s autobiography, Mudeye , it may be
of some interest to readers.
28
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
Changes in vegetation structure and floristics under a
powerline easement and implications for vegetation management
Trevor Meers1 2 and Robyn Adams'
Abstract
Utility corridors such as powerlines are widespread linear easements of highly modified vegetation
which often fragment natural areas of conservation significance. Vegetation management along these
easements is aimed at modifying vegetation structure by the removal of all tall shrubs and trees,
which may have adverse impacts on flora and fauna diversity. Victoria's Bunyip State Park is bisect-
ed by a high voltage powerline easement which is managed by a four year slashing cycle. Repeated
slashing has altered plant species composition and structure of the drier slope and ridge vegetation
compared to unslashed adjacent Open Forest vegetation, but Wet Heath within the management zone
has remained largely unmodified. At a broad level, plant species diversity in the easement is
increased, and higher vegetation density has created small mammal habitat. The powerline easement
did not appear to facilitate weed invasion. Vegetation management by repeated slashing has altered
the vegetation, but does not appear to have had adverse conservation impacts on local plant and
small mammal diversity. (The Victorian Naturalist 123 (1), 2006, 29-37)
Introduction
Utility corridors such as powerlines, gas
pipelines and water pipelines are wide-
spread linear easements, often encompass-
ing a surprisingly large total land area
(Knight et at. 1995) and, in some cases,
representing an important component of
the regional landscape (Hill et at. 1995).
These corridors arc usually highly modi-
fied strips of vegetation passing through
tracts of little-modified native vegetation,
and dissecting and internally fragmenting
natural areas of conservation significance
(Goldingay and Whelan 1997).
The most noticeable visual impact of
these corridors is the loss of tree cover and
the associated simplification of vegetation
structure. Regular slashing to reduce bio-
mass levels for fire safety (Chief Electrical
Inspector 1999), and applications of herbi-
cides to prevent regrowth entering the wire
security zone (Hill et at. 1995) are major
ongoing management practices. In these
powerlinc easements, vegetation regrowth
of shrubby seedlings and coppice from
stumps and lignotubers is usually managed
by repeated slashing, spraying with herbi-
cides, or grading (Goose m 1997). Native
vegetation may be completely replaced by
exotic grasses or woody shrubs (Goosem
and Marsh 1997), or previously forested
'School of Kcology and Environment, Dcakin
University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, Victoria
3125. Email radams@deakin.edu.au
: present address School of Forest and Ecosystem
Science, University of Melbourne, Water St, Crcswick,
Victoria 3363.Email t.meers@pgTad.unimelb.edu.au
areas converted to shrublands (Kroodsma
1982). This type of vegetation manage-
ment is not unique to utility easements,
and often occurs along other linear corri-
dors such as road verges and firebreaks.
There are concerns that easements have a
significant impact on conservation values
by loss of habitat and biodiversity, and
invasion of exotic species. Changes to the
vegetation composition and structure can
result in changes in native fauna
(Goldingay and Whelan 1997). For exam-
ple, where rainforest vegetation was con-
verted to grassland, the small mammal
community also changed from rainforest
species to grassland specialists (Goosem
and Marsh 1997). Avifaunal studies (e.g.
Rich et at. 1994; Baker et ai 1998) sug-
gest that utility easements may contribute
to the decline of forest-interior bird
species, and may contain a species-poor
subset of the birds found in the surround-
ing forest. The new habitat type created by
tree removal and corridor management
facilitates invasion by non-forest bird
species and exotic bird species. The role of
easements in facilitating the penetration of
dogs, cats and foxes into natural areas also
has been investigated (Andrews 1990;
Catling and Burt 1995; Lindenmeyer et at.
1994; Goldingay and Whelan 1997), and
access roads and maintenance activities
associated with easements may be a source
of weed invasion (Parendes and Jones
Vol. 123 (1) 2006
29
Research Reports
2000; Lonsdale and Lane 1994; Tyser and
Worely 1992). However, the relatively
dense ground cover promoted by slashing,
and selective use of herbicide in some
types of easement vegetation, appear to
provide suitable habitat for small native
mammals (Macreadie et al. 1998;
Goldingay and Whelan 1997; Pearce
2003), and vegetation management has the
potential to maintain, or even increase,
uncommon habitat suitable for rare
species.
This study aimed to investigate the
effects of management of a powerline on
native plant species composition and vege-
tation structure, and to comment on the
conservation implications of current pow-
erline management.
Study Site
Bunyip State Park, Victoria, covers 16
622 ha in the foothills of the Great
Dividing Range, and is bisected by a 500
kV electricity transmission line running
from the southeast to the northwest of the
Park. This easement was established in
1 962 and has been repeatedly slashed on a
four year cycle (Macreadie et al. 1 998).
The Park contains a variety of vegetation
types ranging from Closed Forest and
Mountain Ash-dominated Tall Open
Forest, through Open Forest to Heathy
Woodland and Wet Heathland (Parks
Victoria 1998). The Park contains about
400 vascular plant species (Parks Victoria
1998). The section of the Park in which the
study was carried out has Botanical
Significance as it contains Wet Heathland,
a rare vegetation community in Victoria,
and a population of rare Swamp Bush-pea
Pultenaea glabra (syn. P. weindotferi)
(Fraser et al. 2004). The Heathy Woodland
is also of Regional Significance (Parks
Victoria 1998).
The study site was a section of the pow-
erline easement between Peppermint Track
and the Bunyip River aqueduct, and
encompassed approximately 1 .2 km of the
easement in the south east of the Park. The
powerlinc cuts through Open Forest and a
vehicle access track follows the easement,
which is dissected by a series of low ridges
and Wet Heathland drainage lines (Fig. 1).
These drainage lines create relatively con-
tinuous cover from one side of the ease-
ment to the other. Due to the topographic
position of the drainage lines they are
rarely, if ever, slashed during routine
maintenance operations. This section of
powerline was investigated by Macreadie
e(aL( 1998).
The modified vegetation under the pow-
erline contains a wide diversity of species
and is a mix of open, heathy areas and
grassy areas with- emergent shrubs. The
forest vegetation on either side of the ease-
Fig. 1. Povverline easement through Open Forest, Bunyip State Park. The vehicle access track runs
the length of the easement, and the undulating low ridge drainage line nature of the topography is
visible.
30
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
ment at this location is mainly Mealy
Stringybark Eucalyptus cephalocarpa-
dominated Open Forest, with a heathy
understorey containing several species of
Banksia, Hakea and Acacia. The ground
layer is dominated by Wiry Spear-grass
Stipa muelleri and several sedge species.
Open Forest dominated by Eucalyptus
ohliqua and Eucalyptus radial a also occurs
along this section of the easement. Trees
are absent from the drainage lines that run
through the easement, and these drainage
lines are dominated by Wet Heathland
containing Prickly Tea-tree Leptospermum
continentale and Gahnia radula or Scented
Paperbark Melaleuca squarrosa with a
dense understorey of Pouched Coral Fern
Gleichenia dicarpa.
Methods
Square quadrats (25 nr) were placed at
100 m intervals along the easement start-
ing at Peppermint Track and ending
approximately 1 .2 km away at the Bunyip
River Aqueduct. Ten quadrats were placed
in the forest on each side of the easement,
and ten in the easement, with five on either
la) drain aye lines. - easement
side of the access track. To minimize any
edge effects, all quadrats in the easement
were placed at least 1 0 m from the track,
and quadrats in the forest were at least 10
m from the easement edge. Species pres-
ence, and cover, estimated using a modi-
fied Domin Cover Scale (Kershaw and
Looney 1985), were recorded. Quadrat
data were investigated for floristic patterns
using both classification and ordination
techniques (PATN analysis package,
Belbin 1991), and species in each quadrat
were clustered using the Bray-Curtis asso-
ciation measure with fusion using Wards
method (Belbin 1991). Plant cover is dis-
played (Table 1 ) on a relative scale from 1
to 5. Plant nomenclature follows Walsh
and Lntwisle (1994).
Understorey structure to a height of 120
cm was determined using a graduated
structure pole, along 20 m transects at each
vegetation quadrat. The number of vegeta-
tion contacts in each 10 cm interval on the
pole is converted to a percentage, and
allows comparison of vegetation cover at
horizontal intervals vertically through the
understorey (Fig. 2).
(c) slope/ridge - easement
(d) slope/ridge - forest
Fig. 2. Comparison of the understorey structure profiles for the powerline easement (a and c) and the
surrounding Open Forest (b and d).
Vol. 123 (1)2006
31
Research Reports
The structure data were pooled into four
arbitrary strata (0-30 cm, 30-60 cm, 60-90
cm and 90-120 cm) for each of the four
locations (easement si ope/ ridge, easement
drainage lines, forest slope/ ridge and forest
drainage lines) and compared using two-
way ANOVA. Data were examined for
normality and homogeneity of variances,
and the percentage data arcsine transformed
for analysis. The differences between sig-
nificant means were examined using
Newman-Keuls multiple comparisons test.
Results
Vegetation structure
ANOVA results indicated a significant
interaction between locations and structure
(Fy.374 = 5.83, p < 0.001). Newman-Keuls
multiple comparisons tests showed that veg-
etation structure differed significantly (p <
0.05) in density in two strata for the
slope/ridge locations in the easement com-
pared with the slope/ridge locations in the
surrounding forest (Fig. 2c and 2d).
Vegetation density was not significantly dif-
ferent in the 0-30 cm or the 60-90 cm lay-
ers. In the easement, the vegetation layer
between 30 and 60 cm was significantly
more dense (p < 0.05) than in the forest,
mostly due to a higher cover of grass, and
vegetation was very sparse beyond 90 cm.
In the forest, the vegetation structure was
slightly more complex with a sparse layer
of vegetation in the 90-120 cm stratum
The structure of the vegetation in the
drainage lines was similar regardless of
whether the drainage lines were in the
easement or in the surrounding forest (Fig.
2a, 2c and 2b, 2d). The only significant
difference (p < 0.05) w'as slightly thicker
vegetation between 60 and 90 cm in forest
drainage lines compared with those in the
easement.
The vegetation in the drainage lines is
structurally different compared to the
slope/ridge vegetation (e.g. Fig. 2a to 2d).
Apart from the 0-30 cm layer, drainage
line vegetation was generally thicker than
the slope/ridge vegetation, especially in the
taller strata (60-90 cm and 90-120 cm).
This difference is due to the dense thickets
of either Leptospermum continentale or
Melaleuca squarrosa , with understories of
Gleichema dicarpa , Ghania rad u la or
Bauera rubioides in the drainage lines. The
slope/ridge vegetation comprised mainly
low shrubs and Stipa muelleri.
Species composition and cover
Approximately 80 species were recorded,
including 55 dicots, 14 monocots and 8
ferns. The only exotic species recorded in
quadrats were Cirsium vulgare and
Hypockocris radicata and two unidentified
herbs. Erica lusitunicu and Acacia longifolia
were infrequently observed growing in scat-
tered locations adjacent to the access track.
The classification dendrogram (Fig. 3)
indicated two primary vegetation types
corresponding to drier vegetation from
slope/ridge quadrats (Type 1) and vegeta-
tion from Wet Heath or drainage line
quadrats (Type 2). Both these vegetation
types could be subdivided into three vari-
ants, and each vegetation type was identi-
fied by high cover of a characteristic suite
of species (Table 1 ).
Vegetation types
Vegetation Type 1: Eucalyptus Open
Forest and derivatives
la. Eucalyptus Open Forest: This
Eucalyptus cephalocarpa- dominated Open
Forest is widespread through the drier sec-
tions of Bunyip State Park, and may grade
into Heathy Woodland. It is found on both
sides of the easement on drier slope/ridge
sites, and is the original forest type that
occurred on the easement prior to modifi-
cation.
lb. Originally Eucalyptus Open Forest of
Type la. Although there is some regrowth
of the canopy, the diversity of understorey
shrubs is extremely low. This forest type is
found in the easement along the forest
edge, and results -from slashing and partial
regrowth following disturbance during the
original powerlinc construction.
lc. Stipa muelleri grassland with emergent
shrubs of Acacia, Pultenaea , Epacris,
Banhsia, Dillwynia and a dense cover of
Caustis jlexuosa and Gahnia radula. This
is equivalent to the Acacia-Banksia type
described by Macreadie el al. (1998), and
is secondary grassland with stunted shrubs,
formed by the removal of the Eucalyptus
canopy of Type la and subsequent fre-
quent slashing. This vegetation type is also
characterized by a high incidence of bare
ground. It was found only on slope/ridge
sites within the easement.
32
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
0%
1
33
s-
T3
«
3
a
j
i
Vegetation Type /
£nca/t'jp/ifs Open Forest &
derivatives on stopes/ridges
50 %
i
■
I
Vegetation Type 2
Wet Heath &
drainage lines
j
4>
a:
100%
ic Sfipu
mue/feri
lb
ta Eucalyptus
Open Forest
2s» \jcptwpermtm -
Ckthma Wet Heath
2b
2e
KkkiSeuca
Fig. 3. Classification dendrogram showing the clustering of quadrats into two primary vegetation
types - Eucalyptus Open Forest and derivative on slopes/ridges (Type 1) and Wet Heath and
drainage lines (Type 2).
Vegetation Type 2: Wet Heath and
drainage lines
2a. Leptospennum continentale - Gahnia
raclula Wet Heath: There is a high diversi-
ty of monocots such as Tetraria capillaris
and Baumea tetragona. Gleichenia dicarpa
is usually present, and Stipci muelleri is
also abundant. It is found in wet sites and
drainage lines in both the easement and
forest. Most of the area covered by these
drainage lines is too wet or inaccessible to
slash.
2b. A variant of Leptospermum continen-
tale - Gahnia radula Wet Heath: It is dis-
tinguished by a high cover of Bauera
rubioides and the absence of most species
found in Type 2a. There is a scatter of
species not found in the other vegetation
types, such as Olearia ramu/osa. This veg-
etation type was the only one in which
Acaena novae-zelandiae and Cirsium vul-
gare were found. It is found only in the
less wet sections of drainage lines and wet
sites in the easement where slashing is pos-
sible. It probably represents a more dis-
turbed variant of Type 2a.
2c. Melaleuca squarrosa thickets: These
thickets are characterized by an extremely
dense Gleichenia dicarpa understorey.
They are found in drainage lines in both the
easement and forest. They are not slashed.
Discussion
Vegetation management along utility
easements is aimed at modifying vegeta-
tion structure by the removal of tall shrubs
and trees, and it might be expected that this
management would result in habitat degra-
dation and loss of diversity. However, the
vegetation response to disturbance is
dependent on the original vegetation type,
and the individual management treatments
used. Repeated slashing through dry scle-
rophyll forest in the Australian Capital
Territory altered the vegetation structure
by promoting eucalypt suckering and
increasing the density of understorey vege-
tation compared with unslashcd adjacent
forest (Bell 1980). Vigorous suckering
from stumps and roots is also reported
after frequent slashing of powerline vege-
tation in North America (Luken et at.
1991), and suckering was controlled by
herbicide applications. An easement
through Queensland rainforest was con-
verted to dense exotic grassland and patch-
es of woody weeds (Goosem and Marsh
1997), and exotic grasslands and shrub-
Vol. 123 (1)2006
33
Research Reports
Table 1 . Floristic composition of vegetation types 1 and 2. Exotic species = *. Quadrats (n = 40) are
displayed across the table, and the species present are listed vertically, with the values 1 5 represent-
ing relative cover. Plant nomenclature follows Walsh and Entwisle (1994).
Species Type 1c lb la 2a 2b 2c
Stipa Eucalyptus Wet Heath Melaleuca
Leptospermum |11 1 1 1 3 | 1111 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 12 1 3 | widspread
continentale
Gahnia radulci |523 1 1 1 [211 |1 11111111111 ]2413 513 1 1 |5235 [21 3 species
Eucalyptus radiata
Eucalyptus cephalocarpa
Eucalytus obliqua
Lycopodium
deuterodensum
Banksia spinulosa
Xanthorrhoea minor
Banksia m a rgi n a t a
Da i vesta leptophyl la
Lomatia ilicifolia
Hake a nodosa
Exocarpos cupressiform is
Hakea teret [folia
Gompholobium huegelii
Tetratheca ciliata
24
132 2
22121 2 21214
32
11
1 111
Ill
111 12
11 1
111 1
1
1
1
1
1
5
5
1
1
1
species
restricted
to original
Open Forest
1
Stipa muelleri
535555
555
5555555555555
12 555 15
53
Bare ground
52222
1
31 1
widespread
A cacia oxvcedrus
1
121
1111
113
1 species
A cacia genisti folia
mu
11
1111 1 1
12 1 1
1
from all
Pidtenaea gunnii
1211 1
11
111 1111
1 111
1313
sites
Dampiera stricta
11
1 1
1
1
except the
Moss
111
111
1
1
wettest
A mperea xiphoclada
1
111
mi
11
1 sites
Pteridium escu l en tu m
1 1
2
1
1
Caustis flexuosa
5531 1
ini i in
1 111
Monotoca scoparia
111
i i
widespread
Lepidosperma laterale
1 1111
112 1 1
species,
Epacris impressa
min
1 1
11 1111
but missing
Dillwvn i a glaberri m a
mm
1 1 1
1 111
from dis-
Leptospermum
i m
11
1 113
turbed sites
mvrsinoides
(lb) and
Acacia aculeatissima
i
1
i i
1 wettest
Hovea linearis
i
11 11
sites
Hakea ulicina
i
1 1 2 11
1 1
(2b and 2c)
Ilakea decurrens
n l
111 111 111
1
Eucalyptus seedlings
mi
1
1
1
Goodenia lanata
l
Acacia mvrti folia
n l i
Lomandra longi folia
l i
1
species
Viola cleistogamoides
i i
mostly
Sty li di urn gra n i i n ifol i u m
i
1
found in
Acacia brown ii
l
frequently
Persoonia jun iperina
l
slashed
Kunzea ericoides
n
sites
A c rot riche serrulata
i
Hydrocotyle laxiflora
i
1
Gonocarpus micranthus
n
1
111 1
1
* Hypoch oeris rad i ca ta
i
1
1
Bauera rubioides
12 1
2
1
131 5 1
2555
22 species
Tetraria capillaris
55 511135
1
1 of wetter
Baumea tetragona
5 1 1
12 sites
Tetrarrhena juncea
2
51
1 1
34
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
Table 1 cont'd.
Species
Type lc
Stipa
lb
la 2a
Eucalyptus Wet Heath
2b
2c
Melaleuca
Leptocarpus tenax
i
1
1 1111
1
1
Pultenaea glabra
i
1
1 1 13 11
1
1
Epacris gunnii
i
1
1 1 1
1
1
species
Lobelia elata
i
1
1 11 1
1
1
confined
Selaginefta uliginosa
i
1
1 111
1
1
to Wet
Lindsaea linearis
i
11
1 111
1
1
Heath (2a)
Senecio minimus
i
1
1 11
1
1
Euphorbia spp.
i
1
1 11
1
1
Melaleuca squarrosa
i
1
1 1 131
1
mi
Gleichenia dicarpa
i
1
1 11115 1
1
15555
wet sites
Leptospermum lanigerum
i
1
1 1 1
1
11
with
Epacris obtusifolia
i
1
1 1 1
1
1 1
high
Restio tetraphyllus
i
1
1 1 1
1
1 1
cover of
Empodisma minus
i
1
1 111
1
1 11
Gleichenia
Pater sonia fragilis
i
1
1 1 12 1
1
1 1
Acaena novae -zelandiae
i
1
1 1
132
1
*Cirsium vulgare
i
1
1 1
111
1
uncommon
Cassytha glabella
i l
1
1 1
111
1
species
Cyathea australis
i
1 1
1 1
111
1
of wetter
Olearia ramulosa
i
1
1 1
1 1
1
sites
Ole aria lirata
i
1
1 1
1 11
1
Ozothamnus ferrugineus
i
1
1 1
1
11
Juncus pallidus
1
1 1
1
11
uncommon
Carex spp.
i
1
1 1
1
11
species
Dicksonia antarctica
i
1
1 1
1
11
of wettest
Blechn u rn cartilagin e urn
i
1
1 1
1
11
sites
Blech mini nudum
i
1
1 1
1
11
lands developed in easements through
hardwood and softwood forests in
Tennessee (Kroodsma 1982). In all these
instances, the vegetation composition was
considerably altered from that of the adja-
cent forest vegetation. In these examples,
vegetation structure was similar with no
emergent shrubs or trees and a more dense
layer of grasses or grasses with low shrubs
in the disturbed areas.
The response of the Open Forest along
the B Liny ip easement is generally consis-
tent with this pattern of structural change.
The drier sections of the easement have
been converted to Stipa muelleri grassland
with patchy low shrubby species, while the
wetter drainage lines show little change
between forest and easement.
Some changes in floristics were identi-
fied. The original Eucalyptus Open Forest
(Type la) understorey is composed of a
diversity of shrubby species, Stipa
muelleri , and other monocot species typi-
cal of Victorian dry heathy Woodlands and
Open Forests. Overall, the total numbers of
species recorded in the Eucalyptus Open
Forest (Type la) (35 species) and the mod-
ified vegetation of Type lb (38 species)
were very similar. Species other than the
canopy eucalypts and S. muelleri rarely
had cover values greater than 20% projec-
tive foliage cover.
However, a comparison of the composi-
tion of the original Eucalyptus Open Forest
(Type la) and the Stipa muelleri grassland
(Type lc) showed a difference in the
species present. Seven shrub species
recorded in the Open Forest were not
recorded in the S. muelleri grassland on the
easement. These were shrubs with a seroti-
nous seed store such as Banksia spimtlosa ,
Banks ia marginata , Lomatia ilici/olia,
Hakea nodosa and Hakect teretifolia, and
the ant-dispersed shrubs Daviesia lepto-
phylla, Gompholobium huegelii and
Tetratheca ciliata. Seeds dispersed by ants
are typically dispersed about one metre,
limiting species' ability to recolonise once
eliminated. Also absent from the modified
easement vegetation (Types lb and lc)
were Xanthorrhoea minor and Exocarpos
cupressiformis.
Research reports
Substantial areas of bare ground occurred
in the Stipa muelleri grassland. Caling
(1998) found that a number of species of
low-growing sedge and herb had higher
cover in soil-disturbed, linear firebreaks
compared with the surrounding vegetation.
These bare areas may provide colonisation
sites for species with clonal or rhizomatous
growth mechanisms such as some ferns,
herbs and ground covers, and are repre-
sented in the Stipa muelleri grassland by
Gonocarpus micranthus , Hydrocotyle laxi-
flora , Goodenia lanata , Viola cleistog-
amoides , Lomandra longifolia , Stylidium
graminifolium , Selaginella uliginose and
Lindsaea linearis . These species also may
be responding to increased light. Five
shrubby species recorded only in the Stipa
muelleri grassland were Acacia myrtifolia.
Acacia brownii, Persoonia juniperina and
Acrotriche serrulate, and the shrubby col-
onizer Kunzea erieoides. The exotic
Hypochoeris radicate also was present.
The floristic composition and structure of
Leptospennum continent ale - Gahnia
radii l a Wet Heath (Type 2a) and
Melaleuca sqitarrosa thickets (Type 2c) in
the drainage lines showed little difference
between the easement and the adjacent for-
est. The drainage lines are generally too
wet to slash, and have no emergent trees to
threaten the wire security zone. Only the
more accessible and less wet drainage line
edges near the access track appear to be
regularly slashed, and it is here that the
variant of Leptospennum continentale -
Gahnia radula Wet Heath (Type 2b) with
a few weedy species is found. The rare
Swamp Bush-pea Pultenaea glabra (syn.
P. weindorferi ) is limited to these Wet
Heath sites.
Although intact forest vegetation appears
to be relatively resistant to weed invasion
(Brothers and Spingarn 1992), roads and
linear easements continue to be identified
as potential invasion corridors for exotic
weeds (Parendes and Jones 2000; Lonsdale
and Lane 1994; Tyser and Worely 1992).
For example, in heathland in the UK, weed
invasion potential increased with the
degree of edge disturbance (Angold 1997).
The heathy understorey vegetation in this
section of the Bunyip powerline easement
was remarkably weed-free. This may be
the result of the use of slashing and selec-
tive herbicides as easement management
techniques, and avoidance of soil disturb-
ing techniques such as grading. Weeds
were recorded only in the easement.
Hypochoeris radicate , Cirsium vulgare
and two unidentified weedy species were
recorded from quadrats, although Spanish
heath Erica lusitanica and Acacia longifo-
lia were growing along access roads.
Vegetation structural changes resulting
from frequent slashing may disadvantage
some small mammal species such as
Antechinus agilis , but because vegetation
density is the main factor contributing to
habitat suitability for many small mam-
mals (Monamy and Fox 2000), the Stipa
muelleri (Type lc) grassland in the ease-
ment provides quality habitat for species
such as Rattus fuscipes (Macreadie et al.
1998; Pearce 2003).
Goldingay and Whelan (1997) suggested
that small mammals would use dense vege-
tation and habitat linkages within case-
ments, and this is supported by this study.
The structural similarity of the Wet Heath
(Types 2a and 2c) in the easement and the
Open Forest enables this vegetation to be
used as a link across the easement. Several
mammal species have been trapped more
frequently in Wet Heath vegetation com-
pared to the surrounding slopes/ridge vege-
tation. These included the rare Broad-
toothed Rat Mastocomys juscus, Dusky
Antechinus Ante c h i n u s s wa i n s o n i i
(Macreadie et al. 1998), and Swamp Rat
Rattus lutreolus (Macreadie et al. 1998;
Pearce 2003 ). The frequency of occurrence
of Mastocomys juscus was highest in vege-
tation with high cover of Bauera rubioides
(Macreadie et al. 1998). It appears from this
study that slashing disturbance to Wet
Heath (Type 2a) results in increased cover
of Bauera rubioides (Type 2b) and it is like-
ly that the slashing regime in this section of
the powerline easement has increased suit-
able habitat for Mastocomys juscus.
This study suggests that repeated slash-
ing of vegetation has altered species com-
position compared with unslashed forest
vegetation, though some vegetation com-
munities within the defined management
zone, such as Wet Heath, largely escape
treatment and consequently show few
changes to structure or composition. At a
regional level, plant species diversity is not
36
The Victorian Naturalist
Research reports
reduced, and at the local level, overall
species diversity has increased as suitable
establishment sites were created for non-
forest plant species. Higher vegetation
density in the easement also appears to cre-
ate small mammal habitat, and the Wet
Heath in drainage lines provides move-
ment corridors across the casement. There
was no indication that the powerline ease-
ment facilitated weed invasion. Vegetation
management by repeated slashing and tar-
geted herbicide application under the
Bunyip State Park powerline easement at
this location has altered the vegetation, but
does not appear to have had adverse con-
servation impacts on local plant and small
mammal diversity.
Acknowledgements
Data collection was carried out under Permit
Number 10002025. We thank Dr. Dianne
Simmons, School of Ecology and Environment,
Deakin University, for conducting the PATN
analysis, and for comments on the manuscript.
References.
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Angold PG (1997) The impact of a road upon adjacent
heathland vegetation: effects on plant species compo-
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Baker J. Goldingay RL and Whelan RJ (1998)
Powerline corridors through forests: a ease study of
impacts on avifauna. Pacific Conservation Biology
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birds in dry sclerophyll forest at Black Mountain
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Brothers TS and Spingarn A (1992) Forest fragmenta-
tion and alien plant invasion of central Indiana old-
growth forests. Conservation Biology* 6, 91-100.
Caling TM (1998) The Hcological Impacts of Fire
Suppression Operations in a Small Urban Remnant.
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Environment. Deakin University, Clayton, Victoria.
Catling PC and Burl R.l (1995) Why are red foxes
absent from some euealypt forests in eastern New
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Walsh NG and Entwisle TJ (1994-1999) f lora of
Victoria, Vols. 2, 3 and 4. (Inkata Press, Melbourne)
Received 10 February 2005; accepted 20 September
2005
Vol. 123 (1) 2006
37
Research Reports
Notes on diving behaviour of Hardhead Aythya australis
in a sewage pond
Andrew J Hamilton’ and lain R Taylor'
Abstract
Observations of the diving behaviour of Hardhead Ayhtya australis on a sewage pond were carried
out over a two-day period. The length of the recovery period between dives did not influence the
duration of the following dive, and likewise, the length of the recovery period was not influenced by
the duration of the preceding dive. The length of dives and recovery periods varied significantly
among individuals. Other factors that may influence diving behaviour, such as water depth and tem-
perature, warrant further investigation. (The Victorian Naturalist 123 (1). 2006. 38-40)
Introduction
Little is known about the diving behaviour
of Hardhead Aythya australis. Frith (1982)
noted that individuals often stayed under
water for around one minute, and could
emerge up to ‘30 or 40 yards [ 1 8—27 m]’
from where they dived below water.
Marchant and Higgins (1990) suggested
birds often swim up to 40 m under water
using their feet, although they did not pro-
vide any data to support this supposition.
This paper presents data on the dive-dura-
tion (time under water) of Hardhead and
the time spent between dives (inter-dive
interval). It also examines whether or not
these parameters varied between individu-
als. The relationships between the inter-
dive interval and the associated previous
dive-duration, and the inter-dive interval
and its following post dive-duration are
investigated as well.
Methods
Study site
All observations were made at Pond
Nine, Lake Borrie, at the Western
Treatment Plant in Victoria. This pond
covers an area of 109 ha, and the average
water depth is 60 cm (Cartwright 1996,
unpublished data). Further details about
the site can be found in Hamilton and
Taylor (2004) and Hamilton et at. (2002;
2004).
'Applied Ornithology Group, Johnstone Centre, School
of Environmental and Information Sciences, Charles
Sturt University. PO Box 789, Albury, NSW 2640
-’Current address for corresponding author: Primary
Industries Research Victoria- Knox field. Private Bag
15, Femtree Gully Delivery Centre, Victoria 3156
Email andrewh@deakin.edu.au
Sampling protocol
Sampling was conducted on July 8 and 9,
1999. All observations were made from the
embankment of the pond using either
binoculars (Carton1 10 x 50) or a telescope
(Leica Televid 77, 20-60 x zoom magni-
fication), depending on the distance from
the focal bird (distance ranged from
approximately 25-300 m). Focal individu-
als were chosen haphazardly. On the first
and second dates, respectively, 95 and 35
dive-times were recorded. Likewise, 94
and 36 inter-dive intervals were observed.
Birds that were near other diving
Hardheads w'ere not chosen as focal indi-
viduals, to avoid confusion when identify-
ing emerging birds. Ip an attempt to reduce
the occurrence of repeat sampling, obser-
vations were made on different parts of the
lake. All observations were made within 2
h cither side of midday. Another study at
the same site demonstrated that the time
Hardheads spent feeding did not change
over this period (Hamilton et al. 2002).
Statistical an a lysis
All statistical analyses were performed in
the statistical package GenStat (Version
6.1, Lawes Agricultural Trust, IACR-
Rothamsted). The correlations between
dive duration and post-dive duration, and
pre-dive duration and dive duration, w'crc
tested using Pearson’s product moment
coefficient (Pearson 1920). The null-
hypothesis that the correlation coefficient
of the population (r) was not significantly
different from zero was tested using the
two-tailed F distribution test described by
Cacoullos (1965).
38
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
The effect of individuals on dive-duration
and inter-dive interval was examined using
restricted maximum likelihood (REML)
(Patterson and Thompson 1971; Hepworth
and Hamilton 2001). REML is a more gen-
eral procedure than ANOVA, and reduces
to ANOVA in simple balanced cases. This
design was unbalanced because the number
of birds observed varied between dates, and
the number of observations made varied
between birds. Date was modelled as a ran-
dom effect, which is analogous to a block
effect in ANOVA. The mean percentages
were compared using a Wald statistic,
which is analogous to the variance ratio
used to compare treatments in ANOVA,
though it has an asymptotic chi-squared
distribution rather than an F distribution.
The inter-dive interval data were login
transformed to ensure homoscedasticity.
Results
The mean dive duration was 13.7 s (SE =
0.04 s, min.-max. = 4.0 s-25.8 s), and the
mean inter-dive interval was 10.6 s (SE =
0.41 s, min.-max. = 2.0 s-47.0 s). Dive
duration was not significantly correlated
with the inter-dive interval before the dive
(r = 0. 1 66, P > 0.05, df- 101) or the inter-
dive interval after the dive (r = 0.197, P >
0.05, df= 11 1). In other words, length of
the rest period did not influence the length
of the following dive, and likewise, the
length of the rest period was not dependent
upon the duration of the preceding dive.
There was a significant individual effect
with respect to both dive-duration (P <
0.001, df — 37) and inter-dive interval (P <
0.001, df = 39). That is, there was signifi-
cant individual variation in the length of
dives and the post-dive inter-dive interval.
Discussion
Most studies on the diving behaviour of
pochards Aythya spp have been conducted
in artificial environments such as dive-
tanks (Bevan and Butler 1992; Lovvorn
1994, Stephenson 1994; Parkes et al.
2002). In particular, there are little data on
the length of dives by different species and
in natural environments. The mean dive-
duration observed for Hardhead in our
study (13.7 s) was less than the mean times
observed for pochards on lakes elsewhere.
The mean dive-durations for male and
female Greater Scaup Aythya marila at
Lake Myvatn in Iceland were 22.8 s (SE =
0.39s) and 23.4 s (SE = 0.20s) respectively
(Magnusdottir and Einarsson 1990). At the
same site, male Tufted Ducks Aythya
fuligula dived for 17.8 s (SE = 0.27 s), and
females, 18.8 s (SE = 0.25 s). Lake
Myvatn is relatively shallow, with a maxi-
mum depth of around 5 m (Magnusdottir
and Einarsson 1990). From the data avail-
able. it is not possible to determine if the
observed differences in dive-times are a
result of species or environmental factors,
such as water depth and temperature, or a
combination of these.
It is possible that water depth plays a role
in determining the dive-duration of
Hardheads, and that studies at deeper water
bodies, where Hardheads are known to for-
age (Frith 1982), will reveal different times
from those observed here. A study on dive-
times of Canvasbacks Aythya valisineria ,
Redheads A. americana , and Lesser Scaup
A. affinis revealed a significant effect of
water depth (Lovvorn 1 994). In a 1 .2 m deep
tank, the respective dive-durations for these
species were 8.2 s, 6.2 s, and 8.3 s, and in a
2 m tank they were 13.3, 8.6, and 1 1 .2.
Significant variation between dive-dura-
tion of individuals has not been recorded
before from field studies on diving-ducks.
The significant effect observed here could
mean that individuals have different forag-
ing strategies, or it may indicate that there
were differences in water depth or foraging
patch quality in the pond. There is insuffi-
cient information on the spatial distribution
of benthos or variation in water depth to
test these hypotheses.
Previous studies on pochards and other
diving-ducks in natural and artificial envi-
ronments have demonstrated a positive
relationship between dive-duration and the
length of the subsequent inter-dive interval
(Beauchamp 1992; Stephenson 1994;
Malhotra et al. 1996; Parkes et al. 2002).
More specifically, Parkes et al. (2002)
found that the shape of the oxygen uptake
curve and the mean volume of uptake were
dependent on the length of the preceding
dive, with more oxygen required for recov-
ery after longer dives. The lack of a rela-
tionship between dive-duration and post-
dive duration in our study could mean that
the ducks were not only paying the oxygen
debt from the previous dive, but were
Vol. 123 (1)2006
39
Research Reports
devoting some time to other activities such
as scanning for predators or avoiding inter-
actions with other ducks.
Dedication
This paper is dedicated to the memory of the
late Emily Natalie Levu Hamilton.
Acknowledgements
We thank Pam Rogers for assistance as a field-
scribe. We acknowledge the financial support of
the Johnstone Centre, Charles Sturt University.
References
Beauchamp G (1992) Diving behaviour in surf scoters
and Barrow’s Goldeneyes. Auk 109, 819-827.
Be van RM and Butler PJ (1992) The effects of temper-
ature on the oxygen consumption, heart rate and deep
body temperature during diving in the Tutted Duck
Aythya fuligula. The Journal of Experimental
Biology 163, 139-151.
Cacoullos T ( 1965) A relation between the t and F dis-
tributions. Journal of the American Statistical
Association 60, 528-53 1 .
Frith HJ (1982) Waterfowl in Australia. 2 ed. (Angus
and Robertson: Svdney)
Hamilton AJ and Taylor IR (2004) Seasonal patterns in
abundance of waterfowl (Analidae) at a waste-stabili-
sation pond. Corella 28, 61-67-
Hamilton AJ. Taylor IR and Rogers PM (2004)
Seasonal and diurnal patterns of waterbird abundance
at a waste-stabilisation pond. Corella 28, 43-54.
Hamilton AJ. Taylor IR and Hepworth G (2002)
Activity budgets of waterfowl (Anatidae) on a waste
stabilisation pond. Emu 102, 171-179.
Hepworth G and Hamilton AJ (2001) Scan sampling
and waterfowl activity budget studies: design and
analysis considerations. Behaviour 138, 1391-1406.
Lovvorn JR (1994) Biomechanics and foraging prof-
itability: an approach to assessing trophic needs and
impacts of diving ducks. Hydrohiologia 279/280,
223-233.
Magniisdoltir Ml. and Einarsson A (1990) Kofunartimi
anda a Myvatni. Rannsoknasldd vie) Myvatn. skyrsla
8. NitUiirtiverndarrad. fjblrit nr. 23, 79-92. (Diving
times of ducks at Lake Myvatn. Nature Conservation
Council. Reykjavik, report no. 23. in Icelandic).
Accessible at hitp://w ww.randburg.com/is/myvatn/
Malhotra YR. Deskyong N and Pathania PS (1996)
Relationship between dive and post dive pause while
foraging in two diving ducks of Lake Mansur,
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 93, 8-
12.
Marchanl S and Higgins PJ (1990) Handbook of
Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic birds. Vol. I :
ratitites to ducks. (Oxford University Press:
Melbourne)
Parkes R. Halsey LG, Woakes AJ. Holder RL and
Butler PJ (2002). Oxygen uptake during post dive
recovery in a diving bird Aythya fuligula. implica-
tions for optimal foraging models. The Journal of
Experimental Biology 205, 3945-3954.
Patterson HD and Thompson R (1971) Recovery of
inter-block information when block sizes arc
unequal. Biometrika 58, 545-554.
Pearson K (1920) Notes on the history of correlation.
Biometricka 13, 25-45.
Stephenson R (1994) Diving energetics in Lesser
Scaup ( Aythyta [sic] affinis, Eyton). The Journal of
Experimental Biology 190, 155-178.
Received 4 November 2004; accepted 6 October 2005
Male Hardhead Aythya australis. Photograph by Geoffrey Dabb.
40
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
Studies on Victorian bryophytes 2. The genus Bazzania Gray
David Meagher1
Abstract
Three species of the liverwort genus Bazzania occur in Victoria: B. adnexa var. adnexa , B. hochstet-
teri and B. monilinervis. These are described and illustrated, and their distributions in Victoria are
delineated. Bazzania involuta is discounted from the Victorian flora. A key to the species is provided.
( The Victorian Naturalist 1 23 ( 1 ), 2006. 41-46)
Introduction
The family Lepidoziaceae is represented
in Australia by 12 genera: Acromastigum ,
Bazzania , Drncella , Hygrolembidium ,
Isolembidium , Kurzia , Lepidozia ,
Pa racro m astigu m , Pseudocep h a lazier
Psiloclada , Telaranea and Zoopsis
(McCarthy 2003). All except Isolembidium
are present in Victoria. The genera
Acromastigum and Bazzania are grouped
together in the subfamily Bazzanioidea,
which consists of species w ith two rows of
incubous lateral leaves, one row of under-
leaves, and minute-leaved ventral branches
called flagella.
In almost all species of Bazzania the
branches tend to grow as strongly as the
stem from which they arise, so that the
branching is distinctly Y-shaped and
resembles dichotomous branching. For this
reason, such branching is called ‘pseudodi-
chotomous’. In a very few species of
Bazzania , including B. involuta of New
Zealand and Tasmania, the branches are
much weaker than the continuing stem and
the branches are oriented more or less at
right angles to the stem. This form of
branching is called lateral’. In Bazzania
the lateral branches are of the Frullania
type; that is, the branch replaces the ven-
tral half of a lateral leaf, leaving the other
half of the leaf in the branch junction on
the dorsal side. The flagella arise from
ventral intercalary branching in the axils of
underlcaves, thus leaving underleaves
intact. (In Acromastigum the flagella arise
from ventral terminal branching, so the
branch replaces half an underleaf.)
Scott (1985) reported only B. involuta
and B. monilinervis from southern
Australia, as he considered B. adnexa to be
conspecific with B. involuta . However, B.
'School of Botany, The University of Melbourne,
Victoria 3010
adnexa differs from B. involuta in several
respects (see under the description of B.
adnexa ), and B. involuta does not occur in
any of the many collections from Victoria.
It is therefore discounted here from the
Victorian flora. An additional species, B.
hochstetteri , has since been found in
Victoria, and there are several other
species in Tasmania and New South
Wales.
Similar taxa
Of the other genera of Lepidoziaceae in
Australia, only Acromastigum is likely to
be mistaken for Bazzania in the field, as it
is the only other genus in which ventral
flagella are present. In Acromastigum each
flagellum replaces half an underleaf, the
leaf apex is either bifid (two-lobed) or
entire but never trifid, the underleaf is usu-
ally trifid, and the cells in the outer layer
of the stem are enlarged and transparent.
In Bazzania the flagella arise from the
axils of the underlcaves, the leaf apex is
usually trifid (but sometimes bifid or
entire), the underleaf is usually entire (but
dentate or lobed in some species), and the
cells of the outer layer of the stem are not
enlarged and are more or less opaque.
Also, Acromastigum plants are usually
much smaller than Bazzania plants.
Several species of Bazzania from
Tasmania, central New South Wales and
New Zealand are similar to Victorian
species, and should be kept in mind when
determining unusual specimens, notably B.
accreta , B. novae-zelandiae and B. fascic-
ulata. Synonyms arc published in
McCarthy (2003).
Description of species
In the following descriptions, dimensions
are included only where they are useful in
distinguishing species. In general, leaf and
Vol. 123 (1) 2006
41
Research Reports
Key to the Victorian species of Bazzania
This key is based on features that are visible with a lOx hand lens. Field identifications
should be confirmed in the laboratory using the microscopic characters mentioned in the
descriptions.
1 . Leaves with a distinct vitta 2-3 cells wide; leaf apices with three spreading,
tooth-like lobes; underlcaves distinctly ovate, ± entire B. monilinervis
Leaves without a vitta (but usually with a broad patch of enlarged cells in
mid-leaf); leaf apices various; underleaves not ovate, with distinctly
crenulate or toothed margins 2
2. Leaf apices bifid or trifid on the same plant, lobes never with extra teeth;
leaves very brittle and usually missing from much of the stem B. hochstetteri
Leaves always trifid; leaf apex often armed with additional small teeth;
leaves not brittle, rarely missing B. adnexa var. adnexa
cell dimensions are not useful taxonomic
characters for these species. Distribution
maps are based on a review of specimens
in MEL, MELU, NSW and CANB. Open
circles represent records more than 50
years old.
Bazzania adnexa (Lehm. & Lindenb.)
Trev. var. adnexa (Fig.l ).
Mem . Real. Istit. Lombardo Sei. Lett. 13
(ser. 3, pail 4): 414 (1877)
Known distribution in Australia: Tas, Vic
(Fig. 2), NSW, ACT, Qld, Lord Flowe I.
Habitat: epiphytic on trees and tree-ferns
(rarely on soil) in wet sclerophyll forest
and rainforest.
Plants yellow-green to dark green, form-
ing dense, overlapping mats; branching
frequent, pseudodichotomous, the branches
of Frullania type; leaves usually spreading
widely from stem, to about 1 .5 mm long
and 0.8 mm wide, trifid, usually with extra
small teeth around apex and margins, cells
mostly thin-walled, trigones minute or
absent except sometimes larger in basal
mid-leaf; underleaves wider than long,
patent to semi-erect, bulging or keeled at
the base, with a distinct margin of thin-
walled, empty cells (sometimes eroded),
margin usually weakly to strongly toothed
and sometimes reflexed or incurved; peri-
anth on short ventral branches, more or
less tubular with an inflated centre and
constricted and pleated mouth without
teeth or cilia; capsules ellipsoidal, dark
brown, on a long, slender seta; spores
brown with ± ruminate ornamentation,
elaters bispiral .
Notes: In the past, Bazzania adnexa has
been confused with B. involuta. Scott
(1985) treated them as a single species,
and called all southern Australian material
B. involuta. But the two are very distinct
species, and almost all Australian speci-
mens previously identified as B. involuta
are B. adnexa or other species. (In B. invo-
luta the branching is mostly lateral, and the
underleaves are not toothed and lack hya-
line cells.) Bazzania adrtexa is by far the
most common species of Bazzania in
Victoria, forming about 90% of collec-
tions. The leaves arc very variable in
colour, size, shape and degree of toothing,
and the underleaves also vary in shape,
size, width of the hyaline margin and
degree of toothing. Despite its variation, B.
adnexa is easily distinguished from the
other Victorian Bazzania species. All
Australian plants appear to belong to the
variety adnexa. The species’ range extends
to New Zealand, where the variety auck-
landica also occurs (Engel and Merrill
1994). That variety has the underleaves
constantly incurved, a condition found
only intermittently in var. adnexa.
42
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
Fig. 1. Bazzania adnexa (Lehm.
& Undent).) Trev. var. adnexa.
A Dorsal view of portion of
shoot. B Leaves and underleaves.
Dashed line in leaves indicates
area of enlarged cells. Thin line in
underleaves indicates area of
chlorophyllose cells. C First
branch underleaf and adjacent
stem underleaf. L) Cells in
midleaf. E Cells in upper leaf. F
Cells in keel of underleaf. G Cells
in outer area of underleaf. H
Margin of underleaf, showing
border of hyaline cells and teeth".
I Underleaves showing connec-
tion to ventral margin of leaf on
both sides. J Elater and spore. K
Perianth with bracts. (Scale bars:
A = 2 mm, B, C, I. K = 1 mm,
D-H, J = 100 pm.).
Fig. 2. Known distribution of Bazzania adnexa in Victoria.
Vol. 123 (1) 2006
43
Research Reports
Bazzania hochstetteri (Rchdt) Hodgs. (Fig.
3)
Trans. Row Soc. New Zealand 82(1): 11
(1954).
Known distribution in Australia: Tas,
Vic (Fig. 4), NSW
Habitat: epiphytic on trunks and branches
of trees in rainforest
Plants yellow-green to mid green, forming
weakly overlapping mats; branching fre-
quent, pseudodichotomous, the branches of
Frullania type; leaves usually spreading
widely from stem, to about 1 mm long and
0.4 mm wide, trifid or bifid, without extra
small teeth, fragile and often breaking, so
that the lower stems may lack leaves, cells
mostly thin-walled, trigones minute or
absent except sometimes larger in basal
mid-leaf; underleaves wider than long,
rather wedge-shaped, patent to semi-erect,
the upper 1/2 to 1/3 consisting of hyaline
cells, the apex usually weakly toothed or
lobed; perianth not seen.
Notes: This is a very rare species of
Bazzania in south-eastern Australia,
known from only a few localities in
Tasmania and Victoria and one in southern
New South Wales. In Victoria it is known
only from warm temperate and cool tem-
perate rainforest on Wilsons Promontory,
in Tarra Bulga National Park and in East
Gippsland. Outside Australia it is known
only from New Zealand. It has recently
been recommended for listing as a threat-
ened taxon under the Victorian Flora and
Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 (M. O'Brien,
Executive Officer, Scientific Advisiory
Committee, pers. comm. July 2005).
Bazzania monilinervis (Lehm. & Lindenb.)
Trev. (Fig. 5)
Mem. Real. Istit. Lombardo Sci. Lett. 13
(ser. 3, part 4): 414(1 877)
Known distribution in Australia: Tas.
Vic (Fig. 6), NSW
Habitat: epiphytic on trees and tree-ferns
in wet forest and rainforest
Plants mid to dark green, usually forming
dense, overlapping mats but sometimes
creeping among other bryophytes; branch-
ing frequent, pseudodichotomous, of
Frullania type, fully-leaved ventral
branches also common; leaves spreading
widely from stem, to about 1.2 mm long
and 0.7 mm wide, distinctly trifid with nar-
row, spreading lobes, never with extra
teeth, distinct vitta of enlarged trigonous
cells close to the ventral margins, 2-4 cells
wide and reaching 3/4 or more of the leaf
length, cells otherwise small and thick-
walled, more or less without trigones;
underleaves longer than wide, more or
less oval, often with a few small teeth at
the apex, appressed to the stem, cells
colourless so that underleaves are very
pale in dry plants, thick-walled in lower
part and thin-walled in upper part of the
underleaf; perianth widely ovate, strongly
multikceled throughout, tapering to a nar-
row and slightly toothed mouth.
Notes: Although usually abundant where
it occurs, this is not a common species in
Victoria. It is restricted to cool temperate
rainforest and tree-fern gullies in wet for-
est, and grows in dark, dense mats on tree-
ferns and non-eucalypt trees, especially
No th ofagus c u n n ingh a m ii , sometimes
among Bazzania adnexa. The presence of a
vitta and the neat, widely spreading apical
lobes, together with the colourless under-
leaves, make this species easy to identify
in the field. In New South Wales it is
known only from a single site on Mount
Budawang, in the south-east of the state.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to the curators of MEL, NSW and
CANB for loans of specimens, and to Nic
Middleton and Kathy Vohs (MELU) for provid-
ing facilities and arranging loans. Many thanks
also to Dr John Engel (Field Museum. Chicago,
USA) for valuable advice on the manuscript,
and to the anonymous referee for making
numerous useful suggestions for improvements.
References
Engel JJ and Merrill GLS (1994) Studies of New
Zealand llepaticae 8-13. Bazzania and
/lemmas I igum . The Bryol agist 97 (3) 313 320.
McCarthy V (2003) Catalogue of Australian
Liverworts. Flora of Australia Supplementary Series
No. 21. Australian Biological Resources Study.
Canberra.
Scott GAM (1985) Southern Australian Liverworts.
Australian Flora and Fauna Series No. 2. (Australian
Government Publishing Service: Canberra)
Received 10 March, 2005; accepted 29 September 2005
44
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
Fig. 4. Known distribution of Bazzania hochstetteri in Victoria.
Glossary
incub ous: inserted obliquely on the stem so that the margin nearest to the stem apex is on the upper
(dorsal ) side of the stem, and the margin farthest from the stem apex is on the lower (ventral) side.
patent: standing out amore or less at a right angle from the stem.
perianth: a more or less fleshy, tubular organ enclosing and protecting the developing spore capsule
trigone: a triangular thickening of the cell walls at the junction of three cells.
vitta: an area of enlarged cells forming a narrow line running longitudinally along the leaf.
Vol. 123 (1) 2006
45
Research Reports
Fig. 5. Bazzania monilinervis
(Lchm. Sl Lindenb.) Trev. A Dorsal
view of portion of shoot, showing a
fully leaved ventral branched on the
right. B Leaves and underleaves.
Dashed line in leaves indicates
vitta. Thin line in underleaves indi-
cates area of thick-walled cells. C
First branch underleaf and adjacent
stem underleaf. I) Cells of the vitta
(showing oil bodies) and adjacent
cells. E Cells in upper leaf. F Cells
in mid-base of underleaf. C Cells at
apex of underleaf. H Perianth with
bracts. (Scale bars: A-C, H = 1 mm,
D-G = 100 pm.).
Fig. 6. Known distribution of Bazzania monilinervis in Victoria.
46
The Victorian Naturalist
Honours
Australian Natural History Medallion 2005
Pauline Reilly
Pauline Reilly joined the Australian Bird
and Bat Banding Scheme in August 1958
and held Authority No. 92 until her resig-
nation from the Scheme in 1995. This is
probably the earliest documented activity
of her long-held interest in birds and natur-
al history which has led to the award of the
Australian Natural History Medallion for
2005. The nomination was made by
ANGA1R and was supported by a number
of influential people in academic and nat-
ural environment management roles.
The Sherbrooke Survey Group was
formed by members of the Bird Observers
Club in 1958 as a response to the threat of
destruction of lyrebird habitat. Pauline
Reilly was a member of that group for
seven years. From 1964 to 1981 she was
regional organiser for the Bird Banding
Scheme (a program of CSIRO Division of
Wildlife Research) and from 1967 to 1981
she formed and led the Penguin Study
Group until a permanent biologist was
appointed to the Penguin Parade. She was
active on the committee of the Australian
Bird Banders' Association (now the
Australian Bird Study Association) from
1966 to 1972, serving as Vice-president
and President during that time. Pauline
instigated and led the Flame Robin Survey
in various parts of Victoria.
As well as the field work associated with
her long term studies of lyrebirds, Flame
Robins, and penguins in Victoria, Pauline
led the Penguin Study Group on a trip to
the Great Australian Bight and she banded
shearwaters with Dr Dominic Serventy on
Bass Strait islands. In the austral summer
of 1978/79 Pauline Reilly instigated and
led a three month study of Gentoo
Penguins on Macquarie Island as an
unpaid member of the Australian Antarctic
Research Expedition (AN ARE). She was
accompanied by Anne Kerle, a post-gradu-
ate student from Monash University, and
they found that the birds, five times the
weight of a Little Penguin, proved to be a
formidable subject to band.
During a muttonbird banding trip to
Fisher Island in 1971, Dom Serventy spent
the 1 6 days convincing Pauline Reilly that
she should become President of the Royal
Australasian Ornithologists Union
(RAOU). This was at a time when that
organisation was emerging from a contro-
versial reform and was facing the prospect
of hosting the International Ornithological
Congress in Canberra in 1974. She accept-
ed and during her Presidency the decision
was taken to move from the cramped quar-
ters of Clunies Ross House; to publish the
first part of a new Checklist and the
Interim List of Songbirds and to set up the
Record Appraisal Committee. It was
Pauline Reilly who obtained the conces-
sion that contributions to the Union for sci-
entific purposes should be tax-deductible,
thus acknowledging that projects approved
by the Field Investigation Committee
would be of scientific importance. It was
she who led the delegation to Canberra
which convinced the commonwealth
department concerned that the Union pos-
sessed the human resources capable of
compiling an atlas of the distribution of
Australian birds. Pauline Reilly, with
Stephen Davies and Margaret Blakers, was
instrumental in ensuring the national cov-
erage of the project by extensive travel-
ling, calling meetings and inspiring local
groups to take up atlassing. Pauline was
RAOU President 1972-1975 and on its
Research Committee 1969-1984.
The Victorian Wetland Trust was formed
in 1988 with Pauline Reilly as its inaugural
Vice-President. She held that position until
1993 and was also newsletter editor
throughout that time. One of the initiatives
of the Trust was to collaborate with
Serendip Wildlife Reserve, so Pauline
served on its Committee of Management
from 1992 to 1996. Another organisation
which benefited from her expertise was
ANGAIR where she has been a member
since 1983, contributing ‘Bird of the
Month1 for its newsletter for many years.
The Penguin Study Group’s findings on
the biology of the L ittle Penguin were pub-
lished in a series of reports between 1969
and 1974, written by Pauline and Peter
Vol. 123 (1) 2006
47
Honours
Balmford. Pauline followed this with a
series of papers in Emu co-authored with
Mike Cullen from Monash University.
Two of her other study species, the Gentoo
Penguin and the Superb Lyrebird, were the
subject of additional papers in scientific
journals. The 1983 ‘Ash Wednesday’
bush fires at Aireys Inlet have special sig-
nificance for Pauline as she lost her house
and all of her records to them. She has
monitored the effect of that wildfire on
birds and patterns of recolonisation for
more than eighteen years and reported her
findings in the literature.
As well as her own writing, Pauline has
prepared a number of book reviews and
has refereed papers for Emu , Core! la. The
Victorian Naturalist and Australian Bird
Watcher (now Australian Field
Ornithology).
Probably the most well known of Pauline
Reilly’s books are those written for chil-
dren. Three of them are teenage novels with
a wildlife theme for remedial readers.
Another thirty or so contain factual
researched material which is told as a story
for about 8-year reading level with illustra-
tions that provide accurate information.
These books are also used for Primary sci-
ence and adult LOTL studies. Between
1985 when The penguin that walks at night
was published and 1998, Will Rolland was
the illustrator. A group of four of these
books received the Whitley (Natural
History) Commendation for the best chil-
dren’s series 1986/87, and five more were
awarded the Whitley Commendation for the
best children’s educational series in 1994.
From 2000 Pauline Reilly and illustrator
Kayelene Traynor formed Bristlebird
Books. The eleven books published to date
under that imprint have all been shortlisted
or winners of the Wilderness Society Non-
fiction Environment Awards for Children's
Literature.
Penguins have been a large part of
Pauline Reilly’s life and, naturally, have
resulted in a number of books: Fairy
Penguins: a brief life history: Fairy pen-
guins and earthy people ; Penguins of the
world (and a Japanese translation) and
Emperor: the magnificent penguin.
She was co-author of the Atlas of
Australian Birds (1984), which was award-
ed the Whitley Medal for best book in
1985, and also wrote Lyrebird : a natural
history, greatly assisted by her early stud-
ies of that species with the Sherbrooke
Survey Group.
Pauline Reilly’s achievements in
ornithology and conservation have been
recognised by other awards. In 1981 she
became the first female Fellow of the
Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union
and in 1994 a member of the Order of
Australia. The RAOU Fellow citation
described her as the epitome of those ‘seii-
ous amateurs', and made the award for her
distinguished service to Australian
ornithology as a field worker, administra-
tor and author. The John Hobbs Medal
recognises contributions to ornithology by
an amateur, and Pauline Reilly was the
2001 recipient. In 2005 she was awarded
by Bird Observers Club of Australia one of
the ten inaugural W. Roy Wheeler
Medallions for Excellence in Field
Ornithology
Although Pauline’s greatest enjoyment
comes from field work with birds, she has
contributed much to administration and
guidance for the community. She served
on the Environment Committee of the
Sandringham Council from 1976 to 1982
and, for the Surf Coast Shire, she chaired
the steering committee which prepared its
Conservation Strategy, was a member of
its Environment Advisory Committee and
its 2020 Vision planning committee. She
was Secretary to the Aireys Inlet and
District Association and has been called as
an expert witness before VCAT hearings
related to the Penguin Parade at Phillip
Island and habitat eneroachment issues for
Bristlebirds and wetlands.
Pauline Reilly is still offering guidance to
bird watchers and, in recent times, has
been acting as mentor to students who
carry out field studies in her local area.
These activities have not only included a
study of Bristlebirds at Aireys Inlet con-
ducted by Deakin University but also
research of a Japanese PhD student on
Little Penguins in New Zealand. Pauline is
a worthy winner of the Australian Natural
History Medallion.
Ian Endersby
56 Looker Road
Montmorency, Victoria 3094
48
The Victorian Naturalist
Contribution
The effects of a higher sea level on the coasts
of Port Phillip Bay
Eric Bird1
Abstract
Sea level may rise in Port Phillip Bay in response to global warming and higher ocean levels, while
channel deepening at the entrance will produce higher high tides. A rising sea level will lead to sub-
mergence and increased erosion on the bay shores, and the eventual disappearance of Mud Islands.
The response to submergence should be landfilling to raise low lying areas, while increased coastal
erosion should be countered by renourishment of protective beaches rather than the building ot sea
walls or boulder ramparts. ( The Victorian Naturalist 123 ( 1 ), 49-54)
Introduction
Port Phillip Bay formed about 6 000
years ago during the world-wide sea level
rise known as the Holocene Marine
Transgression. The sea then flooded into a
basin, the Port Phillip Sunkland (Keble
1946), through a narrow gap in the coastal
fringe of Pleistocene dune calcarenite that
forms the Nepean Peninsula to the east and
the Point Lonsdale foreland to the west.
This entrance, known as Port Phillip
Heads, is 3.2 km wide at high tides.
There had been previous Port Phillip
Bays during high sea level phases of the
Pleistocene, and at first the submergence
revived the outlines of an earlier bay, but
there were soon modifications (Bird
1993a). Cliffs were cut back, and sand
eroded from them formed beaches that
extended around much of the 260 km
coastline. Salt marshes and some man-
groves occupied sheltered areas such as
Swan Bay, the Yarra estuary and other
smaller inlets. It is thought that the sea
briefly attained a level a metre or so higher
than at present, then fell back, leaving
some emerged beaches and resulting in
some of the cliffs being degraded to vege-
tated bluffs (Gill 1950, Bowler 1966).
Evidence from the earliest maps and
charts, compiled in the nineteenth century,
indicates that the coastline was beach-
fringed, with several cliffy sectors and local
salt marshes and mangroves. Much of this
natural coastline persisted on aerial pho-
tographs taken in the 1930s and 1940s, but
there had been changes associated with the
development of the Port of Melbourne in
the Yarra estuary, the construction of har-
1 Geostudies Australia, 343 Beach Road, Black Rock,
Victoria 3193
bours and the building of protective struc-
tures (mainly wooden walls and groynes)
on some eroding sectors (Bird 1988a).
The beaches of Port Phillip Bay were
supplied mainly with sand and some gravel
derived from eroding cliffs and shore out-
crops, with some sand and shelly material
swept in from the sea floor during the
Holocene marine transgression. Shelly
debris is still delivered by gentle wave
action in relatively calm weather (Bird
1988b).
Beaches are eroded by storm waves that
produce a weak swash and strong back-
wash, and restored by gentle wave action
in subsequent calmer weather. Beach sedi-
ment is also moved alongshore when
waves arrive at an angle to the shoreline.
In winter, wave action in Port Phillip Bay
is dominated by winds from the west and
north-west which generate southward drift-
ing on the east coast, wTiile, in summer,
winds from south-west and south move
beach material north ward. In consequence,
beaches between Port Melbourne and
Mount Martha become wider at their
northern ends and narrower at their south-
ern ends during the summer, a pattern that
is reversed in the w inter months.
These alternations complicate the assess-
ment of beach changes but, w-hen the pre-
sent patterns are compared with those seen
on aerial photographs taken in the 1 940s, it
is evident that beaches have been depleted.
Their width at high tide has diminished,
and they are generally steeper in profile
than they were before 1945. Depletion has
been largely due to the building of sea
walls and rock revetments that have halted
cliff erosion and thus the supply of sand to
beaches. In addition the reflection of
Vol. 123 (1) 2006
49
Contribution
waves by these structures has scoured
away the beach, removing sand to the sea
floor. Beaches that have escaped erosion
are those where sand has accumulated
beside or behind harbour structures, as at
Sandringham, Middle Brighton and
Queenscliff, in each case with depletion of
adjacent beaches (Bird 1993a).
Some beaches have been artificially
restored, and on the north-east coast of
Port Phillip Bay the existing beaches are
largely those that were renourished by
dumping sand in the 1970s to 1990s (Bird
1990). A renourished beach can be effec-
tive in halting cliff erosion, as has been
shown on the coast south of Quiet Corner,
Black Rock and north of Red Bluff,
Sandringham. Renourished beaches main-
tain acceptable coastal scenery and provide
a valuable recreational resource, in con-
trast to the ugliness of sea walls and rock
revetments and the damage that follows
their construction. Regrettably, there are
still schemes to build or extend sea walls
and rock revetments, even though it is
clear that these result in beach depletion.
The present coastline of Port Phillip Bay
is thus far from natural. It is unstable, and
erosion is prevalent. Beaches that have
been renourished are diminishing (being
subject to the same processes that depleted
their natural predecessors), and will have
to be restored again in the future (like sea
walls, they require maintenance, particu-
larly after storm damage). Even with the
sea at its present level and no change in
climate the beaches of Port Phillip Bay
will continue to diminish, and it is likely
that the only beaches still present a century
hence will be those that have been artifi-
cially renourished.
Causes of a rising sea level
Sea level could rise in Port Phillip Bay if
there was subsidence of the land, which
has occurred in the geological past within
the Port Phillip Sunkland. It could rise if
the general level of the oceans rose,
because this would be transmitted into Port
Phillip Bay. Alternatively, it could rise if
the entrance at Port Phillip Heads was sub-
stantially enlarged, allowing more water to
flow in on rising tides. Sea level can be
raised temporarily by storm surges or
tsunamis.
The Port Phillip Sunkland has been rela-
tively stable, although earthquakes have
occurred along bordering fault lines, par-
ticularly Selwyn Fault, which runs down
the east coast of the bay from Frankston
past Mornington to Dromana and across
the Nepean Peninsula to the western side
of Cape Schanck (Keble 1950). An earth-
quake occurred on this fault at Mornington
in 1932, and there have been several lesser
tremors, but no evidence that these tectonic
movements generated tsunamis within the
bay. Although tectonic subsidence could
occur, leading to a rise of sea level relative
to the land in Port Phillip Bay, the risk
appears to be slight.
Global Warming and sea level rise
Monitoring of the composition of the
Earth's atmosphere, which began in the
International Geophysical Year (1957), has
shown increases in carbon dioxide,
methane and other gases that are known to
increase the opaqueness of the atmosphere
and thereby reduce the outflow of reflected
solar heating from the Earth’s surface. This
is known as the Greenhouse Effect, and the
consequent global wanning is expected to
cause a world-wide sea level rise, due to
thermal expansion of the oceans and
increasing inflow of water from the melt-
ing of snowfields and glaciers (Pearman
1988). In 2001 the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change estimated that
global sea level would rise up to 30 cen-
timetres by 2040 and up to 88 centimetres
by the year 2100 (Church ct al. 2001 ).
Analyses of long-term tide gauge records
from coastal stations around the world has
shown that over 70% of them show a rise
in mean sea level,’ and it is widely believed
that global mean sea level is rising at 1-2
mm/year. However, this is by no means
uniform. Satellite sensing has shown that
the ocean surface is bumpy and variable;
some coastal land areas are rising (sea
level falling) while others are subsiding
(sea level rising); and the global distribu-
tion of reliable tide gauge records is
patchy. Evidence from the Point Lonsdale
and Williamstown tide gauges may not be
reliable because modifications have been
made, but it appears that mean sea level in
Port Phillip Bay is much the same as it was
a century ago (Mackenzie 1939, Bird
50
The Victorian Naturalist
Contribution
1993b). It will be some time before a glob-
al sea level rise becomes certain, but if it
does sea level within Port Phillip Bay will
rise accordingly.
Effects of a rising sea level
In general terms a rising sea level will
transgress across the existing intertidal zone,
submerging shore platforms and salt marsh-
es as the levels of high and low tide increase
around Port Phillip Bay. Mud Islands, sur-
mounting the broad shoals in the southern
part of the bay, consist of sandy beaches and
dunes encircling a salt marsh, and arc likely
to be quickly reduced by erosion and sub-
mergence. The mouths of inflowing creeks
and rivers such as the Yarra and the
Werribee will become wider and deeper as
high tides attain augmented levels.
Nearshore water will deepen, allowing larg-
er waves to break on the shore, intensifying
erosion of cliffs and beaches. Where the
cliffs are in hard rock, such as the granodior-
ite of Mount Martha, erosion will be slight
as the sea rises, but the soft clay and sand-
stone cliffs of the Bellarine Peninsula and
the north-eastern coast between
Sandringham and Balcombe Bay are likely
to be cut back more rapidly as wave attack
reaches higher levels. Low-lying areas, par-
ticularly along the west coast of the bay, will
be submerged unless sea walls are built to
keep the sea out, or their levels raised by
dumping land fill. Organisms that occupy
specific intertidal zones will migrate upward
on cliffs and shore structures such as sea
walls and breakwaters and landward if there
are suitable backshore habitats. Such habi-
tats will not be available on much of the bay
coastline because of built structures, notably
sea walls, and the existing intertidal ecology
zones will be squeezed as the habitats
become narrower, or disappear.
Erosion has become widespread on coasts
where sea level has risen because of coastal
land subsidence, due to tectonic activity, as
in southern England. Similar erosion has
occurred where the coast has subsided as
the result of extracting oil, as in southern
California, or groundwater, as on the north-
ern coast of the Gulf of Thailand (Bird
1993b). The seaward fringes of salt marshes
in the Lagoon of Venice, where sea level is
rising because of coastal subsidence, are
cliffed and are eroding rapidly.
Beach erosion is extensive on subsiding
coasts. The Bruun Rule states that as sea
level rises the beach profile is re-shaped,
with erosion of the upper beach and with-
drawal of sediment to the adjacent sea floor
(Bruun 1962). If a sea level rise is followed
by a phase of stability the beach profile will
be restored at a higher level (Figure 1).
There are problems with the Bruun Rule
because it assumes that the beach profile
was initially in equilibrium, neither gaining
nor losing sediment, and that the sea level
rise is a specific event, followed by stabili-
ty (Bird 2001). As has been noted, the
beaches of Port Phillip Bay are already
eroding, and the prospect is that global
warming will lead to a continuing sea level
rise. On subsiding coasts there is no doubt
that as sea level rises beaches are eroded
and sand transferred to the sea floor.
Analyses of erosion rates w'hen sea level
rises around the Great Lakes in North
America indicates that each centimetre of
sea level rise results in a metre of beach
recession (Schwartz 1967). The predicted
rise of sea level could therefore result in up
to 30 metres of recession on beaches bor-
dering Port Phillip Bay. At high tide most
of the beaches are narrower than this, so
they will disappear by 2040 unless they
have been artificially renourished.
Storm events
There have been many storms in Port
Phillip Bay, and at the end of November
1934 there was a major storm surge. A
combination of heavy rainfall and river
flooding, low' barometric pressure and
southerly gales raised high tide water level
in the bay by as much as a metre. This
caused extensive flooding, rapid erosion of
cliffs cut in soft clay and sandstone on the
east coast of the bay, and erosion of beach-
es. There was extensive structural damage
at sites along the north and east coast of
the bay. The sea level rise was only tempo-
rary, and within a week Port Phillip Bay
was back to its normal level. In this and
other storms in Port Phillip Bay there was
severe beach erosion, and sand was with-
drawn to form sand bars just offshore, but
in subsequent calmer weather much of this
sediment moved back on to the beach,
restoring the transverse profile.
Contribution
Fig. 1. The Bruun Rule states that a sea level rise will result in the erosion of a beach, as a volume of
sediment is removed from the backshore and deposited in the nearshore area. Depletion of beaches
in Port Phillip Bay will follow the dredging of shipping channels, which will raise high tide levels by
just under a centimetre, and accelerate as sea level rises as the result of global warming by up to 30
centimetres to the year 2040.
In response to the 1934 storm surge the
Victorian government made a Foreshore
Erosion Survey in 1935 that showed that
some cliffs cut in soft sandstone or clay
had been receding at an average rate of a
foot (about 30 cm) a year (Mackenzie
1939). This led to the building of masonry
sea walls between 1936 and 1946 and the
stabilisation of these rapidly eroding cliffs
as artificially graded and vegetated slopes.
Since 1946 sea walls have been extended
and rock revetments added to several sec-
tors of coastline, so that more than 40% of
the coastline is now artificial.
Tsunamis
Tsunamis are seismic sea waves generat-
ed by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions on
the ocean floor. These waves radiate across
the oceans, and as they move into shallow
water they grow in size, and may attain
several metres in height when they break
on the shore. The recent tsunami in the
Indian Ocean (26 December 2004) was
caused by an earthquake off the northern
tip of Sumatra. This generated large waves
that caused devastation and loss of life
when they reached the coasts of nearby
Aceh Province, the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, and the northern coasts of the
Indian Ocean from Penang in Malaysia
and Phuket in Thailand around to
Bangladesh, eastern India, Sri Lanka and
east Africa from Somalia south to Kenya.
Similar tsunamis have occurred around the
Pacific Ocean, and evidence of erosion and
emplacement of boulders by a tsunami
about 1 05 000 years ago has been found on
the south-eastern coast of Australia
(Bryant eta/. 1996).
No such evidence has been found on the
coast of western Victoria, but a tsunami
could be generated by an earthquake in the
Southern Ocean, producing a wave from
the south or south-west breaking on the
Victorian coastline. The arrival of a tsuna-
mi in Bass Strait would be signalled by a
rapid withdrawal of sea water along the
shore, and a strong outflow through Port
Phillip Heads. Then, as large tsunami
waves broke along the Victorian coastline,
water would be transmitted into Port
Phillip Bay. The incoming wave would be
much reduced by friction as it passed
through the narrow entrance and crossed
the southern shallows. A small tsunami
(about 3 metres) would produce waves
similar to those now generated by large
swells or storm waves of similar dimen-
sions, which are about a metre high when
they reach the shores of Lonsdale Bight
and Nepean Bay, but diminish rapidly
along the inner bay coastline. Such a
tsunami would cause an upwelling of
water similar to a sudden rise of the tide
rather than a major breaking wave around
much of the bay shore. With increasing
tsunami size, waves would penetrate fur-
ther, and a very large tsunami (> 10
metres) would produce waves, albeit
diminished, around Port Phillip Bay. In
calm weather there would be a brief
coastal submergence, but if it was wet,
stormy waves reaching higher levels could
be as damaging as those in the 1934 storm
surge mentioned previously.
52
The Victorian Naturalist
Contribution
Storm surges and tsunamis raise sea level
only briefly and, although they may cause
cliff recession and structural damage along
the coast, their effects on beaches are usu-
ally temporary, sudden erosion giving
place to gradual restoration after the sea
returns to its present level.
A more permanent sea level rise would
not permit such restoration.
Channel deepening
The development of the ports of
Melbourne and Geelong has depended on
ships entering and leaving Port Phillip Bay
through the narrow gap between Point
Lonsdale and Point Nepean. The navigation
channel has been deepened and widened by
recurrent local blasting of rock outcrops at
intervals since 1902, but the increase in the
size of cargo ships has led to a proposal for
further dredging of the channel through
Port Phillip Heads and shipping channels
within the bay. There is the possibility that
changes will occur on the bay shores as the
result of this deepening.
Maximum tide range in Bass Strait is
about 1 .7 metres, and the tides flow in and
out through Port Phillip Heads, an entrance
that so restricts their flow that tide range at
the head of Port Phillip Bay is only 0.6
metres. An increase in the cross-sectional
area of the entrance channel would
increase tidal ventilation (the volume of
water that enters and leaves Port Phillip
Bay), raising high tides and lowering low
tides. Modelling, reported in the
Environmental Effects Statement (2004)
prepared for the Port of Melbourne
Corporation, has indicated that tide levels
in Port Phillip Bay after dredging the
entrance and shipping channels will be up
to 8 mm higher at high tide and as much at
9 mm lower at low tide. This implies that
there will be little if any change in mean
sea level: more water will flow in as the
tide rises but more will flow out as it falls.
High tides in Port Phillip Bay will be
slightly higher, which would not be signifi-
cant in calm weather, but when the aug-
mented high tides coincide with storms the
waves reaching beaches and cliffs will be
larger and more erosive than they are now.
The geomorphological impact of a rise in
sea level due to deepening of the shipping
channels will thus depend on the frequency
with which the higher tides coincide with
stormy weather. The changes that result
will be minor compared with those that
would result from a global sea level rise,
even of only a few centimetres. The deep-
ening of shipping channels will neverthe-
less slightly increase and accelerate the
effects of a global sea level rise in Port
Phillip Bay
Response to a sea level rise
Erosion of cliffs, beaches and salt marsh-
es resulting from a rising sea level will
pose problems for coastal managers.
Where cliff erosion has accelerated and the
loss of coastal land threatens built struc-
tures, the usual response has been to build
sea walls along the cliff base, even though
this results in wave reflection scour and the
loss of bordering beaches. Beach erosion
has sometimes been countered by sea walls
or boulder ramparts that may halt coastline
recession, but also cause further beach
depletion. Eroded beaches can be replaced
artificially, and restored beaches can be
used to halt cliff erosion (Bird 1996).
Coastal management in Port Phillip Bay
will require further renourishment of
beaches to maintain stability and scenic
and recreational values. The proposal to
dredge shipping channels in Port Phillip
Bay at an estimated cost of $550 million
could be beneficial if the extracted sedi-
ment is used to renourish beaches and
build up coastal land levels. The predicted
huge economic benefits of such dredging
would also provide the Port of Melbourne
Corporation with plenty of money to spend
on beach nourishment and coastal manage-
ment to maintain and improve the scenic,
recreational and cultural values of the Port
Phillip Bay coastline.
References
Bird ECF (1988a) Geological and geomorphological
evolution of Port Phillip Bay. Making the Most of the
Bay, Ministry for Planning and Environment.
Victoria. 1988, 10-31.
Bird ECF ( 1988b) The origin of beach sediments in
Port Phillip Bay Making the Most of the Bay.
Ministry for Planning and Environment, Victoria.
1988, 1-9.
Bird ECF (1990) Artificial beach nourishment on the
shores of Port Phillip Bay. Journal of Coastal
Research , Special Issue 6, 55-08.
Bird ECF (1993a) The Coast of Victoria. (Melbourne
University Press: Melbourne)
Bird ECF (1991b) Submerging Coasts: The effects of a
rising sea level on coastal environments. (Wiley:
Chichester)
Vol. 123 (1)2006
53
Book Reviews
Bird ECF (1996) Beach Management. (Wiley:
Chichester)
Bird ECF (2001) Coastal Geomorphology : An
Introduction. ( Wiley: Chichester)
Bowler J (1966) Geology and geomorphology Port
Phillip Bay. Memoirs of the National Museum of
Victoria 27, 19-67.
Bruun P (1962) Sea level rise as a cause of shore ero-
sion. American Society of Civil Engineers,
Waterways am! Harbor Division , 88, 117-1 30.
Bryant EA. Young RW. and Price DM (1996) Tsunami
as a major control on coastal evolution. Journal of
Coastal Research 12, S3 1-840.
Church JA and Gregory JM (2001 ) Sea level change. In
Encyclopedia of Ocean Studies, pp. 2599-2604. Ed.
JH Steele, SA Thorpe and KK Turekian (Academic
Press: San Diego)
Environmental effects statement (2004) Channel deep-
ening project. Port of Melbourne Corporation.
www.vicchannels.vic.gov.au.
Gill ED (1950) The geology of Picnic Point, Port
Owls:
Journeys Around the World
by David Hollands
Publisher: Bloomings Books, Richmond,
Vic, 2004. 192 pages, hardback, Ulus,
150 colour plates. RRP $59.95
Owls by their very nature are cryptic
species, which we regard with a special
sense of mystery and awe. Their presence
is extremely difficult to determine; their
behaviour even more difficult to predict.
Tracking down owls is challenging
enough, but taking photographs of the
quality displayed in this book is truly
admirable. David Hollands has excelled
himself with this publication, producing
another outstanding owl book with quali-
ties equal to those shown in his previous
owl book Birds of the Night (Reed Books:
Sydney 1991).
Through this book, David takes us on a
journey of passion, providing the reader
with personal accounts and outstanding
photographs of twenty-one owl species
from six continents. David’s passion and
determination is obvious from the very
beginning. His detailed and accurate
account of the different owl species is
Phillip Bay. Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Victoria 62, 121-127.
Keble RA (1946) The sunklands of Port Phillip Bay
anti Bass Strait. Memoirs of the National Museum of
Victoria 14, 69- 122.
Keble RA (1950) The Mornington Peninsula. Memoirs
of the Geological Survey of Victoria 17.
Mackenzie AD (1939) Coastal erosion in Victoria.
Transactions of the Institute oj Engineers, Australia ,
20,229-236.
Pearman G (1988) (Ed.) Greenhouse: Planning for
Climatic Change. (CSTRO Division of Atmospheric
Research: Leiden) pp 60-73.
Schwartz ML (1967) The Bruun theory of sea level rise
as a cause of shore erosion. Journal of Geology 75,
lb-92.
Received 20 January 2005; accepted 25 August 2005
OWLS
Journeys around the world
David Holland#
superb and his personal touches make this
book a pleasure to read, both for the scien-
tist and the lay person. I especially enjoyed
reading about David’s trials and tribula-
tions, particularly in relation to Alaska’s
Snowy Owl: the photographs and informa-
tion provided on this species is a testament
to David's sheer commitment.
The final owl that David describes in
detail in this book is Australia’s largest,
the Powerful Owl. This species is very
close to my heart and I thoroughly enjoyed
(and related) to David’s accounts of it. I
agree wholeheartedly that the Powerful
54
The Victorian Naturalist
Book Rviews
Owl ‘does not give away its secrets readi-
ly’. Having worked on this species for
many years myself I can fully appreciate
David’s frustrations and jubilations. The
information that David has provided on
this species is accurate and highlights the
result of many long cold nights sitting in
the bush. One thing we all know for certain
is that all the waiting is definitely worth-
while, as is highlighted through David’s
photographs.
The book finishes with a section on the
future. This is a very valuable section, as it
highlights various threatening processes
that owls are currently contending with.
David’s predictions for the future are
somewhat bleak, but hopefully through
education and increased public awareness
we can work together and begin to reverse
this trend. Publications such as this one are
certainly fantastic starting points with the
photography and easy reading making it a
book that everyone can enjoy and ultimate-
ly use to learn more about these amazing
creatures.
Raylene Cooke
School of Ecology and Environment
Deakin University - Melbourne Campus
221 Burwood Highway, Burwood Victoria 3125
Australia’s Volcanoes
by Russell Ferrett
Publisher: Reed New Holland , Sydney, 2005.
1 60 pages; paperback; colour photographs.
ISBN 1877069094 / RRP $29. 95
This attractive and handy-sized (and
priced) book begins with a good clear
index map on page 5, a map of areas of
volcanic activity on page 9, and another
map on page 16 showing a hotspot moving
from north to south down the eastern side
of Australia and ending at Macedon in
central Victoria. Other maps support the
descriptions of local areas.
The contents are:
1. The formation of volcanoes
2. Eruptions, tephra, lava and rocks
3. Landforms
4. Queensland
5. New South Wales
6. Victoria
7. South Australia, Tasmania, Western
Australia and Heard Island.
A useful glossary, list of references, and
a good index complete the book.
Russell Ferrett is a geography teacher
who has visited many of the world’s volca-
noes, and not finding suitable information
on Australian volcanoes, he ‘decided to
write his own book to address this gap in
our knowledge and understanding’.
He discusses the past 40 million years of
volcanic activity in Australia, concentrat-
ing on the clearest examples, and mainly
those from the Eastern Australian main-
land. This means the young volcanoes of
Queensland, NSW, Victoria and South
Australia form a major part of the book.
However the area now commonly known
as the Newer Volcanic Province covering
central and western Victoria, and SE South
Australia, is not fully covered; there is a
concentration on the Camperdown area,
and on Tower Hill and Mt Ecclcs, and Mt
Gambier in South Australia. Bill Birch's
book is still the best guide for Victoria.
Descriptions of the earlier (older) Eastern
Australia activity include the Glasshouse
Vol. 123 (1) 2006
55
Book Reviews
Mountains of southern Queensland, and in
New South Wales Mt Warning, the Ebor
volcano. The Warrumbunglcs, Mount
Canobolas (and Lord Howe Island). Areas
in Tasmania are also described and, unex-
pectedly, and of some interest, the
Allendale diamond pipes in the less well-
known diatremes of the West Kimberley,
which formed about 20 million years ago.
Heard Island's Big Ben, until recently
(and here also) called Australia’s only
active volcano (it's actually in Australian
Territory) is also described. Recently, after
a long period of dormancy, McDonald
Islands, located on the Kerguelen Plateau
about 75 km west of Heard Island, began
erupting in the 1990s, so we now have two
active Australian volcanoes.
The terms 'dormant' and 'resting', used
in the Preface on page 8. cannot be useful-
ly applied to the young basaltic volcanoes
of Queensland, Victoria and SE South
Australia, whose numerous short-lived
eruptions began and finished quite quickly
(perhaps just days, months or years) and
will never erupt again. Such 'areal' vol-
canic provinces with numerous eruption
points scattered over a broad area, such as
the 400 small volcanoes found in Victoria,
are best discussed in terms of the possibili-
ty of future new volcanoes forming. The
province as a whole can be considered as
dormant but the individual past volcanoes
are extinct (see the discussions in the
recent thematic issue of the Proceedings of
the Royal Society of Victoria referenced
below).
The use of the term 'inflation' on page 61
is well up-to-date in explaining the way
basaltic lava flows increase in thickness,
and develop some otherwise difficult to
explain features. The introduction of this
concept to Australian workers was at the
international Long Lava Flows meeting in
Queensland in 1996 and Eerrett gives the
reference, though it may be difficult to
obtain.
It is good to see 'tumuli’ used on page 62
rather than the older and incorrect term
‘blister’ often used for the flow features at
Wallacedale on the Byaduk flow from Mt
Napier. Not so helpful is the use on page
60 of 'canals’ for lava channels (as used
locally) and the use of ‘tubes’ when most
locals use the term (lava) caves.
Using ‘Mt Diogenes’ (page 116) for
Hanging Rock is unnecessary. Mt Rouse is
not mentioned, nor the new Penshurst
Volcanoes Discovery Centre nearby. A
note on Mt Elephant on page 123 fails to
mention that quarrying has now ceased and
the local Derrinallum community has
begun new access and management work.
The useful ‘Volcanoes Discovery Trail'
leaflet covering the Western Plains and SE
South Australia is also not mentioned.
Occasional text boxes giving ‘Further
Information’, pointing out ‘Nearby
Volcanic Features’ and suggesting
‘Activities’ will be useful to the user in the
field, and to teachers and students.
The book has excellent colour illustra-
tions, including ‘home-made’ colour
sketches - and very acceptable they are
too. As best as I can check, it’s error free,
and spelling error free.
I recommend this book to the many peo-
ple in Australia who are interested in vol-
canoes.
Notes
Below are some books on the topic, which read-
ers may find of interest.
Birch WD (1994) Volcanoes in Victoria, Royal Society
of Victoria, Melbourne. 36pages, paperback. (Covers
both the young and much earlier volcanoes of
Victoria, is very well illustrated with photographs,
and suitable to carry in the field (but less of a field
guide than Ferrett)).
Sutherland L (1995) The Volcanic Earth, UNSW Press,
Sydney. 248 pages, hard cover. (A more detailed
approach, with more on rocks and minerals, and
detailed geological information, as well as some cov-
erage of New Zealand.)
Joyce B (2004) The young volcanic regions of south-
eastern Australia: early studies, physical volcanology
and eruption risk. Proceedings of the Royal Society
of Victoria. 116, M3. (A recent review of the Newer
Volcanic Province, including the history of its study,
and the possibility of future eruption.)
EB Joyce
Honorary Principal Fellow
School of Earth Sciences,
The University of Melbourne
Victoria 3010
56
The Victorian Naturalist
A Naturalist’s Life
by Rica Erickson
Book Reviews
Publisher: University of Western Australia Press and The Charles and
Joy Staples South West Region Publications Fund, 2005, 144 pages,
paperback, ISBN 1 920694 27 7. RRP $34.95
Mention the name Rica Erickson and I
think of Western Australia, triggerplants,
carnivorous plants, orchids and the
Drummonds of Hawthornden . In the sec-
ond sentence of A Naturalist’s Life, the
author says 'As a teenager I read The Life
of Jean Henri Fab re.1 That led to a life of
exquisitely detailed observations of plants
and insects and a correspondence with, and
collection of specimens for, Australian and
overseas botanists.
The first chapter of the book is a series of
potted biographies of the author’s mentors;
she had initiated the Dictionary of Western
Australians and is well practised in the art.
Entries for Edith Coleman, Herman Rupp,
Tarlton Rayment, Jim Willis, Dom Serventy
and William Nieholls are included.
Chapter 2 is titled 'A Career in the
Making' and tells the story of a ninety year
life in the rural areas of Western Australia
as she moved with parents, as a country
teacher, and then with her farmer husband.
Effectively self-taught, and guided by those
few wildflower books available at the time,
Rica Erickson became an authority on the
orchids, triggerplants and carnivorous
plants of Western Australia. Her own
books and articles were meticulously illus-
trated with line drawings and watercolour
paintings. After a wildlife art exhibition at
the Art Gallery of Western Australia, six
female artists started the Botanical Artists
Group (BAG). These BAG Ladies gave
themselves names such as Tea Bag and
Paper Bag; Rica was Old Bag.
Later in life there was an Australia-wide
excursion collecting, identifying and docu-
menting the whole country’s triggerplants-
the surprise for Victorian readers is the
revelation that the Tree Triggerplant
Stylidium laricifolium grows in East
Gippsland.
Two of her treasures were the portable
microscope especially made for her by Mr
Wool lard, the same man who designed the
FNCV microscope with Dan Mclnnes, and
the watercolour paintbox given to her by
Frederick Rowe, her earliest guide to the
natural world.
The final four chapters are headed
Insects, Birds, Flowers and Conservation
and each provides reprints or reminiscences
of some of her most important discoveries
and experiences. Studies on solitary bur-
rowing bees, leaf-cutter bees and wasps, in
which her children became involved, were
published by Tarlton Rayment.
Banding shearwaters in the Furneaux
Islands with Dom Serventy; questioning
the field guide descriptions of juvenile
Rufous Whistler’s plumage and recording
in detail this bird’s breeding behaviour; the
early days of the Eyre Bird observatory;
and accompanying Graeme Pizzey to catch
and photograph the newly re-discovered
Noisy Scrub-bird: any one of these activi-
ties would be a lifetime highlight. Most of
Vol. 123 (1) 2006
57
Book Reviews
the articles in the Flowers chapter are fac-
similes of those originally published in
Wildlife , Australian Plants , and the West
Australian , beautifully illustrated with the
author’s wild flower drawings.
This book, as well as giving insights into
the development of a famous naturalist in
Western Australia, also contains references
to many Victorians associated with the
FNCV. Both are good reasons to read it. A
wealth of line drawings and coloured
plates accompany the text.
Ian Endersby
56 Looker Road,
Montmorency, Victoria 3094
The Big Twitch
by Sean Dooley
Publisher: Allen and Unwin, Sydney,
2005. 322 pages, paperback.
ISBN 1741145287 . RRP $26.95
When asked to write a review for Sean
Dooley’s book The Big Twitch 1 was sur-
prised, a little taken back even. You see, I
appear to have developed a, largely unde-
served (I think), reputation for being anti-
twitcher. Still, I don’t generally have a
great deal of time for hard-core twi tellers. 1
recently saw a good t witcher described as
‘opinionated, aggressive, passionate, sin-
gle-minded and distrustful’. Mind you,
some people would say this could also
describe me.
Anyway, not being one to pre-judge, I
immersed myself in The Big Twitch , a
story about one man's effort to set a new
record for the number of bird species seen
in Australia, and its territories, in one year.
Well, it was more than set a new record;
the previous highest total seen in a year
was 633, the real goal w'as to sec 700
species, a feat that very few birdwatchers
achieve in a lifetime. Given that there are
supposedly 695 bird species that are resi-
dent or regular migrants to Australia it is
perhaps not surprising that many thought
this was little more than an unachievable
whim by a virtual unknown, at least out-
side Melbourne, who had an inheritance
burning a hole in his pocket. Now, all of
this is very unfair but first impressions
being what they are ...
I guess I approached the book having a
good idea of the premise behind the con-
cept, and even much of the content. A
quick explanation: in January 2002 Sean
SEAN DOOLEY
ONE MAN.
ONE CONTINENT,
A RACE AGAINST
TIME- A TRUE
STORY ABOUT
posted a message on the internet bird-
watching discussion group Birding-Aus
stating his intention to embark on this
ambitious adventure. This was a bold
move as it exposed Dooley and his inten-
tions to all manner of scrutiny. In the year
that followed there were regular updates
on progress posted to Birding-Aus. The
book essentially builds on these running
commentaries.
Regardless of what one may think about
twitchers or even the apparent folly of the
exercise you can’t escape the fact that the
resulting book is an enormously entertain-
ing read.
Birdwatchers, the converted, will enjoy
the book. They may know many of the
people mentioned, have been to the places
described, or would like to visit them, and
experienced many of the birds mentioned.
58
The Victorian Naturalist
Book Reviews
However, the book is clearly written for
the general reader rather than the keen
birder they are, after all, a much larger
market. The initial Birding-Aus postings of
2002 were written for an audience that
understood what he was doing, while the
book seeks to explain why anybody would
have such a passion. 1 believe the book
achieves this aim admirably.
My recommendation? Buy the book by
all means. Dooley definitely needs the roy-
alties now that he has squandered the fami-
ly fortune. If you are a serious birder how-
ever, go back to the postings in the
Birding-Aus archives. It is there that you
will find the raw passion, the determina-
tion to succeed, the despondency that
comes with dips, and the unalloyed plea-
sure of finding that long-sought-for
species.
Congratulations Sean on producing such
an enjoyable book.
David Geering
Regent Honeyeater Recovery Coordinator
Department of Environment & Conservation
PO Box 2 1 1 1 , Dubbo NSW 2830
Snakes, Lizards and Frogs of
the Victorian Mallee
by Michael Swan and
Simon Watharow
(illustrations by Rachael Hammond)
Publisher: CSIRO Publishing, 2005.
91 pages, paperback;
ISBN 0645091343. RRP $29.95
Most of us are probably aware that the
Victorian Mallee is endowed with an abun-
dance of reptiles. Those of us lucky
enough to venture into this area at the right
time of year have probably seen a Bearded
Dragon basking on a fencepost, a Stumpy-
tailed Lizard strolling across a track or a
Brown Snake melting into the under-
growth. We arc perhaps less aware that
three species of frogs occur in true Mallee
habitat (spending much of their lives aesti-
vating underground), and several others
occur in aquatic habitats that penetrate or
delimit this region. The sheer diversity of
reptiles and frogs in the Mallee make it a
rewarding destination for herpetologists,
and an interesting diversion for those who
might be enjoying the springtime wild-
flowers. These animals are showcased in a
new fieldguide, Snakes, Lizards and Frogs
of the Victorian Mallee.
The book commences with a foreword by
John Coventry, Emeritus Curator of
Herpetology, Museum Victoria, and a per-
son with a long association with the her-
AND FROGS
aUbe
petofauna of the Malice. John provides a
neat summary of the reason for the her-
pctological diversity of the Victorian
Mallee - it is a transitional zone between
the mesic Bassian zoogeo graphic region of
south-eastern Australia and xeric Eyrean
zoogeographic region. This means that the
fauna of the Mallee has representatives
from both zoogeographic regions, and is
further enriched by the intrusion of the
Murray-Darling river system, which deliv-
ers some species from the Torresian zoo-
geographic region. The result of this con-
fluence of faunas is the wonderful herpeto-
logical richness of the Mallee.
Vol. 123 (1)2006
59
Book Reviews
Coventry’s foreword also touches on
something that is self-evident in these
kinds of books - they arise from the
incredible passion and dedication of their
authors. Both Swan and Watharow have a
fondness that borders on obsession for the
Mallee, and particularly for its reptiles and
frogs. For many years they have undertak-
en self-funded expeditions to survey,
research, photograph and generally enjoy
these animals.
Of course a book such as this requires
input from people other than the authors,
and two contributions are worthy of partic-
ular mention. Peter Robertson (another
veteran Mallee herpetofauna researcher)
provides numerous spectacular pho-
tographs. His images of snakes, which are
notoriously difficult photography subjects,
are especially noteworthy. Peter’s pho-
tographs are complemented by lovely
images from others, including both
authors. A stand-out feature of this book is
the illustrations by Rachael Hammond.
Technical diagrams of reptiles are not easy
to do well (imagine drawing the tiny scales
on the underside of a gecko’s foot!).
However, Hammond’s artwork is impres-
sive, and adds immense value to the book.
Following an introduction to the region
that includes a history of the area, threats
to Mallee habitats, and a description of the
major reserves, the book is divided into the
eight families of reptiles and frogs that
occur in Victorian Mallee habitats. An
introduction to each family is followed by
detailed species accounts that include a
description of their habitat and diet, repro-
ductive information and conservation sta-
tus. A regional distribution map and the
means to differentiate between species
accompany this information. This differen-
tiation is made possible by use of a
species-specific diagnostic table. The
authors have deliberately steered clear of
dichotomous keys, which can be difficult
for the novice to use effectively.
An interesting dilemma for the authors
was how to deal with the numerous species
that occur in the Mallee area, but do not
generally occur in true Mallee habitats.
This is dealt with in the final major section
of the book, titled ‘Victorian Mallee
fringe-dwellers’. This section provides a
photograph and brief description of ani-
mals such as Broad-shelled Turtles, Tiger
Snakes, Tree Goannas and Growling Grass
Frogs, species whose distributions extend
into the region, often in association with
rivers, but which rarely occur in true
Mallee habitats.
I am a fan of regional field guides. The
larger (and more expensive) national field
guides to Australia’s reptiles and frogs
contain so many species that trying to sin-
gle out the nondescript skink you spy
beside the trail can be a daunting, and
often unsuccessful, exercise. By virtue of
considering a limited geographic area,
regional guides consider a much smaller
number of species, and need to consider
far less diagnostic features. They also gen-
erally cost less, and arc of a more conve-
nient size for carrying in the field.
I believe that no fieldguide concerned
with Australian reptiles is adequate unless
it provides information on modern
snakebite First Aid. Swan and Watharow
include this information, but go one step
better. They provide a section on dealing
with snakes around the home, reflecting
the wisdom gained by Watharow during
the countless snake removals he has con-
ducted over the years. Other useful inclu-
sions are a glossary and relevant reference
list.
This is an attractive book with few faults
that will appeal to herpetologists and any-
one wanting to enrich their natural history
experience when enjoying this beautiful
part of Victoria.
Nick Clemann
Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research
Department of Sustainability and Environment
PO Box 137, Heidelberg, Victoria 3084
60
The Victorian Naturalist
Guidelines for Authors - The Victorian Naturalist
Submission of all Manuscripts
Authors may submit material in the form of
research reports, contributions, naturalist notes,
letters to the editor and book reviews. A
Research Report is a succinct and original scien-
tific paper written in the traditional format
including abstract, introduction, methods, results
and discussion. A Contribution may consist of
reports, comments, observations, survey results,
bibliographies or other material relating to natural
history. The scope of a contribution is broad and
little defined to encourage material on a wide
range of topics and in a range of styles. This
allows inclusion of material that makes a contri-
bution to our knowledge of natural history but for
which the traditional format of scientific papers is
not appropriate. Research reports and contribu-
tions must be accompanied by an abstract of not
more than 200 words. The abstract should state
the scope of the work, give the principal findings
and be complete enough for use by abstracting
services. Research reports and contributions will
be refereed by external referees. Naturalist Notes
are generally short, personal accounts of observa-
tions made in the field by anyone w ith an interest
in natural history. These may also include reports
on excursions and talks, where appropriate, or
comment on matters relating to natural history.
Letters to the Editor must be no longer than 500
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but the editors also welcome enquiries from
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Submission of a manuscript will be taken to
mean that the material has not been published ,
nor is being considered for publication
elsewhere , and that all authors agree to its
submission.
Three copies of the manuscript should be pro-
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Please indicate the telephone number (and email
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An electronic version and one hard copy of the
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Documents should be in Microsoft Word or RTF
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Taxonomic Names
Cite references used for taxonomic names.
References used by The Victorian Naturalist are
listed at the end of these guidelines.
Abbreviations
The following abbreviations should be used in
the manuscript (with italics where indicated): et
Vol. 123 (1)2006
al.\ pers. obs.; unpubl. data; and pers. comm,
which are cited in the text as (RG Brown 1994
pers. comm. 3 May). Use ksubsp.' for subspecies.
Units
The International System of Units (SI units)
should be used for exact measurement of physical
quantities.
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All illustrations (including photographs) are
considered as figures and will be designed to fit
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tographs should be of high quality/high contrast
which will reproduce clearly in black-and-white
or colour. They may be colour slides or colour or
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graphs may be computer generated or in black
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figure number and the paper's title should be
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Computer-generated figures should be submitted
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Please consult the editors if additional details
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Sequence Data
All nucleotide sequence data and alignments
should be submitted to an appropriate public
database, such as Genbank or EMBL. The acces-
sion numbers for all sequences must be cited in
the article.
Journal Style
Authors are advised to note the layout of head-
ings, tables and illustrations as given in recent
issues of the Journal. Single spaces are used after
full stops, and single quotation marks are used
throughout.
61
In all papers, at the first reference to a species,
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References
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1990; Red 1990). If there are more than two
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These should be included under References, in
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below). The use of unpublished data is accepted
only if the data is available on request for view-
ing. Pers. obs. and pers. comm, should not be
included in the list of references. Journal titles
should be quoted in full.
Leigh J, Boden R and Briggs .1 (1984) Extinct
and Endangered Plants of Australia.
(Macmillan; South Melbourne)
Lunney D (1995) Bush Rat. In The Mamma Is of
Australia , pp 651-653. Ed R Strahan.
(Australian Museum/Rced New Holland:
Sydney)
Phillips A and Watson R (1991) Xanthorrhoea :
consequences of ‘horticultural fashion’. The
Victorian Naturalist 108. 130-133.
Smith AB (1995) Flowering plants in north-east-
ern Victoria. (Unpublished PhD thesis,
University of Melbourne)
Wolf L and Chippendale GM (1981) The natural
distribution of Eucalyptus in Australia.
Australian National Parks and Wildlife
Service, Special Publications No 6,
Canberra.
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Mammals; Menkhorst PW (ed) (1995)
Mammals of Victoria: Distribution, Ecology
and Conservation. (Oxford University Press:
South Melbourne)
Reptiles and Amphibians; Cogger H (2000)
Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia , 6 cd.
(Reed Books: Chatswood, NSW)
Insects; CS1RO (1991) The Insects of Australia:
a textbook for students and research workers.
Vol I and II. (Melbourne University Press:
Melbourne)
Birds: Christ idis L and Boles W (1994) The
Taxonomy and Species of Birds of Australia
and its' Territories. Royal Australian
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Melbourne)
Plants: Ross JH (ed) (2000) A Census of the
Vascular Plants of Victoria , 6 ed. (Royal
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The
Victorian
Naturalist
Volume 123 (2)
9002 A
April 2006
'JL*
Or
Published by The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria since 1884
From the Editors
There are many interesting articles in this issue. The Naturalist Note on survival of a
blind Bobuck with back-young (see page 112) is one of two articles on Bobucks, an ever
popular topic. The colour photograph on the front page clearly depicts the blindness of
the mother Bobuck. It is hoped that all issues for 2006 can be published in colour. If you
would like to make a donation towards the extra cost involved, please contact the Editors.
Another paper originates from a talk given at the symposium held in May 2005, to cele-
brate the 125th anniversary of the FNCV. In this paper Doug McCann outlines the origins
of the FNCV. the geological activities in the early days of the FNCV and the current state
of the Geology Group of the FNCV. Fie also provides details about a number of notable
geological contributors to the FNCV. past and present. (Part 2 of ‘Victoria’s living
Natural Capital - decline and replenisment 1800 - 2050’ by Ian Mansergh, Heather
Anderson and Nevil Amos also originates from the symposium and will be published in a
future edition.)
Attentive readers of The Victorian Naturalist may notice that the format for presenting
author details has changed, in line with other scientific journals.
Finally, make sure to look at the back cover where there is a photograph of the magnifi-
cent Inland Carpet Python Morelia spilota metcalfei. See page 68 for the accompanying
article.
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Victorian
Naturalist
April
Volume 123 (2) 2006
Editors: Anne Morton, Gary Presland, Maria Gibson
From the Editors 55
History History of the FNCV Geology Group, 1 880-2005, by Doug
Symposium McCann 100
Research Report Canid predation: a potentially significant threat to relic
populations of the Inland Carpet Python Morelia spilota
metcalfei (Pythonidae) in Victoria, bv Geoffrey W Heard,
Peter Robertson , Dennis Black, Geoffrey Barrow , Peter
Johnson, Victor Hurley and Geoffrey Allen 68
Contributions The flora of Highbury Park, Burwood East, by
Steve Sinclair 75
The Barwon Estuary - an example of the estuarine
management situation in Victoria, by Sadiqul Awal 84
Distribution and habitat requirements of the Yellow-footed
Antechinus Antechinus flavipes at multiple scales: a review,
by Luke T Kelly 91
Tributes Ellen Margery McCulloch OAM, by Tess Kloot Ill
Neil Wilfred Archbold, by Doug McCann 1 13
Naturalist Notes Survival of a blind Bobuck Trichosurus cunninghami ,
Phalangeridae, by JK Martin, A A Martin and SM Martin 115
The Gurdies Bobucks: how are they faring?, by Debbie Hynes .... 1 17
Book Reviews Wildlife of the Box-Ironbark Country, by Chris Tzar os,
reviewed by Merilyn J Grey 118
The nature of plants: habitats, challenges and adaptations,
by John Dawson and Rob Lucas, reviewed by Maria Gibson 120
Software Review Forgotten Flora Resource Kit, by J Milne, T Lebel,
A Veenstra-Quah and G Shadforth, reviewed by Maria Gibson ... 122
ISSN 0042-5184
Front cover: Blind female Bobuck with back-young, active by day in the Strathbogie
Ranges, Victoria. Photo by SM Martin. See article on p. 115.
Back cover: Inland Carpet Python Morelia spilota metcalfei. Photo by Geoffrey Heard.
See article on p. 68.
Research Report
Canid predation: a potentially significant threat to relic
populations of the Inland Carpet Python
Morelia spilota metcalfei (Pvthonidae) in Victoria
Geoffrey W Heard1 ’. Peter Robertson3, Dennis Black1, Geoffrey Barrow4,
Peter Johnson5, Victor Hurley'1 and Geoffrey Allen1'
’Department of Environmental Management and Ecology* La Trobe University,
Albury-Wodonga Campus. PO Box 821. Wodonga. Victoria 3689
'Current Address: Department of Zoology, La Trobe University,
Bundoora, Victoria 3086. Email: gwheara@students.latrobe.edu.au
'Wildlife Profiles Pty. Ltd.. PO Box 500, Heidelberg, Victoria 3084
'Parks Victoria. Tara Crt. Ford Street. Wangaratta, Victoria 3677
-Department of Sustainability and Environment. North-west region,
PO Box 3100, Bendigo Delivery Centre, Bendigo. Victoria 3554
Flora and Fauna Business, North-west Region, Department of Sustainability
and Environment, PO Box 905. Mildura. Victoria 3500
Abstract
In Victoria's contemporary rural environments, introduced predators may represent the principal
predatory threat to many large, non-venomous reptile species. We present circumstantial evidence
that introduced canids are predators of the Inland Carpet Python Morelia spilota metcalfei , using
data collected during a radio-telemetric study of the sub-species’ ecology across northern Victoria.
Seven pythons (23% of those tracked) w ere killed by predators during the study, and evidence col-
lected during transmitter retrieval suggested that foxes or w ild dogs were involved in six of these
cases (the seventh having been eaten by a goanna). Evidence includes the recovery of transmitters
from fox den sites, their partial burial in several cases (consistent with caching behaviour) and dam-
age to each transmitter consistent with chewing by a fox or dog (teeth marks in the silicon coating,
puncture of the metal housing). Given the abundance of canids (specifically foxes) within these
study sites, their ability to prey on carpet pythons, and evidence of their involvement w ith these pre-
dation events, w'e conclude that canid predation was the primary cause of death for each of these six
snakes, and represents a potentially significant issue for carpet python conservation in Victoria.
Suggestions for canid control programs and habitat management to minimise this threat to remaining
populations of this endangered snake are offered. {The Victorian Naturalist 123 (2) 2006, 68-74)
Introduction
The Inland Carpet Python Morelia spilota
metcalfei (Pythonidae) is a large (to 3 m
total length), semi-arboreal snake that is
distributed widely across the Murray
Darling Basin of south-eastern Australia
(Barker and Barker 1994; Greer 1997). In
Victoria, the sub-species is considered
endangered (DSE 2003 ) and restricted to
the woodland habitats of the northern
plains, primarily those associated with
watercourses (River Red Gum Eucalyptus
camaldulensis or Black Box E. largiflorens
woodland) or prominent granite outcrops
(Coventry and Robertson 1991; Allen et al .
2003). Apparent declines in the sub-
species’ Victorian range have been attrib-
uted primarily to habitat alterations; how-
ever, predation by introduced mammals has
also been cited as a potentially threatening
process (Allen et al. 2003). This snake may
be particularly vulnerable to exotic preda-
tors; it is relatively slow moving, non-ven-
omous, and inhabits inland regions of
southern Australia where introduced preda-
tors can be abundant and ubiquitous across
habitats (Newsome et al. 1997).
In this paper, we present circumstantial
evidence that these pythons are vulnerable
to predation by introduced canids (primari-
ly the Red Fox Vulpes vulpes but potential-
ly also Wild Dogs Can is f amt liar is).
Specifically, we detail evidence that canids
killed the majority of carpet pythons lost to
predation during a radio-teleinetric study
of the sub-species’ ecology conducted
across Victoria's northern plains between
1997 and 2002.
Methods
Study areas
Pythons were radio-tracked in nine study
areas, spanning three regions of northern
Victoria (Fig. 1). In the north-east, 17
snakes were tracked in three study sites
68
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Report
either within, or adjacent to, the Warby
Range State Park, including Mt Killawarra
(36°15’N, 146°1 FE), Mt Bruno (36°19'N,
146°09’E) and Boweya (36°17'N,
146°09'E). An additional study site, the Mt
Meg Flora and Fauna Reserve (36°22fN,
146°05'E), is located in the Chesney Vale
Hills, 22 km WSW of the Warby Range.
All areas within the north-east are charac-
terised by steep, rocky slopes (weathered
granite outcrops and screes) with open
granitic woodland or low heathland. At all
locations, remnant vegetation abuts cleared
agricultural land, with the extent of frag-
mentation being highest at Mt Meg, where
a mosaic of remnant vegetation occurs
(Heard and Black 2003; Heard et al. 2004).
Five pythons were radio-tracked within
the Mt Hope Flora and Fauna Reserve
(35°59'N, 144°13'E) in north-central
Victoria. Mt Hope is a prominent granite
massif that rises steeply from the surround-
ing plains, most of which have been
cleared for agriculture. The reserve sup-
ports a shrub-land vegetation community
dominated by Deane’s Wattle Acacia
deanei paueijuga (Conn 1993; Parks
Victoria 2000).
Eight pythons were radio-tracked within
the Riverine forests of north-western
Victoria. From east to west, snakes were
tracked at Nyah State Forest (35°05’N,
I43°20'E), Piambie State Forest (34°52'N,
143°20'E), Lambert Island (34°21'N,
142°22'E) and Walpolla Island State
Forest (34°07’N, 141°42’E). All sites were
located on the floodplain of the Murray
River. Vegetation composition varied little
between the three localities, being domi-
nated by River Red Gum and Black Box.
Disturbance from cattle grazing, timber
extraction and recreational activities are
common to all localities.
Study animals and radio-telemetric
monitoring
Temperature-sensitive, miniature radio
transmitters (Holohil Systems Pty Ltd,
Canada; Model S1-2T) were surgically
implanted within the body cavity of snakes
Vol. 123 (2)2006
69
Research Report
under aseptic conditions. A description of
implantation techniques is provided in
Heard et ah (2004). Units represented less
than 2% of python body weight in all cases.
We endeavoured to locate each python
weekly (usually in the morning to early
afternoon). However, logistical constraints
occasionally resulted in this interval being
reduced or extended between 2 and 21
days. A directional kH' antenna and minia-
ture radio receiver (Telonics Inc.. Arizona)
were used to track the signal of radio trans-
mitters, and co-ordinates of each location
were recorded in the Universal Transverse
Mercator (UTM) system using a Trimble
global positioning system (Trimble 10
channel Ensign XL GPS Unit).
Upon the death of a python, notes were
maintained on the location of the carcass
or transmitter, and descriptions of the sur-
rounding habitat and specific collection
site recorded. The identity of any predator
involved was assessed by damage to trans-
mitters (including teeth marks), collection
site characteristics and the presence of
scats or footprints.
Results
Seven carpet pythons (23% of those
tracked) were killed during the study, five
in the north-east and one each at Mt Hope
and within the riverine forests of the north-
west (Table 1). One of these animals
‘NEIL apparently fell victim to a Lace
Monitor Varanus varius ; the transmitter
was located within a tree-hollow some four
metres above ground amongst numerous
goanna scats. However, evidence collected
during transmitter retrieval suggests that
canids killed the remaining six pythons.
Two animals were killed in remnant
woodland at Mt Meg. The first, ‘NE13%
died within 16 days of release. Prior to
death, this animal was recorded sheltering
in a hollow log amongst intact remnant
woodland on the north face of Mt Meg.
The heavily chewed transmitter from this
snake was located within a fox den in
dense shrubbery amongst the remains of
other prey items, including rabbits and a
possum. The second individual, ‘NE12\
died within two months of release. This
snake was last recorded inhabiting remnant
woodland on the south-eastern boundary of
the Mt Meg Flora and Fauna Reserve,
sheltering within a rock crevice. Its trans-
mitter was subsequently located within an
open paddock east of this site, partially
buried in the soil, with numerous teeth
marks in the unit’s silicone coating.
The remaining two snakes lost in the
north-east were both apparently killed
within the vicinity of residential buildings.
At Mt Meg, kNE16' was last recorded
inhabiting a roof cavity within a series of
buildings in the south of the study site. The
snake had occupied these buildings during
all locations in the two months following
her re-release, and thus appeared to have
been taken during her first movement
away from the buildings during the track-
ing period. Her transmitter was subse-
quently located lying on the ground in an
open paddock east of this site. The unit had
been bitten repeatedly, exposing its metal
casing. At Mt Bruno, an immature female
‘NE15’ was killed after residing for sever-
al months in the vicinity of a residential
building located in remnant woodland.
This snake was also last found inhabiting a
roof cavity. Its transmitter was retrieved
from a wooded slope overlooking the
property; it had been chewed and partially
buried.
One python was killed at each of the Mt
Hope and Piambie study sites (Table 1 ). At
Mt Hope, the dismembered remains and
transmitter of the large, adult female
kNW3L were found at the entrance to a
rock crevice on 4 May 1999. The snake
had been recorded within this rock crevice
during the previous two tracking events
(25 March, 14 April 1999), and had fre-
quented the site during the months preced-
ing death. This snake had been tracked for
565 days in total. Lastly, the Piambie ani-
mal WOP was apparently killed whilst
inhabiting a large, relatively open hollow
log in River Red Gum woodland. The par-
tially chewed transmitter (numerous teeth
marks were evident in the silicone coating)
from this snake was located approximately
50 m from this log, beneath loose woody
debris. Closer inspection of the hollow log
revealed numerous bird feathers and other
vertebrate remains at its entrance, suggest-
ing that a canid (probably a fox) regularly
used the log. The python was an adult
female and died within three weeks of
release.
70
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Report
Table 1. Gender, morphometric data and tracking details for each python killed during the radio-
telemetric study. Snout-vent length (SVL) and weight recorded upon capture. * first located in tree
hollow from which transmitter was retrieved on 29 March 1998. ** first located at site from which
transmitter was retrieved on 14 March 1997.
Scale-clip
number
Study area
Sex
SVL
(mm)
Weight
(g)
Tracking period
Days
tracked
NE1 1
Mt Meg
F
1750
3300
18/11/97- 12/3/99
132*
NE12
Mt Meg
M
1460
1100
18/11/97- 15/1/98
59
NE13
Mt Meg
M
1600
1450
15/11/97-3/12/97
19
NE1 6
Mt Meg
F
1530
1350
22/1 1/97-22/1/98
61
NE15
Mt Bruno
F
890
207
10/10/97-20/3/98
59
NW3 1
Mt Hope
F
1770
3068
16/10/97-4/5/99
565
NW01
Piambie
F
1640
1475
20/2/97 - ?
18**
Discussion
Predation of carpet pythons by canids is
of significant concern for the conservation
of this endangered snake in Victoria.
Records collected during the telemetry
study indicate that either foxes or dogs
killed the majority (86%) of radio-tracked
carpet pythons lost to predators. Whilst our
data do not definitively prove this con-
tention (or differentiate between fox or dog
predation), we use several pieces of evi-
dence to argue that canid predation is the
most likely cause of death of these ani-
mals, and that conservation initiatives that
minimise the sub-species’ exposure to
introduced predators should be pursued.
Firstly, additional evidence that canids
prey upon carpet pythons is available.
Shine and Fitzgerald (1996) documented
seven instances of fox predation among a
group of ten Coastal Carpet Pythons M. s.
mcdowelli that died whilst being radio-
tracked in north-eastern New South Wales
(70% of mortality records, 37% of all
snakes radio-tracked). Each of the seven
retrieved transmitters displayed bite-marks
characteristic of a canid, and the authors
concluded that foxes were involved in each
case. Similar evidence was gathered during
the present study. Six of the seven trans-
mitters were retrieved from the ground sur-
face, in relatively open localities (one
within a fox den) and either displayed
numerous bite marks or had been thor-
oughly chewed (the exception in each case
being the transmitter of 'NE1 1 which was
evidently eaten by a goanna). Three of the
transmitters were also partially buried.
Foxes and dogs regularly cache food items
(Saunders et al. 1999; Fleming et al.
2001 ), and the partial burial of these trans-
mitters appears to be an example of this
behaviour. Dietary studies have also iden-
tified carpet python remains in canid scats.
Canid dietary analysis conducted at the Mt
Meg study area identified python vertebrae
in one of the scats examined (Heard 2001),
and similar research has documented the
occurrence of python remains in canid
scats collected in south-eastern New South
Wales (those of the Diamond Python M. s.
spilota: Lunney et al. 1990).
Secondly, canids are the most abundant
introduced predators present at these study
sites (and possibly most abundant large
predators in general), with foxes being par-
ticularly abundant. In north-eastern
Victoria, where the majority of predation
events occurred, foxes are the most com-
monly detected mammalian predator dur-
ing regular spotlight surveys and scat sam-
pling within and surrounding the Warby
Range State Park (G. Barrow unpubl.
data). Analysis of canid scats collected at
Mt Meg during the summer of 2000 - 2001
revealed that 87% were deposited by foxes
and 13% by dogs (Heard 2001). With the
exception of one record of a feral cat, all
tracks recorded on baited sand-pads during
this period were those of foxes (Heard
2001).
Nonetheless, in the absence of observa-
tions of canids actually catching and
killing carpet pythons, alternative explana-
tions cannot be discounted. For example, it
is possible that they merely consumed the
remains of these snakes after some other
event caused their death. Death through
collision with vehicles is possible for
example; however, python home-range
rarely overlapped with roads in our study
areas, and therefore death from such events
seems improbable. Similarly, death result-
ing from illness is questionable given that
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
71
Research Report
all the pythons that died during our study
were sequestered in shelter sites during
their last re-location. We assume that these
snakes would remain secluded within these
shelters during any illness (as they general-
ly do when shedding their skin) and there-
fore be inaccessible to canids. Shelter sites
selected by these pythons generally pro-
vide excellent refuge from predators (the
exception in this study being the log inhab-
ited by ‘NWOP prior to death, which had a
relatively wide hollow and was evidently
used by a fox).
It may also be the case that the fate of
these animals was either unnatural due to
behavioural changes resulting from trans-
mitter implantation, or misinterpreted due
to a failure in the telemetry technique. In
the first instance, it may be argued that the
death of several snakes within months of
release (<NE12\ ‘NE13\ ‘NE15% NE16’,
‘NWOT) was the result of transmitter
implantation increasing their susceptibility
to predation. For example, transmitter
implantation may have increased the
snakes’ time spent basking (to maintain
higher body temperatures, as has been
observed when digestible transmitters are
used in snake telemetry projects;
Lutterschmidt and Reinert 1990) or mov-
ing (due to the stress of captivity and
surgery, or disturbance of their normal
activity patterns). We cannot discount such
behavioural shifts and associated increases
in predator exposure. However, consider-
ing that these snakes displayed similar
behavioural patterns to the other 23
pythons monitored, and one of the snakes
killed had been tracked for several years
prior to death, a consistent effect of the
radio-tracking technique is not apparent.
The techniques used during this study are
considered standard for radio-tracking
snakes, and have been applied widely in
Australia without apparent negative effects
on the behaviour, health or survivorship of
the study animals in most cases (e.g. Shine
1979; Slip and Shine 1988; Madsen and
Shine 1996; Webb and Shine 1997;
Fitzgerald et al. 2002; Pearson 2002;
Butler et al 2005). In the second instance,
it is possible that the transmitters of these
pythons were chewed following their
expulsion from the snake’s body. Pearson
and Shine (2002) documented 14 cases (of
75 pythons tracked) where radio-transmit-
ters surgically implanted within the peri-
toneum of South-western Carpet Pythons
M. s. imbricata were subsequently
expelled through the alimentary tract, most
being deposited within faecal pellets
(71%). They subsequently cautioned
against the conclusion that an implanted
animal had been lost to predation if its
transmitter alone was relocated (even if it
had been chewed, as this may have
occurred after expulsion), and advocated
that inference of a radio-tracked snake’s
death due to predation be made only if the
carcass was located. We agree that such
evidence is required for unequivocal con-
clusions on the fate of tracked animals, but
found no evidence of transmitter expulsion
during this study. Also, considering that
these pythons spent the major part of their
time in secluded microhabitats (e.g. rock
crevices, tree hollows; Heard et al. 2004)
(and often defecated there) it seems
improbable that expelled transmitters
would be accessible to scavenging canids.
The discovery of the dismembered remains
of *NW31 * and the occurrence of non- fatal
injuries consistent with canid attack on
other pythons captured during the project
(G. Barrow, P. Robertson pers. obs.), sug-
gest that attacks do occur and are the most
plausible explanation for the apparent pre-
dation events detailed here.
Given our conclusion that canid predation
was the primary cause of death for 20% of
carpet pythons radio-tracked during this
study (and is potentially representative of
predation rates in the population as a
whole), the effect of canid predation on
python population viability must be consid-
ered. Small wildlife populations with natu-
rally low birth rates are particularly sensi-
tive to environmental perturbations such as
increases in predation levels, as mortality
rates can easily exceed recruitment rates
and plunge these populations into decline
(Primack 2004). Victorian populations of
carpet pythons have probably always dis-
played relatively low densities and repro-
ductive rates as they inhabit a temperate
environment that allows a relatively short
active period; a circumstance in which
snakes find it difficult to accumulate the
energy stores needed for annual reproduc-
tion; Shine 1991). Thus, the sub-species is
72
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Report
predisposed to be sensitive to increased
predation rates. However, recent reductions
in habitat quality through structural simpli-
fication, fragmentation and isolation, and
concurrent population declines of many of
their mammalian prey species (Bennett et
al 1 998) have probably further reduced
population sizes and recruitment rates
amongst Victorian populations of carpet
pythons. Canid predation may subsequently
be generating unsustainable mortality rates
amongst these populations, and jeopardis-
ing their long-term viability.
Measures to reduce the threat of canid
predation to remaining Victorian popula-
tions of carpet pythons should be pursued.
Previous research at Mt Meg suggests that
control programs that aim to reduce canid
abundance before and during the summer
months may be most beneficial. Scat
analysis confirms that carpet pythons and
foxes prey predominantly on rabbits in this
region (P. Robertson, G. Barrow unpubl.
data) and habitat use by these species sug-
gests they forage primarily within areas of
semi-cleared woodland where rabbits are
most abundant. At Mt Meg, pythons fre-
quent these habitats in summer when they
disperse widely in search of prey (Heard et
al. 2004). During this period they select
microhabitats in close proximity to rabbit
burrows and will also shelter in them at
this time (Heard et al. 2004). Scat distribu-
tion and visitation rates to sand-pads indi-
cate foraging activity by foxes is also cen-
tered on rabbit burrows at Mt Meg (Heard
2001). As carpet pythons move frequently
during summer (often through open coun-
try between habitat patches) and their habi-
tat use during this period overlaps signifi-
cantly with that of foxes (both in terms of
broad habitat associations and microhabitat
locations), these snakes are likely to be
most vulnerable to fox predation during
the warmer months. It is notable that all
pythons, except ‘NW3I \ that were appar-
ently killed by predators during this study
died during, or late in, the summer activity
season of these snakes (December -
March).
In combination with control programs,
habitat management will be crucial for
reducing the susceptibility of carpet
pythons to canid predation in Victoria.
Vegetation clearing, grazing and timber
extraction continue to fragment and
degrade the woodland habitats of these
pythons across the state’s northern plains.
Subsequent reductions in habitat continuity
and complexity almost certainly expose
carpet pythons to higher predation risk.
These snakes rely heavily on camouflage
and cryptic behaviour to avoid detection
by predators; characteristics that are inef-
fectual when moving through open country
(to move between habitat remnants) or
structurally simplified habitats. Shine and
Fitzgerald (1996) suspected that carpet
pythons in their telemetry group were cap-
tured by foxes whilst moving through open
habitats (orchards) within a study area in
north-eastern New South Wales. Data col-
lected during the present study are insuffi-
cient to describe the habitats or microhabi-
tats in which pythons were killed (with the
exception of ‘NW31\ the remains of
which were located outside the rock-
crevice previously occupied by the snake).
However, it is apparent that most were
killed during excursions from sheltered
microhabitats. Two habitat management
actions are appropriate: (i) maintaining and
expanding connectivity between habitat
remnants (through habitat acquisition and
revegetation) to reduce the snake’s need to
cross cleared land when moving between
habitat remnants; and (ii) preservation of
ground cover such as woody debris, fallen
timber and ground and shrub-layer vegeta-
tion within habitat remnants (through the
elimination of grazing and timber extrac-
tion) to increase the snake’s ability to
avoid predators during daily thermoregula-
tory, foraging and movement activities.
We conclude by proposing that manage-
ment actions which reduce canid popula-
tions (particularly foxes) within and sur-
rounding python habitat during the warmer
months, increase the continuity of the sub-
species’s woodland habitats, and enhance
the structural complexity of these habitats
are requisite components of conservation
programs for this endangered snake
throughout northern Victoria.
Acknowledgements
This project was financially and logistically sup-
ported by Parks Victoria and the Victorian
Department of Sustainability and Environment.
Collation of data presented here was supported
by research grants to the senior author from La
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
73
Research Report
Trobe University (Albury-Wodonga campus)
and the Peter Rankin Trust Fund for
Herpetology. We are indebted to Sharon Reid
(Parks Victoria, Wangaratta), Daniel Hunter
(Department of Sustainability and Environment,
Tatura), Dale Gibbons and Richard Minton
(Sunraysia TAFE, Mildura) who assisted with
the radio-telemctric work. Fiarbara Triggs con-
ducted all scat analyses from the north-eastern
study sites discussed in this paper. Mark
Hutchinson (Herpetology Department, South
Australian Museum) kindly examined the
python vertebrae obtained from a fox scat at Mt
Meg. We thank Michael Clark and Brian
Malone (Department of Zoology, La Trobe
University) for commenting on an earlier draft
of this manuscript, and acknowledge the helpful
suggestions offered by Nick Clemann (Arthur
Rylah Institute, Melbourne) during the review-
ing process. The python telemetry project was
undertaken under DSE permit number 10001817
and ethics approval number AEEC 98/005.
Research within the Mt Meg Flora and Fauna
Reserve was carried out under DSE permit num-
ber 10001086.
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Received 26 May 2005; accepted 3 November 2005
74
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
The flora of Highbury Park, Burwood East, Victoria
Steve Sinclair
Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research
123 Brown St Heidelberg, Victoria, 3084
Steve.sinclair@dse.vic.gov.au
Abstract
The vegetation that once covered Melbourne's eastern suburbs has largely been removed, leaving
only tiny remnant fragments, most of which are modified by weeds. This report is a descriptive
account of the vascular flora of a small but relatively high-quality site in East Burwood. Basic floristic
information is recorded, along with a brief discussion of the variation in vegetation patterns in the
immediate area. Such descriptive accounts may be useful in future restoration projects. Several taxa of
particular note are discussed, including the locally uncommon Shiny Wallaby-grass Austrodanthonia
induta, a double-flowered form of Golden Weather-glass Hypoxis hygrometrica, and several putative
hybrids. A full species list is provided. (The Victorian Naturalist , 123 (2), 2006, 75-83)
Highbury Park and its surroundings
Highbury Park is a reserve in Burwood
East managed by the City of Whitehorse. It
contains a small area (T ha) of remnant
bushland. The surrounding area is
urbanised, and, apart from a few remnant
trees between nearby houses, this bushland
has existed as an isolated fragment for over
fifty years (A McPhee, pers. comm.). The
park is located on a broad, flat ridge divid-
ing Dandenong Ck from Gardiners Ck and
Scotchmans Ck. The soil is typical of
Melbourne’s outer eastern suburbs, being a
clay-loam derived from marine sediments
of Silurian origin. It closely resembles the
‘Hallam Loam’ described previously by
Holmes et ctl. (1940), the surface being a
grey loam with occasional ironstone frag-
ments overlying a yellowish-grey clay.
In most urban bushland remnants, eco-
logical diversity, pattern and function have
been altered because of severe weed inva-
sion and activities such as heavy mulching
and planting (McLoughlin, 1997).
Highbury Park has escaped severe weed
invasion, has never been heavily mulched,
and only a few plants have been deliber-
ately introduced. Consequently, it retains a
relatively high diversity of understorey
plants resulting from natural and continu-
ing recruitment. Given the ongoing interest
in revegetation in urban areas, the descrip-
tive information provided here may be of
some practical value in future local
restoration projects. This information com-
plements a few other reports detailing the
native vegetation of the area, most notably
the paper by Salkin (1993) which docu-
mented, in detail, most areas of remnant
bushland in the adjacent Waverley area.
The vegetation of Highbury Park and
surrounding areas in an historical and
regional context
The vegetation in Highbury Park is best
classified as ‘Valley Heathy Forest’
(Ecological Vegetation Class (EVC) 127),
as described by Oates and Taranto (2001)
(Fig. 1). This EVC has largely been
cleared locally (Frood, 1999), and is listed
by the Victorian Department of
Sustainability and Environment (DSE
unpubl.) as endangered in all bioregions
where it occurs except the East Gippsland
Uplands (where it is vulnerable). Despite
being the once-dom inant vegetation over
much of eastern Melbourne, relatively lit-
tle easily accessible information exists on
Valley Heathy Forest.
Like most vegetation units, Valley
Heathy Forest encompasses considerable
spatial and temporal variation. It supports
a lower storey rich in both small shrubs
and graminoid plants (grasses, sedges,
lilies, orchids). The balance between a
‘shrubby’ or a ‘grassy’ appearance can be
altered by management. In the case of
Highbury Park, there is evidence that the
vegetation has changed, but this record is
difficult to interpret. In 1853, Bellairs
noted on his survey map that the elevated
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
75
Contributions
Fig. 1 Native vegetation in Highbury Park
plateau supporting Highbury Park was
covered by ‘heath and stunted stringy-
barks’ (This comment is placed just south
of Highbury Rd). The area would have
been subject to timber cutting, grazing and
maybe a change in fire regime over the 1 8
years between settlement and Bellairs'
description. It is difficult to know whether
the ‘heath’ was a long-standing natural
feature of this area, or a then-recent
response to European settlement (e.g. it
may have been an ‘invasion’ of
Leptospermum continentale or Kunzea eri-
coicles). It is also important to note that the
term ‘heathy’ may be used broadly to refer
to ‘shrubs’, or more narrowly to describe
certain shrubs characteristic of sandy,
infertile soils. Although small shrubs are
diverse and common in Valley Heathy
Forest generally, species characteristic of
low fertility ‘heathy’ vegetation in south-
ern Australia are scarce. For example, the
only abundant members of Epacridaceae
are Common Heath Epacris impressa and
Honey-pots Acrotriche serndata. The
main shrubby elements are instead
Common Flat Pea Platylobium obtusangu-
lum , Prickly Tea tree Leptospermum conti-
nentale and several small wattles Acacia
spp. Presently, the vegetation at Highbury
Park is very grassy, with shrubs of any
kind being relatively sparse. The present
‘grassy’ appearance probably results from
the very long absence (more than 50 years)
of fire (the last substantial fire in the area
was on Scotchman’s Creek between
Springvale Rd and Blackburn Rd in 1954-
55 [A McPhee pers. comm.]), leading to
reduced recruitment in some shmb species,
and local extinction of some shrubs caused
by previous mowing/slashing before the
reserve was fenced in the early 1990s.
Whatever the history of the vegetation, it is
probably most sensible to view the ‘natur-
al’ state of the vegetation as one of ten-
sion/balance between an understorey dom-
inated by grassy or shrubby species, large-
ly determined by disturbance history.
Floristic variation between different areas
of Valley Heathy Forest has been acknowl-
edged and partially addressed in several
previous publications (Frood, 1999; Oates
and Taranto, 2001). Frood (1999) provided
a provisional division of Valley Heathy
Forest into 6 variants, where Highbury
Park represents ‘Variant 2 (plateau)’, and
76
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
closely resembles variants 3 and 4.
Although the surrounding area is
urbanised, traces of local variation can still
be discerned. For example, among the
remnant trees scattered in and around the
Park on the higher plateau area, Yellow
Box Eucalyptus melliodora is completely
lacking. In adjacent urban areas, however,
remnant Yellow Box trees are conspicu-
ous. The local absence of Yellow Box
trees, which tend to be well formed, may
well have contributed to the ‘stunted’
appearance noted by Bellairs (1853).
The spatial and temporal variation noted
can cause Valley Heathy Forest to closely
resemble several other EVCs, including
Valley Grassy Forest (EVC 47) and
Lowland Forest (EVC 16) and to a lesser
extent Grassy Woodland (EVC 175)
(Oates and Taranto, 2001). The occur-
rence, noted below, of Eastern Globe-pea
Sphaerolobium minus , along with the dom-
inance of (comparatively) ‘stunted’ Mealy
Stringybarks in this area (Bellairs, 1853),
also suggests a local resemblance to Damp
Heathy Woodland (EVC 793), and is con-
sistent with Bellair's (1853) description of
the area as notably ‘heathy’.
The vascular flora of Highbury Park
In addition to these broader vegetation
patterns, there is small-scale variation
within the reserve. In the tree layer,
Messmate Eucalyptus obliqua dominates
the southern half of the reserve, but is
largely absent from the north. Narrow-
leaved Peppermint Eucalyptus radiata is
common in the north, but largely absent
from the south, while Mealy Stringybark
Eucalyptus cephalocarpa is spread
throughout the reserve. In the understorey,
the western third of the reserve is heavily
dominated by Veined Spear-grass
Austrostipa rudis subsp. rudis. Other areas
are dominated by Weeping Grass
Microlaena stipoides (particularly around
trees and in disturbed areas). Soft Tussock-
grass Poa marrisii and Kangaroo Grass
Themeda triandra. A few poorly-drained
areas differ in supporting moisture-loving
plants such as Common Love-grass
Eragrostis brownii and Small Loosestrife
Lythrum hyssopi folia .
In comparison with many nearby
reserves, the flora is rich, particularly in
the graminoid layer where 23 indigenous
grass taxa occur alongside 23 other indige-
nous monocots. There are also notable
absences. Several species which are com-
mon in comparable sites (eg, Glen
Waverley railway cutting, Blackburn Lake
Sanctuary, Charles St Reserve Mt
Waverley, Antonio Park Mitcham,
Bateman’s St Wantima) are absent. These
are mostly small shrub-like plants, includ-
ing Common Heath Epacris impress a.
Common Correa Correa rejlexa , Bitter-
peas Daviesia spp., Common Hovea
Hovea heterophylla and Grass Trigger-
plant Stylidium graminifolium. These
absences highlight the shift, noted above,
that is possible to a conspicuously ‘grassy’
formation when Valley Heathy Forest is
mow'n or slashed too frequently.
Table 1 lists the vascular plant species
recorded in Highbury Park. Two previous
unpublished lists were consulted. In 1990,
Nyssen surveyed the area, and correctly
recommended that it had potential to
regenerate if fenced and protected from
human traffic and mowing. Also in 1990,
Lorimer provided a species list to the
Council. Both of these note relatively few
species because of the lack of regeneration
then apparent, and the fact that they were
compiled as summaries for the council in a
limited timeframe. All of the species
recorded on these lists remain, with the
exception of Running Postman Kennedia
prostrata (Lorimer, 1990) which may still
exist as soil-stored seed, and Slender Rice-
flow'er Pimelea linifolia (Nyssen, 1990)
which may be a misidentification of
Common Rice-flower Pimelea humilis.
Notable Plant Taxa
Several taxa are worthy of specific
comment:
Shiny Wallaby-grass Austrodanthonia
induta
This grass is uncommon in the greater
Melbourne area (Australian Plants Society,
2001). It is a spectacular grass, with culms
in Highbury Park sometimes standing >85
cm high. In the Park, it is represented by
about 20 tussocks. It also occurs nearby in
Wattle Park (G. Lorimer, pers. comm.), at
Cranbournc (Australian Plants Society,
2001), and commonly in Grassy Woodland
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
77
Contributions
Table 1. Vascular plant species recorded in Highbury Park and Highvale Rd.. Cover values are
given for species at Highbury Park, according to Gullan (1978). Species marked with a dash as a
cover value arc apparently extinct in Highbury Park. Germinants have been identified at Highbury
Park for species marked V Austrodanthonia species germinate regularly; however, their specific
identity is difficult to determine until flowering, and this genus has not been assessed for germina-
tion. Several indigenous species have probably been (re-) introduced or planted at Highbury Park
(e.g. Yellow Box). These arc marked with a ‘p\ Naturalised introduced species are prefixed with an
asterisk **\ and are listed after the native species under each family. Obviously planted, non-natu-
ralised species are not listed. This list is entered as FIS quadrat F03402 .
Cyperaceae
Carex breviculmis
Carex inversa
Gahnia radula
Isolepis marginata
■Lepidosperma gunnii
Schoenus apogon
*Cyperus tenellus
Juncaceae
J uncus bufonius
Juncus holoschoenus
Juncus subsecundus
Juncus ?sarophorus
Juncus pallidas
Luzula meridionalis var. densiflora
Liliaceae
A rthropodium s trie turn
Burchardia umbellata
Caesia parviflora var. parviflora
Dianella revoluta s.l.
Hvpoxis hygrometrica var. ? hygrometrica.
Hypoxis vciginata var. vaginata
Tricorvne elatior
Wurmbea dioica var. dioica
*Muscari armeniaewn
Orchidaceae
Microtis 1 uni folia
Pterostylis 1 pedunculate 1
Thelym i tra pa ucifl ora s.l.
Poaceae
A ustrodan thon ia caespitosa
A ustrodan thon ia laevis
A ustrodan thon i a ful va
A ustrodan thonia penicillata
A ustrodanthonia pilosa
Austrodan thonia induta
Austrodanthonia racemose var. racemosa
Austrodanthoniu sctacea subsp. setacea
A ustrodanthonia tenuior
Austrodanthonia hybrid #1
Austrodanthonia hybrid #2
Austrostipa rudis subsp. rudis
A ustrostipa pubinodis
Deyeuxia quadriseta
Elymus scaber var. scaber
Eragrostis brown ii
Joycea pallida
Microlaena stipoides var. stipoides
Poa ensiformis
Poa labillardierei var. labillardierei
Poa morrisii
Poa tenera
1 Rosette only, no flowers
Short-stem Sedge
1#
Knob Sedge
+#
Thatch Saw-sedge
2
Little Club-sedge
+#
A Sword-sedge
1#
Common Bog-rush
1#
Tiny Flat-sedge
+#
Toad Rush
+#
Joint-leaf Rush
+#
Finger Rush
+
Broom Rush
+
Pale Rush
+
Common Woodrush
+#
Chocolate Lily
1
Milkmaids
+
Pale Grass-lily
+
Black-anther Flax-lily
1#
Golden Weather-glass
+
Yellow Star
+
Yellow Rush-lily
1
Early Nancy
+
Grape Hyacinth
+
Common Onion-orchid
1#
Maroonhood
+
Slender Sun-orchid
+#
Common Wallaby-grass
+
Smooth Wallaby-grass
1
Copper-awned Wallaby-grass
1
Slender Wallaby-grass
+
Velvet Wallaby-grass
+
Shiny Wallaby-grass
+
Clustered Wallaby-grass
+
Bristly Wallaby-grass
1
Purplish Wallaby-grass
+
Wallaby-grass
+
Wallaby-grass
+
Veined Spear-grass
2#
Tall Spear-grass
+
Reed Bent-grass
+
Common Wheat-grass
+
Common Love-grass
+
Silvertop Wallaby-grass
+
Weeping Grass
4#
Sword Tussock-grass
+
Common Tussock-grass
+
Soft Tussock-grass
2#
Slender Tussock-grass
+
observed, leaves long-petiolate, rounded.
78
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Table 1 continued
Poaceae continued
Themeda triandra
*Agrostis capillar is s.l.
*A n thoxanth urn odor a turn
*Aira sp,
*Briza maxima
*Briza minor
*Bromus catharticus
*Cynodon dactylon var. dactylon
* Dactyl is glomerata
* Danthonia decumbens
*Ehrharta erecta var. erecta
* Festuca rubra
*Holcus fanatus
*Poa annua
*Setaria gracilis var. panciseta
*Sporobolus africanus
* Vulpia bromoides
Xanthorrhoeaceae
Lomandra Jit i/brmis subsp. fllliformis
Lomandra fiiformis subsp. corriacea
Lomandra longifolia supsb. longifolia
Xanthorrhea minor subsp. lutea
Apiaceae
Centella cordi folia
Asteraceae
Cassinia arcuata
Cassinia longifolia
Cotula australis
Euchiton Icollinus
Lagenophora gracilis
Leptorhynehos tenuifolius
Senecio hispidulus subsp. hispidulus
Senecio quadridentatus
Solenogyne gunnii
Solenogyne dom i n i i
* Arc to theca caledulci
* Lactuca serriola
*Sonchus oleraceus
*Soliva s ess ills
*Hypochoeris radicata
Campanulaceae
Lobelia/ Isotoma sp.
Wahlenbergia sp.
Caryophyllaceae
*Cerastium glomeratum
*Moenchia erecta
Casuarinaceae
A llocasuarina littoralis
Clusiaceae
Hypericum gramineum
Convolvulaceae
Dichondra repens
Crassulaceae
Crassula decumbens var. decumbens
Dilleniaceac
Hibbertia australis s.s.
Kangaroo Grass 1#
Brown-top Bent-grass 1
Sweet Vernal-grass 2#
Hair Grass 1#
Large Quaking-grass 2#
Small Quaking-grass +#
Prairie Grass +
Couch 1
Cocksfoot +#
Heath Grass +
Panic Veldt-grass +#
Red Fescue +
Yorkshire Fog 1
Annual Meadow-grass 1#
Slender Pigeon-grass +
Rat- tail Grass +
Squirrel-tail Fescue +#
Pale Matrush 1#
Pale Matrush 1#
Spiny-headed Matrush +#
Small Grass-Tree +
Pennywort 1#
Drooping Cassinia 1#
Common Cassinia +#
Common Cotula 1#
Cudweed +#
Slender Bottle-daisy +
Wiry Buttons +
Rough Fi reweed
Cotton Fireweed +#
Hairy Solenogyne +
Smooth Solenogyne +#
Cape Weed +
Prickly Lettuce +#
Common Sow-thistle +#
Jo-Jo +
Flatweed (Cat’s Ear) 1#
Matted Pratia +
+
Common Mouse-ear Chickweed 1#
Erect Chickweed +#
Black sheoak +p
Small St. John’s Wort +
Kidney Weed +
Spreading Crassula +#
Upright Guinea-flower +#
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
79
Contributions
Table 1 continued
Droseraceae
Drosera pc l lata subsp. auriculata
Dr o sera pelt at a subsp. pelt at a
Drosera whittaker i subsp. aberrans
Epacridaceae
Acrotriche serrulata
Euphorbiaceae
Poran thera m icrophylla
* Homalan th us populifolius
Fabaceae
Bossiaea prostrata
Dill wynia cinerascens
H a rden hergia viola eea
Jndigofera australis
Kennedia prostrata
Platylobium obtusangulum
Sphaerolobium minus
* Tri folium dubium.
* Tri folium glomeratum
* Ulex europaeus
* Vicia sativa
Gentianaceae
*Centaurium erythraea
Goodeniaceae
Gooden ia ovata
Haloragaceae
Gonocarpus tetragyn us
Loranthaceae
Amyema pendula subsp. pendula
Lythraceae
Lythrum hyssopifolia
Mimosaceae
Acacia dealbata
Acacia melanoxvlon
Acacia pycnantha
Acacia my rti folia
Acacia paradoxa
Acacia verticil lata
Myrtaceae
Eucalyptus cephalocarpa
Eucalyptus Icephalocapra x viminalis
Euca lyptus macrorhyncha
Eucalyptus melliodora
Euca lyptus obi iqua
Eucalyptus radiata subsp. radiata
Eucalyptus \ im inalis
Leptospermum con tinentale
Oxalidaceae
Oxalis lex ills
Pittosporaceae
B il Hardier ia m utabalis
Bursaria spinosa subsp. spinosa var. spinosa
* Pi ttosporum un du latum
Plantaginaeeae
*Plantago coronopus subsp. coronopus
*Plantago lanceolata
Pale Sundew
1
Tall Sundew
1
Scented Sundew
1
Honey Pots
+
Small Poranthera
2#
Bleeding Heart
+#
Creeping Bossiaea
1#
Grey Parrot-pea
+#
Purple Coral-pea
+#
Austral Indigo
+P
Running Postman
Common Flat-pea
2#
Eastern Globe-pea
+
Suckling, Clover
+#
Cluster Clover
+
Gorse (Furze)
+#
Common Vetch
+#
Common Centaury
+#
Hop Goodenia
1#
Common Raspwort
2#
Drooping Mistletoe
+
Small Loose-strife
1#
Silver Wattle
lp
Blackwood
2#
Golden Wattle
+
Myrtle Wattle
-
Hedge Wattle
2#
Prickly Moses
2#
Mealy-leaved Stringybark
2#
-
+
Red Stringybark
+
Yellow Box
!p
Messmate
2#
Narrow-leaved Peppermint
2#
Manna Gum
+P
Prickly Tea Tree
1
Wood- sorrel
+
Common Apple-berry
1#
Sweet Bursaria
1#
Sweet Pittosporum
+#
Buck’s-hom Plantain
+#
Ribwort
1#
80
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Table 1 continued
Polygonaceae
* Polygonum aviculare s.l.
Prostrate Knotweed
+#
Primulaceae
*Anagallis arvensis var. arvensis
Scarlet Pimpernel
+#
Proteaceae
*Grevillea robusta
Silky Oak
+#
Rosaceae
A caena novae-zelandiae
Bidgee-widgee
+#
A caena ech ina ta
Sheep’s Burr
1#
* Prim us cerasifera
Cherry Plum
+#
*Rubus anglocandicans
Blackberry
+#
Rubiaceae
Opercularia ovata
Broad-leaf Stinkweed
1
1 Opercular ia ovata x varia
-
+
Opercularia varia
Variable Stinkweed
+#
*Coprosma repens
Mirror Bush
+
Santalaceae
Exocarpos cupressiformis
Cherry Ballart
+
Scrophulariaceae
Veronica gracilis
Slender Speedwell
_
Thymelaeceae
Pimelea humilis
Common Rice-flower
+
IPimelea linifolia
Slender Rice-flower
-
Violaeeae
Viola hederacea s.s.
Native violet
+#
on the Mornington Peninsula (pers obs.).
The taxonomy of this grass is confused, and
it is also referred to as Austroclanthonia pro-
cera (Linder, 1997; Jacobs, 2001; Ross and
Walsh, 2003)
Eucalyptus ?cephalocarpa x viminalis
A single tree in Highbury Park resembles
Eucalyptus cephalocarpa , but is unusual in
also having smooth, pinkish-grey ribbony
bark on the branches, and slightly finer
buds, fruits and leaves which are not
markedly waxy. This tree is probably a
hybrid involving E. cephalocarpa and
another species, most likely E. viminalis
(K. Rule, pers. comm.) which occurs near-
by. Similar trees are present in other near-
by areas. These have caused some confu-
sion, since they closely resemble
‘Scentbarks’ (including the species E.
aromaphloia (Pryor and Willis, 1954), E.
ignorabalis (Hill and Johnson, 1991) and
E. fulgens (Rule, 1996)) in many of their
adult features. Several previous reports
have noted scattered ‘Scentbarks' in
Melbourne’s suburbs (under various spe-
cific names). Salkin (1993) notes
‘Scentbarks’ in Waverley, and Todd and
Race (1992) record a specimen from Glen
Iris. The Flora of Melbourne (Australian
Plants Society, 2001) records ‘Scentbarks’
in Wantirna, Diamond Creek, Wattle Park
and Belgrave South, while Yugovic et al.
(1990) mention similar trees as occurring
in the Koonung-Mullum valleys. Seedlings
germinated from the tree in Highbury Park
did not resemble Sccntbark seedlings (hav-
ing waxy, opposite leaves for many pairs,
of slightly variable proportions), prompt-
ing the hybrid explanation noted above,
Yugovic et al. ( 1 990) also suggest that the
trees identified tentatively as 4 Eucalyptus
' 1 aromaphloia ’ arose from a similar
hybridisation event. Such hybridisation
may account for many (or all) of the scat-
tered ‘Scentbarks’ reported in Melbourne’s
eastern suburbs.
Hypoxis species
Highbury Park contains two Hypoxis
species, both of which are uncommon in
inner-suburban Melbourne. Hypoxis
hygrometrica is of particular interest. The
plants occurring in Highbury Park (like
many populations) are difficult to place
within a recognised variety, having the
arrow-shaped anthers of var. hygrometrica ,
and the hairy sepals of var. villosisepala.
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
81
Contributions
Interestingly, some plants in Highbury
Park are also ‘double flowered’, with up to
six (rather than the usual 3) petals. The
extra petals develop at the expense of sta-
mens. The phenomenon of double flowers
occurs occasionally in other native plants
( Woolls, 1885; Australian Plants Society,
2001). Ewart (1031) notes that petal and
sepal number may also vary in Hypoxis by
reduction in number.
Sphaerolobium minus
This species is relatively uncommon in
Melbourne (Australian Plants Society,
2001), and most commonly occurs in
Damp Heathy Woodland.
Opercularia ?ovata x varia
An Opercularia occurs in Highbury Park
that combines the features of O. ovata and
O. varia , both of which are also present. It
has long (>50 cm), wiry, sprawling stems
which are covered to varying degrees by
short, stiff hairs. The leaves arc intermedi-
ate between the two species, dullish and
hairy with obvious venation, and highly
variable in size and shape. The flower-
heads resemble O. varia. but have fewer
flowers. Although flowering profusely,
fruits have never been observed. This
apparent inability to fruit, combined with
the variable morphology and intermediate
features, suggests a hybrid origin. Similar
plants have been observed elsewhere (eg,
Kinglake, Hastings), in similar areas of
clay-loam soil dominated by E. cephalo-
carpa and/or E. obliqua. These areas may
represent regions where both putative par-
ent species commonly co-occur. If the
plants are not of hybrid origin, they may
represent a variant of O. varia.
Poa species
In Valley Heathy Forest, the most com-
mon Poa species is usually Poa morris ii,
as it is in Highbury Park. Highbury Park
also contains other Poa species, each rep-
resented by single individual plants. These
three species are all widespread and com-
mon in Melbourne, but fairly unusual in
Valley Heathy Forest. Poa ensiformis is
usually associated with gullies and shel-
tered slopes (eg, the nearby gully of
Scotchman’s Creek), Poa labillardierei is
most common on wet valley floors, or
moist or sheltered depressions, while Poa
tenera is generally found in shaded situa-
tions, often in gullies.
Putati ve Wallaby-grass hybrids
Two unusual Wallaby-grasses occur at
Highbury Park. The first forms a large,
coarse tussock resembling Jovcea pallida ,
and produces a tall, culm, bearing florets
closely resembling those of Aiistrodantho-
nia caespitosa. These florets are almost
always lacking a firm, viable grain, and it
is likely that these plants are the result of
hybridisation.
The second Austrodanthonia-Uke grass
resembles Jovcea lepidopoda. This species
is only known in the broader Melbourne
area from relatively few sites (Yugovic,
2000; Australian Plants Society, 2001). It
is unique among the described Wallaby-
grasses (locally including Austrodanthonia
and Joycea ) in possessing rhizomes. The
material from Highbury Park is conspicu-
ously rhizomatous; however, flowering has
not been observed, and no definitive deter-
mination can be made. Other observers
have noted similar rhizomatous Wallaby-
grasses that flower infrequently (N. Walsh,
G. Lorimer pers. comm.). The taxon at
Highbury Park may be J. lepidopoda , or
more likely, a hybrid involving two of the
numerous Wallaby-grasses present.
Weed invasion in Highbury Park
As in most urban reserves, weed invasion
is the major threat to the remnant vegeta-
tion in Highbury Park. The most serious
weeds are Sweet Vernal-grass
Anthoxantkum o derat um and Large
Quaking-grass Briza maxima , which are
actively invading undisturbed areas, and
diminishing the Park’s value as an exam-
ple of the pre-settlement vegetation of the
area. These weeds are, however, less com-
mon than they once were, as evidenced by
older photographs and a ‘weed map’ com-
piled by the author in 2001 (not shown
here). Improvement has been achieved
through a combination of minimal hand
weeding in the most intact areas, a small
amount of targeted slashing, and extensive
spraying, undertaken by Whitehorse ( ity
Council. The sprayed areas have generally
regenerated with a dense sward of
Weeping Grass where previously there was
a covering of weeds and scattered native
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
species. There was some minimal loss of
indigenous plants in these sprayed areas
along with a reduction in weeds. Other
unwanted plants have been effectively
eliminated from the Park. While once a
problem, Gorse Ulex europaeus ,
Blackberry Rubus anglocandicans and
Sweet Pittosporum Pittosporum undulatnm
have been removed, for the time being.
Brief note on the fauna, fungi and
bryophytes of the Highbury Park
The bryophytes of Highbury Park have
not been surveyed in detail. However,
Thuidiopsis fiirfurosa is conspicuous in the
understorey across much of the park.
Several other species, such as Campylopus
clcivatus , are also fairly common. Fungi
are diverse and numerous, but await inves-
tigation, as do invertebrates. The vertebrate
fauna of the Park is unremarkable. All
species recorded arc also common in the
surrounding suburbs. This paucity, despite
the diverse flora, is presumably due to the
very small size of the reserve, its isolation,
the absence of reliable water, and its prox-
imity to a major intersection.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Dr Graeme Lorimer, who
provided his species list of 1990, commented on
this paper, and checked the identification of
some grasses; David Stewart (City of
Whitehorse), who provided the report of Nyssen
(1990); Peter C'ockroft (City of Whitehorse) for
allowing access to fenced areas and for useful
discussions; Marianne Worley (Monash
University) who commented on the bryophytes;
Neville Walsh (National Herbarium of Victoria)
for comments on Wallaby-grass hybrids; Kevin
Rule who commented on a eucalypt specimen;
David Cameron (DSE) for assistance with plant
nomenclature; Dr Beth Gott (Monash
University) for providing an unpublished
species list for the City of Monash and the sur-
vey map of Bellairs (1853); Dr David Cheal
(Arthur Rylah Institute) for useful comments;
Anne McPhee (a local resident), Richard Kuhlen
and Liz Henry (Bungalook Nursery) for useful
discussions.
References
Australian Plants Society, Maroondah (2001) Flora of
Melbourne, 3 ed. (Hyland House; Melbourne)
Bellairs, E. (1853) Plan Shewing the division into por-
tions etc. of the Parish of Mulgrave. Surveyed and
drawn by Eugene Bellairs, Assist. Surveyor.
Department of Sustainability (unpubl.) Catchment
Management Authorities - EVC Bioregional
Conservation Status, Depletion & Tenure Area
Statement.
Ewart AJ (1931) Flora of Victoria. (Melbourne
University Press: Melbourne)
Frood, D (1999) An assessment of Valley Heathy
Forest in the eastern Melbourne area. Report to
VicRoads. Pathways Experiences, I lurstbridge.
Gott. B (2001) Plants of the Monash City Council
Area. Unpublished list prepared by Dr Beth Gott,
School of Biological Sciences, Monash University.
Provided by author.
Gullan P (1978) Vegetation of the Royal Botanic
Gardens Annexe at Cranbourne Victoria. Proceedings
of the Royal Society of Victoria 70, 225-240.
Hill KD and Johnson I.AS (1991 ) Systematic studies in
the eucalypts. 3- New taxa and combinations in
Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae) Telopea 4, 223-267.
Holmes, LC, keeper GW, Nicolls KD (1940) Soil and
land utilization of the country around Berwick.
Proceedings of the Roval Society of Victoria 52. 177-
245.
Jacobs, SWI (2001) A new combination in
Austrodanlhonia (Gramineae). Telopea 9. 741.
Linder, HP (1997) Nomenclatural corrections in the
Rvtidospernui complex ( Danihonieae, Poaceae).
Telopea 7, 269-274
Lorimer GS (1990) List of vascular plant species in
Highbury Park. Provided by the author..
McLoughlin 1. (1997) The impact of planting for
restoration of remnant bush land on its scientific and
educational values: Implications for conservation and
planning. Pacific Conservation Biplug\> 3, 27-38.
Nyssen I. (1990) Highbury Park, degeneration or
regeneration? Unpublished report to Nunawading
Council, March, 1 990.
Oates A, Taranto M (2001) Vegetation mapping of the
Pori Phillip and Westcrnpori Region. Arthur Rylah
Institute for Environmental Research, Department of
Natural Resources and Environment, Heidelberg.
Pryor LD and Willis JH (1954) A new Victorian (and
South Australian) euealvpt. The Victorian Naturalist
71, 125-129.
Ross JH, and Walsh NG (2003) A c ensus of the
Vascular Plants of Victoria , 7 ed. (Royal Botanic
Gardens: Melbourne)
Rule K (1996) Three new Victorian species related to
Eucalyptus aromaphloia L.D. Pryor & J.H. Willis and
notes on the polymorphic nature of that species.
Muelleria 9, 133-143.
Salkin A (1993) A short flora conservation history of
Waverley, a south eastern suburb of Melbourne,
Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist 1 HI, 128-137.
Todd JA and Race GJ (1992) Significance of remnant
vegetation sites within the city of Camberwell.
Report to The City of Camberwell. Ecological
Horticulture Pty Ltd.
Woolls, W (1 885) Double Flowers. The Victorian
Naturalist 1 , 50-5 1 .
Yugovie, JV (2000) Earimil Creek Bushland Reserve:
2000 Census of Flora, Friends of Earimil Creek.
Yugovie JV. Crosby, DF, Ebert K. Lillywhite P,
Saddlicr S, Schulz M. Vaughan PJ, Westaway J, Yen
AL (1990) Flora and Fauna of the Koonung and
Mullum Mullum valleys (Proposed Eastern Arterial
Road and Ringwood Bypass), Victoria. Lands and
Forests Division, Department of Conservation,
Forests and Lands, East Melbourne.
Received 19 May 2005; accepted 10 November 2005
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
83
Contributions
The Barwon estuary - an example of the
estuarine management situation in Victoria
Sadiqul Awal
16 Backous Way, Noble Park, Victoria 3174
Email: sadiqulawal@hotmail.com
Abstract
The importance of Australian estuaries is well established. However, the management of these estu-
aries is not receiving appropriate attention. This paper examines the management situation of estuar-
ies in Australia through a catchment level assessment of the Barwon estuary. The study finds that
there are potential gaps between the relevant management agencies. The study identifies the reasons
for these gaps. The study also reveals that there are many opportunities through which estuaries
could be managed very' effectively. The study finally suggests the effective management approach
for estuaries in Australia.. ( The Victorian Naturalist 123 (2), 2006, 84-00)
Introduction
This paper examines the management sit-
uation of Australian estuaries through a
micro-level assessment of the Barwon estu-
ary. Estuaries in Australia are extremely
important in terms of social, economic and
environmental values. They are widely
exploited for numerous diverse purposes
(NLWRA 2000a), and thereby suffer many
negative effects (Boxshall 2001).
Nonetheless, effective management of
Australian estuaries is still missing.
Australia has over 1000 estuaries, and
most Australians live in towns and cities
situated on or near estuaries (NLWRA
2000a). Many studies (e.g. Hancock 1995;
Hutching and Saengcr 1987; Saengcr
1991) have emphasised the significance of
Australian estuaries to commercial and
recreational fishing. Australia’s recreation-
al fishing industry is worth over $2.9 bil-
lion each year and at least 60% occurs
within estuaries (NLWRA 2000b).
Production of prawns from the northern
prawn fishery was worth over $107m in
1999/2000 (AB ARE 2001).
Australian estuaries and their associated
morphological units are the foundation of
some of the most biologically rich and pro-
ductive environments in the coastal zone
(Butcher and Saenger 1994). The dominant
ecological habitats found in Australian
estuaries are salt marshes, mangroves, sea-
grass meadows, sandflats and mudflats
(Morrisey 1995; Adam 1995; Poiner and
Peterken 1995).
Despite the importance of estuaries and
thus the need for careful management, past
planning and management of estuaries in
Australia has not been coordinated or inte-
grated (Harty 2000) and sometimes is
ignored (NLWRA 2000a).
This paper examines the management sit-
uation of small estuaries in Australia,
through a catchment level assessment of
the Barwon estuary in Victoria. The
Barwon estuary was chosen for the follow-
ing reasons:
• the region supports a large agricultural
industry in its catchments (Loone 1996);
• the estuary has significant national and
international importance (Roberts 1993);
• both coastal management programs and
catchment management programs are in
place in the region; and
• the estuarine environment is being
degraded (Corangamite CALP Board
1997; Oliver 2000).
Barwon Estuary System
The Barwon estuary complex exhibits
physical, chemical and biological charac-
teristics representative of other Australian
estuaries (Sherwood et al. 1988). In their
study, Sherwood et al (1988) divided the
whole estuary complex into four spatial
components (Fig. 1):
• Upper Barwon;
• Reedy Lake;
• Lake Connewarre; and
• Lower Barwon.
The catchment of the Upper Barwon
River and tributaries is located in the
north-eastern section of the Otway Range
in south-western Victoria. The Upper
84
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Fig. 1 . The Barwon Estuary system
Barwon component of the complex is a
river channel approximately 50 m wide, 3
to 4 m deep and about 10 km long
(Sherwood et al. 1988).
Reedy Lake is the largest freshwater wet-
land in central Victoria (Glynn 1997), with
an approximate area of 1 2 knr and a mean
depth of about 0.6 m (Sherwood et al.
1988). It is supplied with fresh water from
the Barwon River which has maintained
the lake as more or less permanent.
Lake Connewarre is a large (9.5 knr ) shal-
low estuarine lagoon in the lower reaches of
the Barwon River (Sherwood et al. 1 988)
and is part of the Lake Connewarre State
Game Reserve. Lake Connewarre was listed
as an internationally significant wetland
under the Ramsar Convention on December
1982 (Roberts 1993) and contains natural
vegetation of significance to the region
(Roberts 1993).
The Lower Barwon is narrow, 3 to 4 m
deep and about 10 km long (Sherwood el
al. 1988). The organisms characteristic of
this section of the complex are essentially
estuarine forms that can tolerate a wide
range of salinity. Mangrove and mud flats
occur along the Lower Barwon (Sherwood
etal. 1988).
Degradation of waterways in the region
due to catchment activities
The Catchment Condition Report
(Corangamite CALP Board 1997) identi-
fied 22 different degradation issues in the
Corangamite region, many directly related
to the estuary. The Corangamite CALP
Board (1997) identified the most important
management issue in the Barwon estuary
as the excessive seasonal growth of blue-
green algae. Trends at Queens Park, where
the Barwon enters Geelong City, indicate
increasing levels of phosphorus in the
water. High to very high nutrient levels
that pose threats to the viability of fish
species and other estuarine fauna also have
been recorded in the middle reaches of the
Barwon River (Corangamite CALP Board
1997). Corangamite Catchment Manage-
ment Authority (CCMA) (1998) stated that
significant progress in waterway manage-
ment had been achieved in the
Corangamite region. Stream-side revegeta-
tion, stormwater pollution reduction, ero-
sion control and enhancement of wetland
habitats and urban waterways were having
a beneficial effect on waterways.
Nonetheless, the estuary itself is not get-
ting enough attention. As well as nutrient
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
85
Contributions
problems, other forms of water pollution,
nearby industry and beach littering also
contribute to estuarine degradation (Adams
2000; Oliver 2000).
Current management of the estuary and
its catchment
The management of the Barwon River
Catchment falls under the jurisdiction of
the CCMA, which provides advice on the
management of the land and water
resources in the region. The Regional
Catchment Strategy (Corangamitc CALF
Board 1997) addresses issues relating to
water quality, waterway management and
river health. The Catchment Management
Structures Working Party (1997) recom-
mended that the Catchment Management
Authority be the principal body for catch-
ments within its region. Establishing close
partnership with other organizations within
the catchment is the main mechanism for
developing relationships. For example, the
relationship between Catchment
Management Authority and Environment
Protection Authority is established through
the development of the State Environment
Protection Policy (SEPP). As stated by
Catchment Management Structures
Working Party (1997) the EPA in consul-
tation with the CCMA will develop a set of
environmental objectives under the SEPP
policy, which will act as the minimum
environmental standards to be included
within a Regional Catchment Strategy. The
CCMA is responsible for the development
and implementation of the Attainment
Program required under the SEPP and is
included in the Regional Catchment
Strategy. Similarly, the relationship with
the relevant water authority (Barwon
Water) is established through the develop-
ment of the Regional Catchment Strategy.
The CCMA needs to ensure that the water
authority is adequately consulted in the
development of the Regional Catchment
Strategy. The relationship with the
Department of Sustainability and
Environment (DSE) is developed through
the inclusion of a representative on the
Authority. The Catchment Management
Authority (CM A) has a broad range of nat-
ural resource management responsibilities;
however, in most cases they relate to a
strategic and coordinating role. Working
in partnership with other agencies, groups
and organizations is, therefore, a key func-
tion of the Authority. In this context the
CM A is to develop strategic directions for
land and water management in the region
and to develop and oversee appropriate
work programs (DNRE 2000). DSP. also
assists in the management of the catch-
ment, and is responsible for a number of
activities that impact on the health of the
region. Other primary management author-
ities in the area include the following:
•Environment Protection Authority (EPA)
- setting policy for waterway health,
regulating point source pollution, carry-
ing out water quality monitoring pro-
grams, licensing of discharges;
•Barwon Water responsible for the man-
agement of the Barwon River, ensuring
Table 1. Non-governmental organizations working in the Barwon Area.
Name of Groups
Activities
Grant Received from
Leigh and District Landcare
Group
Re vegetation of the riparian
zones of many creeks
DSE
Barrabool Hills Landcare
Serrated tussock management
Victorian Farmers
Group
(pest plant)
Federation
Stonehaven/Fyansford
Landcare Group
Pest plant, pest animal and
revegetation
Tree Victoria
Friends of Buckley Falls
Victorian Field and Game
Association
Revegetation work
Preserve, restore, develop,
maintain water birds’ habitat
DSE
Friends of the Bluff
Work closely with Barwon
Coast Committee Management
Incorporation, the primary
activities are weed eradication,
revegetation, and operation pf
an indigenous nursery.
Coastcare
86
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
adequate quantities of good quality
water are available to consumers and
that wastewater is disposed of in accor-
dance with EPA license conditions
(Barwon Water 1994);
•Parks Victoria - responsible for the man-
agement of Lake Connewarre State
Game Reserve;
•City of Greater Geelong - carries out
environmental work with Barwon Water
and local schools to support the
Waterwatch program and the re vegeta-
tion of riparian zones on major streams
(Corangamite CALP Board 1997);
•The Barwon Coast Committee of
Management Incorporation (BCCMI)
is responsible for management of the
foreshore reserves;
•Golden Plains Shire - actively supports
local Landcare groups and projects, and
the Corangamite Salinity Program.
In addition to these primary management
authorities there are a number of commu-
nity-based volunteer groups and Non-
Governmental Organisations involved in
the environmental management of the
Barwon River and catchment (Table 1). It
should be noted that there are two major
Statewide environmental water quality
monitoring programs in Victoria. These
are: (1) the Victorian Water Quality
Monitoring Network (VWQMN) managed
by DSE. The VWQMN is contracted out to
Water Ecoscience Pty. Ltd., with funding
provided by DSE, four regional water
authorities and Melbourne Water; (2) a
network of fixed sites run and funded by
the Environmental Protection Authority
(EPA).
The VWQMN has three main compo-
nents to monitor (Hunter 1993; Hunter and
Zampatti 1994; Hunter and Hedger 1995)
- rivers and streams, lakes and reservoirs,
and wetlands. The EPA Fixed Site
Network monitored 20 rivers and streams
in 1996 throughout the State, and five
lakes in the Western District of Victoria
(VWQMN 1998).
Surprisingly, none of the programs has
responsibilities to monitor estuaries. In the
words of CALPC, DNRE and EPA (1996),
'Estuaries are poorly represented in the
statewide water quality programs; consid-
eration needs to be given to developing an
estuarine component to VWQMN’. In this
context, Jackson (pers. comm. 2000) indi-
cated that there are many organisations
working; however no one is doing work
for the estuary. Oliver (2000), reported that
the Barwon has always been neglected,
therefore becoming more polluted day by
day.
The above discussion reveals that,
despite many organisations working
around the estuary, there is no single
authority responsible for the management
of the estuary itself. There is no manage-
ment plan for the estuary. At present, regu-
lations exist for water quality management
but they are generally applied under the
different jurisdictions of each separate
management agency. This results in frag-
mentation of responsibilities and an un-
coordinated approach. The emphasis on
reducing nitrogen and phosphorus levels
has directed attention away from other
important management issues, such as pro-
tection of estuarine shorelines, erosion,
estuarine beach littering and clearing of
native vegetation.
Scope for the better management of the
estuary
Although the Barwon estuary itself is not
receiving enough management attention,
there are ample opportunities through
which the Barwon could be managed very
effectively. The establishment of two nat-
ural resource management programs in
Victoria, that is, catchment and coastal
management, has produced a means of bet-
ter management not only for the Barwon
estuary, but also for other estuaries in the
State.
The relationship of Catchment
Management Authorities with the
Victorian Coastal Council
The Coastal Management Act 1995
makes provision for the preparation of a
Victorian Coastal Strategy and Coastal
Action Plans and Management Plans for
coastal Crown Land. Estuaries fall under
the definition of Coastal Crown Land
under the Act as:
Coastal Crown Land means-
la) any land reserved under the Crown Land
(Reserves) Act 1978 for the protection of
coastline;
(b) any Crown Land within 200 metres of
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
87
Contributions
the high water mark of-
i. the coastal waters of Victoria; or
ii. any sea within the limits of Victoria;
(c) the sea bed of the coastal waters of
Victoria;
(d) the sea bed of any sea within the limits of
Victoria; and
(e) any Crown Land which is declared by the
Governor-in-Council under sub-section (2)
to be coastal Crown Land - but does not
include any land which the Governor-in-
Council declares under sub-section (2) not to
be coastal Crown Land for the purposes of
this Act.
Therefore, coastal Crown Land includes
all the estuaries of the Victorian coast and
these are subject to the provisions of the
Coastal Management Act 1995. In this
context, not only the Barwon estuary but
all other estuaries come under the custody
of the Coastal Management Act 1995.
On the other hand, the Catchment
Management Structures Working Party
(1997) has delineated the responsibilities
of Regional Coastal Boards on coastal land
as 'Coastal Boards should focus their
activities solely on the coastal fringe with
Catchment Management Authorities being
the primary organization within the catch-
ment/ In their statement the Catchment
Management Structures Working Party
(1997) has indicated that 'there is some
potential for confusion over the role of
Coastal Boards and Catchment
Management Authorities because the
boundaries of the Coastal Boards’ influ-
ence extend into the catchment.’
Therefore, a formal mechanism for liaison
was required to establish the relation
between Coastal Boards and Catchment
Management Authorities (CMAs).
However, no principal guideline for a
coordinating mechanism has been formed
between them. Therefore, the link between
catchment and coastal programs is ill
defined.
Scope for effective management of the
estuary through proper links between
the catchment and coastal management
programs
Management of estuaries should be
linked with two components - catchment
and coastal components. Thus the manage-
ment efforts would involve catchment and
coastal authorities, as well as the many
other State and Commonwealth govern-
ment bodies and private landowners. In
recent years, catchment management has
undertaken initiatives in minimising nutri-
ent import from catchment activities, espe-
cially from agricultural activities, which
could improve estuarine as well as coastal
water quality and, ultimately, estuarine
environments. The establishment of the
CCMA in 1997 has coordinated waterways
management across the region and
achieved significant progress in waterways
management (CCMA 1998). On the other
hand, coastal management can protect
estuaries from activities occurring within
the coastal zone. The Victorian Coastal
Strategy (VCC 1997) stated that a program
to improve the management and conserva-
tion of estuaries, bays and river mouths
will be established including:
• establishing accountability and responsi-
bility for on-ground management;
• development of criteria for artificially
opening river mouths and estuaries;
• establishing minimum criteria for ecolog-
ical management;
• coordination with Catchment
Management Authorities to reduce sedi-
mentation and to improve water quality
into estuaries and river mouths.
From the above statements it is obvious
that both catchment and coastal programs
have the vision for the improvement of
estuaries. Nonetheless, in effect, estuaries
still are not receiving adequate attention, as
has been seen from the Barwon River estu-
ary. There are several reasons for this.
Firstly, the relevant agencies are not well
coordinated because of confusion over
responsibilities and power, especially coor-
dination between the Catchment
Management Authority and the Coastal
Council, which are the two important
authorities with major responsibilities for
the management of the estuary.
Secondly, legislation for estuarine man-
agement is not adequate. In its proposed
recommendations in the area ot coastal
management, the Land Conservation
Council (LCC) Victoria emphasized the
desirability of creating a focused body for
marine, estuarine and coastal area manage-
ment in Victoria (LCC, 1996). The LCC
emphasized that the authority should be
88
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
established by legislation to overcome
fragmentation of responsibilities and leg-
islative deficiencies in marine, estuarine
and coastal area management in Victoria.
To date, the role of legislation for estuary
management has been overlooked or inad-
equately appreciated.
Thirdly, estuarine programs are inade-
quate. There are many catchment programs
such as water quality monitoring programs
in waterways and streams, re-vegetation
programs, community education programs
etc. However, no program has yet been
brought to focus on the estuary itself.
Finally, there is no management plan for
the estuary. Indeed, this study could not
identify any particular agency responsible
for the management of the estuary itself.
Lack of plans or guidelines give rise to
concern about the importance of estuarine
issues. In effect, estuary management plans
reflect the agreed position of all regulatory
authorities and interested parties in relation
to the future nature conservation, rehabili-
tation and development of the estuary. In
the absence of a management plan, neither
the catchment nor the coastal programs are
combining their efforts for the manage-
ment of the estuary.
Catchment management plans and
coastal action plans are appropriate means
to address management issues affecting
smaller estuaries in Victoria (ECC 2000).
Properly linked management of estuaries
should be captured within catchment and
coastal management programs. To do this,
a bridge is needed between catchment and
coastal management programs. This study
argues that estuary management plans can
set up that bridge to connect the gap.
Conclusion
The Barwon estuary provides an example
of the management situation of estuaries in
Victoria, especially for small estuaries.
Most of the environmental issues in the
estuary have resulted from a wide variety
of land and waterway uses and activities.
Excessive nutrients in the estuarine water,
habitat loss, increased salinity and other
problems are having a significant impact
on the estuary. Catchment initiatives for
reducing nutrient imports are being
improved. However, overall management
of the estuary is lacking. As a number of
agencies have some responsibility for the
management of rivers and adjacent estuar-
ine areas, there is confusion about which
body has ultimate authority and should
take responsibility for all management
decisions and implementations. For effec-
tive management of the estuary, both the
catchment and coastal components must be
addressed. It is important that the catch-
ment program and coastal program work
together to secure sustainable management
of the estuary.
References
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Adams D (2000) Hye on historic valley’s future. The
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Barwon Water (1994) The Barwon River Survey- A
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Boxshall A (ed). (2001 ) Estuaries: where the catch-
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Bucher D and Saenger P (1994) A classification of
tropical and subtropical Australian estuaries. Aquatic
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(DNRE) and Environment Protection (EPA), Victoria
Australia (1996) Testing the Waters. The 1996 review
of Victorian water quality monitoring. Technical
Discussion paper.
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and Resources and Minister for Conservations and
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(Corangamite Catchment and Land Protection Board,
Victoria)
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Corangamite Catchment Management Annual Report
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Department of Natural Resources and Environment
(DNRE). (2000) Land and Water Management. URL:
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Environment Conservation Council (ECC) Victoria
(2000) Marine. Coastal and Estuarine Investigation-
Final Report. (Environment Conservation Council,
Victoria)
Glynn M (1997) Resource Management Planning-
Background Information far Reedy l ake. Report pre-
pared for Des Peters Associates Pty. Ltd.
Hancock DA (ed) (1995) Recreational Fishing: What’s
the Catch? Australian Society for Fish Biology
Workshop Proceedings , Canberra, 30-31 August
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Canberra)
Harty C (2000) Coastal and Marine Planning
Program. Draft South West Estuaries Coastal Action
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Quality Monitoring Network Annual Report: 1994. A
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Hunter KM and Zampatti BP (1994) Victorian Water
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Hutching P and Sacngcr P (1987) Ecology of
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Land Conservation Council ( 1996) Marine and Coastal
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Melbourne)
Loone J (1996) Barwon River and Lake Colac System
nutrient study resource document: the occurrence oj
Alga I bloom and a review of nutrients in the Barwon
River and Lake Colac System. (Water I-.eoScience;
Southern Rural Water Authority; Mt Waverley,
Victoria)
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National Land and Water Resources Audit (NLWRA)
(2000a) Australia's Near Pristine Estuaries: Assets
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Roberts, B. (1993) The Cultural Heritage of the
Barwon River. A Study Commissioned by Barwon
Water. (Barwon water Authority: Geelong. Victoria)
Sacnger P (1991) Australian estuaries-our main pro-
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Canberra, 5-7 September, 1986, . pp 161-167. Ed G
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Received 10 June 2004; accepted 17 November 2005
One Hundred Years Ago
A tramp from Healesville to Buxton.
Botanical and Ornithological Notes for September.
By A.D. Hardy, F.L.S. and Mrs. Hardy.
...The walk from Healesville up the Blacks’ Spur demands at any time a fair amount
of exertion, but on this occasion, with 2 inches of snow on the road at Healesville, the
conditions of the tramp at higher altitudes might be anticipated to present some diffi-
culty. Notwithstanding the advice of old residents, who declared the Spur to be
impassable on foot, we set out prepared for a rough time, cold feet, and a pedestrian
achievement of some novelty. That a member of our Club should be the first lady to
cross the Spur to Marysville with a reported foot depth of snow to walk through, and
thereby establish a record, was a temptation irresistible.
...At the Maroondah or Watts Bridge, the former site of Fernshaw, the snow depth had
perceptibly increased, and we were soon convinced that botanical inquiry was for the
time almost impossible, as all but the tall trees and larger shrubs were completely hid-
den. Further on small branches from the overhanging eucalypts littered the ground,
and here and there a great limb, unable to resist the increasing weight, had fallen and
grounded the telephone wire. Creaking and cracking branches overhead warned us to
get from under in time to avoid the impending danger, while from the more flexible
twigs there came frequent and sudden showers of snow, and often heavier masses that
fell without warning and drove one’s hat down over the ears in a way that was more
exciting than pleasant.
From The Victorian Naturalist , XXII, p. 164-165, February 8, 1906
90
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Distribution and habitat requirements of the
Yellow-footed Antechinus Antechinus flavipes
at multiple scales: a review
Luke T Kelly
Landscape Ecology Research Group, School of Life and Environmental Science
Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, Victoria 3125
Abstract
This review synthesises present knowledge of the distribution patterns and habitat requirements of
the Yellow-footed Antechinus Antechinus flavipes. Factors influencing the distribution of A. flavipes
are examined at several spatial scales ranging from the broad climatic conditions prevalent over the
species’ entire range to the characteristics of nest sites used by individual animals. Analysis of the
literature suggests that: l) at the broad-scalc, A. flavipes distribution is largely determined by warm,
dry climatic conditions, the distribution of dry forests and woodlands and competition with closely
related species; 2) at the landscape-scale the determinants of A. flavipes distribution are largely
unknown, although initial investigations suggest some tolerance of fragmented landscapes; and 3) at
a local-scale the distribution of A. flavipes is largely determined by the presence of large diameter
trees, tree hollows, coarse woody debris, rocky crevices and leaf-litter. Directions for future research
are suggested throughout the review. ( The Victorian Naturalist 123 (2), 2006, 91-100)
Introduction
In a few short years 1 have noted its final dis-
appearance from areas where formerly it was
possible to watch the bright-eyed little fel-
lows running a few feet at a time along sun-
bleached logs, stopping with a characteristic
jerk and as quickly moving sideways, for-
wards, or circling a tree trunk in their own
inimitable style. (David Flcay, 1949)
The Yellow-footed Antechinus
Antechinus flavipes is a small dasyurid
marsupial that occurs in a wide range of
habitats across southern and eastern
Australia (Van Dyck 1998). Knowledge of
the habitat requirements of A. flavipes is
limited, and much of its range corresponds
with cleared and degraded temperate forest
and woodland (Menkhorst 1995; van der
Ree 2003). Consequently, the conservation
of the species throughout much of its range
may not be assured (Menkhorst 1995).
Given that an understanding of the vari-
ables that influence the distribution of a
species is essential for effective conserva-
tion-based management (Austin 2002;
Gibson et al. 2004a), research into the
habitat requirements of A. flavipes should
be an imperative.
This review synthesises present knowl-
edge of the distribution patterns and habi-
tat requirements of A. flavipes. The two
southern subspecies, A. f flavipes and A. f
leucogaster , are the focus of the review as
little has been published about the ecology
of the north-east Queensland subspecies A.
f rubeculus. Beginning with a brief intro-
duction to the life history and ecology of
A. flavipes, I then highlight the importance
of analysing the distribution of a species at
multiple spatial scales. The distribution of
A. flavipes is then examined at the broad-
scale, landscape-scale and local-scale, and
previous research on this species and its
congeners is discussed. After indicating
directions for future research throughout
the review. I conclude with examples of
experimental design that may be useful in
furthering our understanding of the distrib-
ution and habitat requirements of A.
flavipes.
Life history and ecology
A. flavipes is a small (20-75 g), semi-
arboreal species (Smith 1984; Dickman
1991; Marchesan and Carthew 2004).
Invertebrates are the main source of food,
with nectar and small vertebrates taken
opportunistically (Fleay 1949; Menkhorst
1995; Goldingay 2000). Although many
populations are thought to be nocturnal
(Wakefield and Wameke 1967; Van Dyck
1998), diurnal activity has been observed
in Victorian populations (Coates 1995;
Menkhorst 1995). The average home range
Vol. 123 (2)2006
91
Contributions
of A. flavipes in dry forest in Victoria has
been estimated to be 1 .2 ha for males and
0.78 ha for females, using a grid-capture
based method (Coates 1995).
The life-history of A. flavipes involves a
brief mating period between June and
September, the subsequent mortality of all
males in the population following mating
and the production of one litter of 8-14
young each year (Lee et al. 1982; Van
Dyck 1982; Smith 1984; Marchesan and
Carthew 2004). Although breeding is high-
ly synchronised within local populations
(Dickman 1980; Van Dyck 1982). breed-
ing times between populations have been
found to vary with latitude, climate and the
timing of peaks in invertebrate abundance
(Van Dyck 1982; Smith 1984).
Recent studies suggest that A. flavipes
follows a male-biased dispersal strategy,
with males dispersing from natal areas fol-
lowing weaning, and females remaining
philopatric (Marchesan and Carthew
2004). Occurring at lower densities than
other Antechinus species (Dickman 1980),
population densities of A. flavipes have
been estimated at between 0.11 to 4.17
individuals per hectare (Reeckman 1975
cited in Dickman 1980; Smith 1984; Watt
1997).
Spatial scale
A wide range of factors influence the dis-
tribution patterns of species, including abi-
otic processes (e.g. climate), biologically
mediated processes (e.g. physiology) and
processes governed by biotic interactions
(e.g. competition) (Krebs 2001; Mackey
and Lindenmayer 2001). The distribution
patterns that we observe, and the processes
that determine these patterns, can change
with the spatial scale of investigation or
observation (Wiens 1989; Levin 1992;
Cooper et al. 1998; Luck 2002a). Consider
the following example.
In the Central Highlands of Victoria, the
presence of Leadbeater’s Possum
Gymnobelideus leadbeateri at the broad-
scale is determined by the presence of ash-
type forest and a narrow range of climatic
conditions (Lindenmayer 2000). At the
landscape-scale the species was found to
inhabit large forest blocks, with distribu-
tion determined by past disturbances such
as logging and fire (Lindenmayer 2000).
At the local-scale the species was found to
inhabit forest areas with numerous large
trees, hollows and an understorey of
Acacia species (Lindenmayer 2000).
Preferred nest-trees had large diameter
stems, were highly decayed, contained
numerous cavities and were surrounded by
a dense understorey (Lindenmayer 2000).
Spatial scale can be defined by two com-
ponents that define the upper and lower
limits of a study: extent is the overall area
encompassed by a study and grain is the
smallest unit of observation (Wiens 1989;
Mayer and Cameron 2003). The above
example highlights the importance of
studying species at multiple spatial scales
because investigations undertaken at only
one spatial scale may fail to explain or
observe important patterns and processes.
For instance, by varying the extent of
investigations from forest patches at a
landscape-scale to the entire range of the
species at a broad-scale, Lindenmayer
(2000) was able to uncover the narrow
range of climatic conditions that G. lead-
beateri inhabits. Further, by varying the
grain of investigations from the character-
istics of habitat patches to the characteris-
tics of individual trees, Lindenmayer
(2000) was able to determine the features
of preferred nest sites of G. leadbeateri.
Additionally, multiple scale analysis
allows for diverse management strategies
to be implemented, because each spatial
scale of investigation often has a corre-
sponding scale of management (Linden-
mayer and Franklin 2002; Wiens et al.
2002). For instance, investigations at
broad-scales correspond with the manage-
ment of entire regions, whereas investiga-
tions at landscape-scales relate well to the
management and implementation of pro-
tected areas and wildlife corridors
(Lindenmayer 2000).
Considering the importance of studying
species at multiple scales, the distribution
of A. flavipes will be examined at three
spatial scales: the broad-scale, the land-
scape-scale and the local-scale.
Broad-scale distribution
A. flavipes occurs in eastern and south-
western Australia in a wide range of habi-
tats including dry forest, tropical vine for-
est, swampy forest, dry woodland and
92
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
heathy woodland (Van Dyck 1982, 1998;
Menkhorst 1995). Three subspecies are
currently recognised: A. f flavipes occurs
in southern Queensland, New South Wales,
Victoria and South Australia; A. f rubecu-
lus occurs in north-eastern Queensland; and
A. f leucogaster occurs in south-western
Western Australia (Van Dyck 1998).
However, the taxonomic status of some
populations is still in doubt (Crowther el at.
2002; How et at. 2002). For example, in
south-western Australia, northern popula-
tions of A. flavipes are characterised by
females that have ten nipples, while geo-
graphically separated southern populations
are characterised by females with eight nip-
ples (How et at. 2002). This suggests varia-
tion in reproductive potential and possible
taxonomic differences between populations
(How et at. 2002).
Although found in a variety of habitats,
site location records indicate that the
broad-scale distribution of A. flavipes is
closely associated with the dry sclerophyll
forests and woodlands predominant on the
inland slopes of the Great Dividing Range
and in south-western Western Australia
(Wardell-Johnson 1986; Menkhorst 1995;
Van Dyck 1998). For example, Victorian
populations of A. flavipes are closely asso-
ciated with dry forest, dry woodland and
heathy woodland vegetation communities
that run in a diagonal band through the
centre of the state from the south-west to
the north-east (Menkhorst 1 995 ).
Fifty per cent of A. flavipes populations
in Victoria occur in the Box-Ironbark
region (ECC 1997), with other populations
present in the Wannon and Grampians
regions (Menkhorst 1995). Antechinus
flavipes is generally uncommon, although
not threatened, but is likely to play a sig-
nificant ecological role in habitats such as
box-ironbark forest and floodplain forest
where it is one of few (or often the only )
predominant native small-mammal species
(ECC 1997; Mac Nally and Horrocks
2002). For example, Mac Nally and
Horrocks (2002) suggested A. flavipes is
likely to have a considerable influence on
invertebrate populations of River Red Gum
floodplain forest.
The climate analysis program BIOCLIM
has been used to predict the broad-scale
distribution of A. flavipes based on the cli-
matic conditions of known site locations
(see Sumner and Dickman 1998; Crowther
2002; Crowther et al. 2002). Antechinus
flavipes was predicted to occur predomi-
nantly in warm, inland areas of south-east-
ern Australia with a mean annual tempera-
ture of 14.5 °C’ and a mean annual rainfall
of 785 mm (Crowther 2002). The core pre-
dicted distribution followed the inland
slopes of the Great Dividing Range, with a
patchy distribution predicted for coastal
and inland areas. A. flavipes was also pre-
dicted to occur in coastal areas of southern
New South Wales and eastern Victoria,
where there are no records of the species'
occurrence, and to have a much greater
range inland than is currently recognised
(Sumner and Dickman 1998; Crowther
2002). Few location records exist from
semi-arid inland regions (although see Ellis
and Smith 1990). A. flavipes was predicted
to occupy wetter, more variable environ-
ments in south-western Australia than in
eastern Australia (Crowther et al. 2002).
Crowther (2002) examined the distribu-
tion of A. flavipes in relation to those of
the Brown Antechinus A. stuartii , Agile
Antechinus A. agilis and Subtropical
Antechinus A. sabtropicus, and found sub-
stantial differences in the climatic indices
that determined each species’s distribution.
The predicted range for A. flavipes includ-
ed areas with the lowest mean annual pre-
cipitation (an arid 282 mm) and the lowest
annual mean moisture index (0.6) of the
four species. This reflected the high evapo-
ration rates within the species’s range, and
its tolerance of much drier, less predictable
environments than other Antechinus
species (Crowther 2002). The broader
dietary niche of A. flavipes , indicated by
dental and cranial characteristics which
allow it to feed on a large range of prey,
may explain its occurrence in a diverse
range of habitats and its ability to survive
in more unpredictable, drier environments
than its congeners (Van Dyck 1982;
Coates 1995).
The limited sympatry between A. flavipes
and its congeners (Sumner and Dickman
1998) and the tendency oi' A. flavipes to be
restricted to dry forest and woodland yet
occur in wet forest when A. stuartii is
absent (Van Dyck 1982), suggests that
competition may influence its distribution
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
93
Contributions
at the broad-scale. Furthermore, bioclimat-
ic analysis indicates that A. flavipes is
absent from large areas of climatically
suitable habitat. In these areas the presence
of the Dusky Antechinus A. swainsonii and
A. agilis could be limiting its distribution
(Crowther 2002). The limited sympatry
that does exist between A. flavipes and its
congeners generally occurs at the margins
of the species' range, for example with A.
agilis in the eastern highlands of Victoria
(Menkhorst 1995), and has been attributed
to a distribution undergoing change or the
presence of an ecotone (Van Dyck 1982).
Undoubtedly a range of factors not dis-
cussed here, such as soil, geology and alti-
tude, also influence the distribution of A.
flavipes at the broad-scale, and interact
with the major factors discussed. However,
the literature suggests that at the broad-
scale A. flavipes is most influenced by the
climatic parameters highlighted, broad
vegetation patterns and competition with
closely related species.
Future research into the distribution of A.
flavipes at the broad-scale should focus on:
• surveying regions where A. flavipes was
bioclimatically predicted to occur, but
has not been verified by site records;
• taxonomic studies to clarify the level of
similarity or difference between current-
ly recognised subspecies and popula-
tions within these subspecies.
Landscape-scale distribution
Disturbances such as fire, flood and
drought have long influenced the evolution
of the Australian mammal fauna, but the
advent of European settlement saw the
type, scale, frequency and intensity of
these disturbances change, and the addition
of new disturbances such as vegetation
clearance and habitat fragmentation
(Wilson and Friend 1999). Despite altered
disturbance regimes and habitat loss being
recognised as a major threat to the
Australian mammal fauna (Wilson et al.
2003), little information is available on the
effects of these disturbances on A. flavipes.
In a study of A, flavipes in a fragmented
landscape in South Australia, Marchesan
and Carthew (2004) found that individuals
that occurred in larger forest patches
weighed less and occurred in lower popu-
lation densities than those inhabiting
smaller patches and strips of remnant veg-
etation. These differences, and successful
reproduction in the area, suggest a toler-
ance by A. flavipes of fragmented land-
scapes and possible favourable responses
to edge habitat (Marchesan and Carthew
2004). They suggest that the life-history
strategy of A. flavipes allows the species to
persist in fragmented areas because the
complete male die-off after the breeding
season leaves increased resources for lac-
tating females and emerging young, with
small populations then replenished by male
dispersal following weaning. Tolerance of
fragmented habitat was also reported in
north-eastern Queensland by Laurance
(1994) who found that A. flavipes was
more abundant in rainforest fragments than
in continuous rainforest. Additionally, 1 1
of 14 individuals were captured within 35
m of forest edges (Laurance 1994).
In north-eastern Victoria, van der Ree
(2003) demonstrated that A. flavipes can
successfully reproduce in a fragmented
landscape. However, far from finding
favourable responses to edge habitat, an
absence of A. flavipes in 90% of linear
habitat indicated limited tolerance to frag-
mentation in this area. The absence of the
species was suggested to be a consequence
of reduced quality of habitat and increased
predation in remnant linear strips and
patches (van der Ree 2003). Large diame-
ter trees probably contributed to the persis-
tence of the species in the rare sections of
linear habitat where they were present (van
der Ree 2003).
The ability of A. flavipes to move
between remnant habitat patches across
heavily disturbed areas remains largely
unknown, although some incidental records
are available. Dickman (1991) reported the
species foraging 100 m from the nearest
tree in open pasture, adjacent to open for-
est, in New South Wales. Additionally, rel-
atively large movements of 1 1 00 m and
700 m have been recorded (Dickman 1986;
van der Ree 2003). Van der Ree (2003)
suggested that the ability of A. flavipes to
move through disturbed areas may be the
reason it can remain in some fragmented
landscapes. This was demonstrated by
Marchesan and Carthew (2004) who
recorded A. flavipes moving up to 720 m
between remnant vegetation patches.
94
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Fire is a major disturbance factor and
plays an important role in shaping the
Australian landscape (Wilson and Friend
1999). Altered fire regimes may have
caused substantial declines in mammal
species (Wilson et at. 2003). The response
of small mammals to fire regimes has
received considerable attention in the pub-
lished literature (see Wilson et al. 1990;
Wilson et at. 2001; Friend 2004), although
little is known for A. jlavipes.
Christensen and Kimber (1975) studied
the effects of fuel reduction burning on
sclerophyll forest in south-western
Western Australia. In both wet and dry
sclerophyll forest A. Jlavipes occurred
mostly in areas where fire was excluded,
and was rare in recently burnt areas. For
instance, in wet sclerophyll forest that had
remained unburnt for 40 years, the trap-
ping rate was 7.41 individuals per 100 trap
nights. In areas that had been burnt five
and 20 years previously, trapping rates
were less than 0.5 individuals per 100 trap
nights (Christensen and Kimber 1975).
Post-fire mortality was high as indicated
by trapping rates of 1.91 per 100 trap
nights before a bum and trapping rates of
0.23 per 1 00 trap nights 1 9 months after a
burn (Christensen and Kimber 1975).
Conversely, Thompson et al. (1989) indi-
cated that fire had little or no effect on A.
Jlavipes in dry sclerophyll forest in South
Australia, with the survival and persistence
of the small study population following a
low intensity fuel reduction burn.
Other disturbances such as floods and
drought may also influence the species’s
distribution. For example, Mac Nally and
Horrocks (2002) highlighted that A.
Jlavipes habitat in River Red Gum forests
and woodlands in the Riverina region of
Victoria regularly Hoods, with a likely out-
come being large changes in the abun-
dance of invertebrates and shelter sites.
Future research into the distribution of A.
Jlavipes at the landscape-scale should
focus on:
• the effects of habitat loss and fragmenta-
tion on the species (How large do rem-
nant patches need to be to provide suit-
able habitat? Does the species respond
more strongly to the structural compo-
nents of remnant patches or patch size?
Can linear patches and corridors provide
a conduit for movement of the species
between patches? Can habitat corridors
provide resident habitat? Is an agricul-
tural matrix a substantial barrier to
movement?)
• metapopulation dynamics
• the long-term effects of disturbance
regimes on the species. (What are the
effects of lire intensity, season and fre-
quency on the species? What are the
effects of flooding in riparian habitats?
What are the effects of drought?)
Local-scale distribution
Antechinus Jlavipes has a wide geograph-
ic distribution across a variety of vegeta-
tion types (Van Dyck 1998), which sug-
gests that at local scales habitat compo-
nents other than Hol istic composition may
be of greater importance in determining its
presence. Several studies have highlighted
the importance of a number of habitat
Structural components in influencing the
species’s presence.
In a study analysing foraging behaviour
and habitat use of small-mammals in
southern Queensland, Stokes et al (2004)
revealed preferences of A. Jlavipes for
microhabitats that were structurally com-
plex. Using artificially placed netting, and
by manipulating food availability, A.
Jlavipes was found to forage most fre-
quently where both logs and rock crevices
were present, with tree and understorey
cover found to be less important indicators
(Stokes et at. 2004). The authors suggested
that A. Jlavipes may perceive structurally
complex habitats as having a lower preda-
tion risk, but also indicate that rocks and
logs provide individuals with food, nest
sites and shelter from the elements (Stokes
etal. 2004).
The loss of structural complexity may be
detrimental to populations of A. Jlavipes ,
as individuals may be forced to forage in
more exposed areas, with higher predation
rates a likely outcome (Stokes et al. 2004).
Studies undertaken in the Riverina region
of Victoria have highlighted the positive
relationship between A. Jlavipes and coarse
woody debris, by manipulating wood loads
at a number of sites (Mac Nally et al.
2001: Mac Nally and Horrocks 2002).
Densities of A. jlavipes were found to rise
to significantly higher levels as wood den-
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
95
Contributions
sities reached >20 t/ha (Mac Nally and
Horrocks 2002) and >45 t/ha (Mac Nally et
al. 2001). Again, the shelter and food pro-
vided by the coarse woody debris were
suggested as reasons for the association
(Mac Nally and Horrocks 2002). This
research also indicated the type of coarse
woody debris favoured by A. flavipes , The
species only responded positively to coarse
woody debris in the form of logs or large
boughs, as opposed to Tree crowns’ which
failed to attract the species (Mac Nally and
Horrocks 2002).
Large diameter trees are another impor-
tant habitat component for A, flavipes.
Dickman (1991) found that A. flavipes
principally foraged on the surface of large
eucalypts and under the hanging bark that
they produced in open forest in New South
Wales and Western Australia. Large trees
are also important because they are more
likely to contain tree hollows, the key nest-
ing site of the species (Dickman 1991;
Trail 1991). Warde 11 -Johnson (1986) sug-
gested that the availability of hollows, and
therefore large diameter trees, was a limit-
ing factor in the presence of the species.
A. flavipes has been recorded as using a
range of hollows including crown hollows,
stump hollows, coppice hollows and base
hollows (Dickman 1991; Trail 1991,
Coates 1995). Coates (1995) found that A.
flavipes in dry forest in north-central
Victoria used hollows close to the ground
for communal nesting and hollows used
for suckling young were located >2 m
above the ground. This may be a strategy
to avoid predators such as the Red Fox
Vulpes vulpes and the Cat Felis cat us
while suckling young (Coates 1995).
A range of other nest-sites can also be
used by the species. In dry heathland in
South Australia, Marchesan and Carthew
(2004) found that the majority of nest sites
were in the crowns of Xanthorrhoea semi-
plana tateana (66%), with the remaining
nest sites in tree hollows and stags. It is not
known whether there was a preference for
this species as a nesting site or whether it
was due to its availability compared with
other species (Marchesan and Carthew
2004). Rocky outcrops and rock crevices
have also been recorded as providing nest-
sites in Victoria and New South Wales
(Fleay 1949; Dickman 1980, 1986).
Leaf litter is another important habitat
component (Wardell-Johnson 1986).
Christensen and Kimber (1975) reported
that A. flavipes in dry sclerophyll forest in
Western Australia favoured areas with a
deep litter layer, with at least the first few
centimetres of the ground layer consisting
of dead material. Further, in another
Western Australian study, Sawle (1979
cited in Wardell-Johnson, 1986) found that
the highest number of A. flavipes were in
structurally complex sites with distribution
primarily related to litter depth. Leaf litter is
thought to be a good indicator of the quanti-
ty of invertebrates, the main food source of
A. flavipes (Wardell-Johnson 1986) Coates
(1995) reported that 92% of telemetry
observations placed male A. flavipes within
2 m of the ground, highlighting consider-
able use of the ground layer.
Although leaf litter is an important habi-
tat component in some areas, it may not be
true of all areas inhabited by A. flavipes.
Wardell-Johnson and Nicholls (1991)
noted that A. flavipes was absent from
large areas of dry sclerophyll forest in
Western Australia with a deep leaf litter. It
seems likely that at different sites different
habitat components are influencing A.
flavipes ' presence. For instance. Warded
Johnson (1986) suggested that in young
forest or recently burnt areas the quantity
of invertebrates was a limiting factor, and
in older, less disturbed sites the availability
of nest sites may be limiting.
Soderquist and Mac Nally (2000) tested
the hypothesis that the abundance of mam-
mals was higher in moist gullies than on dry
hilltops, slopes and ridges in the Box-
Ironbark forests of central Victoria. They
found that A. flavipes was significantly
more abundant in gullies. A greater number
of large diameter trees with hollows in gully
sites, compared to other topographic areas,
is a likely reason for the positive relation-
ship (Soderquist and Mac Nally 2000).
Catling et al. (2002) modelled the distribu-
tion of ground-dwelling mammals in north-
eastern New South Wales and found A.
flavipes most commonly on Rat to undulat-
ing terrain with a north-easterly aspect.
It appears that a number of structural
components, influenced by topography,
determine the distribution of A. flavipes ,
including large diameter trees, tree hol-
96
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
lows, coarse woody debris, rocky crevices
and leaf litter. Further research is required
to transform this knowledge into informa-
tion that can be used for the conservation-
based management of the species.
Future research into the distribution of A.
flavipes at the local-scale should focus on:
• providing quantitative information on
the habitat requirements of A. flavipes
for use by natural resource managers.
(How deep does leaf-litter need to be?
How many hollow bearing trees per
hectare are required for nest sites? What
are the required loads of coarse woody
debris needed? (see Mac Nally and
Florrocks (2002) for an excellent exam-
ple of such research )
• the response of A. flavipes to habitat
components across different areas of its
range. (Which habitat variable is most
limiting in each habitat type? Hollow
bearing trees? Leaf-litter? Logs? Are
responses to habitat variables in flood-
plain forest similar to those in dry forest
and rainforest habitats?)
• the characteristics of hollows used as
nest sites
• the effect of introduced predators such
as the Red Fox and the Cat, which are
likely to be detrimental to a small-mam-
mal species such as A. flavipes.
Future Directions
I have highlighted present knowledge of
variables that influence the distribution of
A. flavipes , and shown that many knowl-
edge gaps still remain. How can these
knowledge gaps be addressed? Following
are some suggestions for future research
and examples of experimental designs that
may provide useful insights into the distri-
bution of A. flavipes.
Multiple scale research
Multi-scale investigations are essential
because the processes that determine
species distribution patterns change with
our scale of investigation; investigations
undertaken at only one scale may overlook
important patterns (Wiens 1989; Levin
1992; Cooper et al. 1998). Wiens et al.
( 1 987) suggested that the most likely way
to avoid problems of scale is to conduct
studies at several hierarchically nested
scales, thereby observing different scales
simultaneously. For example, Fischer et al.
(2003, 2004) investigated the habitat rela-
tionships of reptiles at multiple scales using
a hierarchical experimental design in a
grazing landscape in southern New South
Wales. A design consisting of small plots
(10 x 10 m) nested within larger sites (equi-
lateral triangles with a 25 m side length)
nested within larger landscape units (equi-
lateral triangles with side length of 250 m)
allowed both microhabitat and landscape
variables to be examined. This design
showed that the Four-fingered Skink Carlia
teiradactyla responded to both landscape
variables, such as landscape units with a
northerly aspect, and microhabitat vari-
ables, such as the abundance of spiders.
Hierarchically nested designs offer insights
not obtainable from a single-scaled study
(Fischer et al. 2004) and would provide
useful information on A. flavipes' distribu-
tion and habitat requirements.
Habitat requirements and the effects of
fragmentation
Few studies have been undertaken with a
focus on the effect of fragmentation on A.
flavipes , although a number of such studies
have been undertaken on its congeners (see
Knight and Fox 2000; Wilson et al. 2001).
Knight and Fox (2000) studied the role of
habitat structure in mediating the effects of
fragmentation on the abundance of A. stu-
artii in remnant forest in New South
Wales. Analysis of remnant vegetation
patches of differing size and degree of dis-
turbance indicated that the direct effects of
remnant area and disturbance on the abun-
dance of the species were found to be mar-
ginal. A. stuartii responded more strongly
to structural components of the remnant
habitat, including understorey height, litter
depth and the abundance of logs (Knight
and Fox 2000). In turn, these structural
characteristics were influenced by the rem-
nant size and degree of remnant distur-
bance, highlighting that information at one
spatial scale can inform what is happening
at other scales. Similar research focusing
on landscape-scale and local-scale distrib-
ution simultaneously is required to further
knowledge of the distribution of A.
flavipes , particularly in regards to habitat
loss and fragmentation.
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
97
Contributions
Predictive Modelling
Knowledge of species-habitat relation-
ships and spatial distribution are essential
components of effective conservation-
based management (Austin 2002; Gibson
et al. 2004a). The creation of statistical
models that correlate the location of
species with habitat components by com-
paring sites where species abundance dif-
fers, or where the species is present or
absent, can be used to predict species
responses (Luck 2002b; Scott et ai 2002;
Mac Nally et al. 2003). These models have
been developed for a number of small-
mammal species (see Catling et al. 2000,
2002; Gibson et al. 2004a, b).
For example, Gibson et al. (2004b)
examined the capability ol models to pre-
dict the landscape characteristics associat-
ed with species richness and the occur-
rence of small mammals in coastal south-
western Victoria. A negative association
between species richness, elevation, habi-
tat complexity and sun index was found.
The presence of A. agilis was negatively
associated with habitat complexity and a
sun index, and positively associated with
elevation, distance to coast and distance to
creeks (Gibson et al. 2004b). From these
data a predictive distribution model was
created, highlighting critical habitat areas,
with the potential to guide conservation-
based management of a number oi mam-
mal species (Gibson et al. 2004b).
Predictive models based on the habitat
relationships of A. flavipes would help to
guide the management of this species.
Conclusion
A wide range of factors operating over a
number of spatial scales influence the dis-
tribution of A. flavipes. Furthering our
understanding of these factors will tacili-
tate improved management of the species
habitat and help to secure its long-term
conservation.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Andrew Bennett for encouraging this
review and making valuable comments on drafts
of the manuscript.
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Wilson BA and Friend GR (1999) Responses of
Australian mammals to disturbance: A review.
Australian Mammalogy 21,87-1 05.
Wilson BA. A baton JG and Reichl T (2001 ) Effects of
fragmented habitat and tire on the distribution and
ecology of the swamp antechinus ( Antechimis min-
imus maritimus ) in the eastern Otways, Victoria.
Wildlife Research 28. 527-536.
Wilson BA, Dickman CR and Fletcher TP (2003)
Dasyurid dilemmas: problems and solutions for con-
serving Australia’s small carnivorous marsupials. In
Predators with Pouches. The biology of carnivorous
marsupials , pp 407-421. Fds ME Jones, CR
Dickman and M Archer. (CSIRO Publishing:
Australia)
Received 30 June 2005; accepted 6 October 2005
History of the FNCV Geology Group, 1880-2005
Doug McCann
School of Life and Environmental Sciences,
Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, Victoria 3125
Abstract
The history of the FNCV Geology Group from 1880 to 2005 is presented. This includes an account
of the origins of the FNCV Geology Group, the geological activities in the early days and the com-
petition with alternative geological forums for members. A case study is given of the involvement of
Charles Brittlebank and the FNCV in the elucidation of the Bacchus Marsh glacial sediments. This
paper provides detail of notable geological contributors to the FNCV such as TS Hall, Frederick
Chapman, ED Gill, Tom Hart, Alf Baker, Jack Douglas. Neil Archbold and Noel Schleiger; it finish-
es with a description of recent activities of the group under the leadership of Rob Hamson. ( The
Victorian Naturalist 123 (2), 2006, 100-111)
Introduction
Geology as an area of study and recre-
ation has been an integral part of the Field
Naturalists Club of Victoria (FNCV)'s his-
tory since its foundation in 1880, although
a separate geology group was not formed
until 1946. This paper was written for the
Club's 1 25th Anniversary celebrations in
2005 and docs not attempt to be exhaus-
tive. Reviews of the history of the Club
have periodically been published m The
Victorian Naturalist at key anniversary
dates, i.e. 25,h (Barnard 1906), 40lh
(Barnard 1920), 50lh (Barnard 1930), 60"1
(Pescott 1940), 70"1 (Coghill et a! 1950)
and 100th (Willis et at 1980).
Along with Jim Willis’s general review
of the Club for the Centenary celebrations
(Willis 1980) there was a review of the
Geology Group by Edmund Gill (1980).
Information on past geological activities
can be obtained from this review and from
an earlier review by Neil (1950). Further
information can also be gleaned from the
general reviews mentioned above as well
as from the collective pages of The
Victorian Naturalist itself.
Origins of the FNCV
During the 1870s and 1880s there was a
noticeable groundswell in the desire for
new cultural institutions in the burgeoning
Colony of Victoria. The obvious reason for
this was that there had been an abrupt
increase in population and prosperity as a
result of the gold rush of the 1850s.
Victoria was flooded with people from
Europe and Asia. As the population grew
so did the people’s demand for services,
infrastructure arid institutions similar to
those available in their countries of origin.
By the 1 870s and 1 880s income per capita
in Victoria was one of the highest in the
world. It was a period of great confidence
and optimism, and of considerable vitality
and innovation. Most of the new organisa-
tions were modelled on familiar existing
British institutions.
In Victoria in the 1850s these develop-
ments initially led to the establishment of a
range of societies across the intellectual
spectrum. Some were more enduring than
others. Scientific societies were formed,
such as the Philosophical Society ot
Victoria and the Victorian Institute for the
100
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Advancement of Science, both founded in
1854. In 1855 these two societies merged
to form the Philosophical Institute of
Victoria, which in turn became the Royal
Society of Victoria in 1859. The Royal
Society provided an intellectual forum for
many of the early naturalists. Papers were
presented and published, issues were
debated, expeditions were organised, and
specimens collected and exhibited. A spe-
cialist Geological Society of Victoria was
established in October 1852 but had an
ephemeral existence and had ceased func-
tioning by the end of 1853.
By the 1880s the early pioneering explo-
ration period was mostly over. Large areas
of the continent had been traversed and a
period of more intense examination of the
geography and natural history had begun.
Already a substantial body of scientific
knowledge had accumulated and many nat-
ural history specimens had been collected.
For those interested in natural history
Victoria proved to be a fertile field for
study and yielded much that was novel and
fascinating. The early collections of
William Blandowsky formed the basis for
the founding of the National Museum of
Victoria (precursor to the current
Melbourne Museum) which was then
rapidly developed under Frederick McCoy.
As residential development proceeded and
agriculture and mining was established,
gross environmental changes were becom-
ing evident. A desire to participate in
studying, observing, collecting, and pre-
serving Victoria’s natural heritage were
some of the motivations for forming a field
naturalists club.
Some naturalists were of the opinion that
what was needed was a more popular,
accessible and sociable forum than that
provided by the Royal Society of Victoria,
which was perceived by them to be exclu-
sive and formal, and which, at least at the
organizational level, tended to be populat-
ed by professional scientists and acade-
mics. (Although, in principle, unlike the
Royal Society' of London, membership of
the Royal Society of Victoria was open to
all). It was against this background and the
pervasive nineteenth century enthusiasm
for natural history that the Field
Naturalists’ Club of Victoria came into
being in May June 1880. The new Club
fulfilled a definite need and attracted a
substantial membership and has since pro-
vided a base for the amateur naturalist over
the last 125 years.
From its inception the range of interests
and activities in the FNCV has been very
broad, covering a wide variety of natural
history topics such as botany, zoology,
geology and their various sub-disciplines.
In addition, there has been a sustained
interest in conservation of natural
resources. From the Club’s beginnings to
the present day geology has always been
regarded as an important area of study.
Geological activities in the early days of
the FNCV
With Frederick McCoy as the first
President of the FNCV it would have been
expected that geology and palaeontology
would have had some priority in the Club’s
activities. McCoy was Professor of Natural
Science at the University of Melbourne
and lectured in geology and related sub-
jects such as palaeontology, mineralogy
and chemistry, and also in zoology, com-
parative anatomy and botany. He was also
Government Palaeontologist and Director
of the National Museum of Victoria. He
served as President of the FNCV for three
years from 1880 to 1883.
However, McCoy’s direct influence on
the Club’s activities was not nearly as sig-
nificant as one would have expected
(Houghton 2001). McCoy was largely a
figurehead for the Club and was happy to
give his support and patronage but did not
regularly attend any of the meetings or
excursions, and appears to have had mini-
mal input into the Club’s activities. The
only exception to this was his Presidential
address at the Annual Conversazione. In
his first Presidential Address (McCoy
1881) he argued that there needed to be
more emphasis put on geological field
work. He stated; ‘It has been remarked that
Geology had not had its fair share of atten-
tion from the members of the Club in their
excursions, and yet there is a great deal of
interesting geological observation and col-
lecting to be done in the vicinity of the
city, or within moderate excursion distance
by rail, coach or steamer.’
McCoy went on to detail a number of
geological formations and rocks within
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
101
Contributions
easy reach of the city, including Tertiary
and Silurian sedimentary rocks at Royal
Park, Tertiary rocks at Flemington,
Mornington and Geelong, ka red flaggy
bed full of beautifully preserved leaves ...
near Bacchus Marsh', volcanic rocks such
as basalt at Richmond and the Keilor
Plains, and gem minerals in the
Dandenong ranges. He concluded that: Tn
fact the hands of geologists need be no
more idle that those of other members of
the Club, who certainly have hitherto left
Satan but little for his mischief-making
endeavours with such materials.' McCoy
was quite correct, of course: Melbourne
and surrounding districts contain some of
the most interesting and diverse geological
phenomena to be found anywhere
(although whether this providential situa-
tion was because of the ‘Creator’s’ benefi-
cence and grace and personal concern for
the progress of the FNCV and its mem-
bers’ as McCoy was suggesting is alto-
gether another question).
It is noteworthy that there was a feeling
by some members that geology had a
lower priority than they would have
regarded as ideal. An examination of the
history of the FNCV over its 125 years
indicates that botany and zoology have
received much more attention than geolo-
gy. This is perhaps reflected in the contri-
butions of its early patrons, Frederick
McCoy and Ferdinand von Mueller.
Whereas McCoy published nothing of his
palaeontological or geological work in the
Club’s journal The Victorian Naturalist,
Mueller by contrast was an active and pro-
lific contributor in his discipline of botany.
With a mining and building boom in full
swing and the creation of numerous quar-
ries and excavations, the relative dearth of
geological papers in the pages of the FNCV
journal requires some explanation.
Competing forums
It is clear that there were several compet-
ing alternative forums for local geologists
and geological enthusiasts to join and
interact in and to discuss and to publish
their work. The Royal Society of Victoria,
in particular, appears to have been the pre-
ferred local venue for geologists, and many
academic and professional geologists were
ordinary members, council members and
presidents. Another competing but also
complementary forum was The Austral-
asian Association for the Advance-ment of
Science (AAAS, later ANZAAS) which
began in 1888 and allowed access to seri-
ous amateurs as well as professional geolo-
gists. The AAAS conferences included a
Geology and Mineralogy Section, and
periodically specialist geology committees
were set up.
In 1885 a Geological Society of
Australasia was founded by Robert Litton
(Branagan 1976). Litton initially intended
it to be an amateur geological equivalent to
the FNCV. Despite its more ambitious
name it was essentially a Melbourne based
organisation and therefore a direct com-
petitor with the FNCV (Finney 1993).
However, over time the Geological Society
of Australasia evolved to attract the more
career-oriented geologists such as James
Stirling, Government Geologist of
Victoria, Ralph Tate, Professor of Natural
Science at the University of Adelaide, and
TW Edgeworth David. Professor of
Geology at the University of Sydney. On
the one hand this tended to divert valuable
potential professional members away from
the FNCV, but on the other hand had little
effect on the true amateurs who were more
at home in the FNCV. The Geological
Society of Australasia, while influential in
its day, ceased functioning about 1907.
A Parting of the ways
To some extent the 1880s and 1890s in
Australian science represented what Allen
(1994: 158-174) referred to as ka parting of
the ways’ between amateur and profession-
al science. It was as discernible in the field
of geology as in other natural history
domains. This split was deepened with the
establishment of specialist professional
societies. One such geologically related
professional body founded at this time was
the Australasian Institute of Vlining
Engineers, which was established in 1893
in Adelaide, later named the Australasian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
(AuslMM). There were also the various
Mining Departments and Geological
Survey Organizations in each state.
Professional geology in Australia in the
late nineteenth century had come of age.
There were a number of professional asso-
102
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
ciations catering for the career geologist.
The demarcation between amateur and
professional, which was far less evident
prior to the 1 880s, was now quite marked.
Professional geologists and palaeontolo-
gists such as Frederick McCoy were now
numerically in the minority in field natu-
ralists clubs but their contributions were
invaluable and always greatly appreciated
by the membership (as they still are today).
While naturalists with a geological bent
did have the choice of a variety of appro-
priate clubs and organisations to choose
from, often the only convenient option was
the FNCV or a local field naturalist’s club.
The natural home of the amateur geologist
was the FNCV alongside a now reduced
number of semi-professional and profes-
sional career geologists. It has been this
mix of amateurs and empathetic like-mind-
ed professionals, and the social interac-
tions between them, that has provided the
Club and its members with a high degree
of competence, knowledge, creativity and
energy. One aspect of this interaction is the
invitation to the professional geologist to
speak on a particular topic in which that
person has expertise, to publish papers and
to lead excursions. Likewise the competent
amateur or semi-professional is able to
carry out similar tasks depending on their
particular proficiency.
The following case-study of Charles
Brittlebank (Fig. 1 ) and the Bacchus Marsh
glacial sediments gives one illustration of
how this interaction between amateurs and
professionals can work.
Charles Brittlebank and the Bacchus
Marsh glacial sediments
Charles Clifton Brittlebank (1862-1945)
(Fig. 1) was an early member of the FNCV
and ‘to his confreres, and earlier members
of the Field Naturalists’ Club, he was con-
sidered one of the most versatile and
knowledgeable men of science...’ (Pescott
1946: 189). Brittlebank was born in
Winster, Derbyshire, and with his parents
and brother the family migrated to
Australia, first to Queensland, then
Tasmania, subsequently settling in Victoria
at Springvale and finally on a dairy farm in
the Pentland Hills near Bacchus Marsh in
1893.
Fig. 1. Charles Brittlebank. The Victorian
Naturalist, vol. 62. p. 189.
From childhood Brittlebank had a deep
and abiding interest in natural history.
Initially his focus was on geology and
ornithology but later his interests broadened
to encompass entomology, botany and plant
pathology. In 1913 he w^as appointed
Government Plant Pathologist. He was also
a gifted natural history artist and illustrated
many texts and papers including Charles
French’s Destine five Insects of Victoria and
AJ Campbell’s Nests and Eggs of
Australian Birds. In addition to his other
duties he lectured on plant pathology at the
School of Horticulture at Burnley and at the
School of Agriculture at the University of
Melbourne. In 1924 he became Biologist in
charge of the Science Branch of the
Department of Agriculture, retiring in 1 928.
Field trips and excursions have always
been a fundamental activity of the FNCV.
One of the early field trips in which
Brittlebank acted as the local guide is par-
ticularly notable (see below'). It will be
quoted in some detail because apart from
its relevant content for this case study it
illustrates a typical FNCV (geology)
excursion in the late nineteenth century.
The excursion was led by AJ Campbell
with George Sweet as geological commen-
tator. Following is Campbell’s report from
The Victorian Naturalist (Vol. 8,
November 1891, pp. 99-100).
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
103
Contributions
The Werribee Gorge Excursion
3rd October, 1891
For this most interesting locality only five
members put in an appearance at the ren-
dezvous. If that small number represents the
vitality of a club with some 200 members -
well, perhaps, the least said about it the bet-
ter. At all events, 14 or 15 names were hand-
ed in for the excursion, which warranted the
co-leaders in ordering breakfast beforehand,
at Bacchus Marsh, for at least a dozen. You
should have seen the faces of the landlady
and her dutiful daughters when only 5 put in
an appearance! Then it was fun to witness
some of the coach horses whipped home in
disgust. Two extra conveyances were
brought in seven or eight miles in anticipa-
tion of the names furnished, and had to
return empty. Moreover, the good mother of
one of our co-leaders, at Mymiong, had pre-
pared a sumptuous evening repast for the fill I
number of 15 a fitting termination for the
day’s work but only the 5 beforementioned.
plus 3 local members, turned up; and be it
said to their credit, well did they endeavour
to do justice for the 15. Now, all this is very
disappointing of course for those members
who remained at home. However, some sent
written excuses on account of sickness -
probably the remainder were delayed through
the appearance of rain. Surely their ardour is
easily damped. Rain did fall on the Friday
evening, and such refreshing ram that the
local farmers said they would have rather
seen the much-needed moisture than a whole
cloud of naturalists. As it was the Saturday
turned out most delightfully fine, one slight
shower only fell about 4 o’clock, therefore
none of the party got wet except one mem-
ber, who fell into the river.
The five members who left town were
Messrs. De Le Souef, G. Sweet, J.
Ashworth, A. J. Campbell, and E. H.
Hennell, who were joined at Mymiong by
three local members, Messrs. C. and T.
Brittlebank and J. Lidgett. The gorge was
entered about 1 1 o’clock, and by late in the
afternoon its whole length was traversed and
some tributary gullies explored. The scram-
ble among such romantic surroundings was
fully enjoyed by the party, with the varying
scenes of native grandeur opening up at
every bend. Here was a cliff of slate rock
200 feet high, with a miniature cascade at its
foot; there, blocking up and turning the
river’s course a pyramidal crowned hill
about 400 feet in height, where trees and
scrub cling on amongst their rocky environ-
ments. And so on till the greatest elevation -
600 feet - is attained above the river’s bed,
forming a singularly beautiful vista, the
steep hill side being fairly clothed with tim-
ber and capped with a pile of naked rocks,
now known as the Falcon's Lookout.
Some photographs were taken with excel-
lent effect, especially of the scene last men-
tioned, also pictures were taken of an eagle’s
aerie, a nesting tree of the Boobook Owl,
and the nest in situ of a Sericornis cunningly
cleft in a mossy bank. But it was observed
by those who had visited the locality before
that the destructive flood of last August had
wrought great havoc with some of the most
beauteous portions of the gorge, especially
near the river. Some of the scenes depicted
at the Club’s last conversazione have been
entirely obliterated. Judging by the former
great flood (1863) it will be nearly 30 years
before the river banks will be so beautifully
margined with stately trees and shrubs. That
is, of course, provided no other destroying
flood occurs in the interim.
Birds were scarce compared with those
observed by a contingent of Mr. Keartland’s
Melton excursion that visited the Werribee
Gorge exactly this time last season. Six or
seven species of orchids were noticed flow-
ering. About the same number of ferns were
seen. Many of the ironbarks and box-trees
were in bloom; while the river’s banks were
adorned with several showy shrubs in
flower.
Some instructive geological notes bearing
upon the locality, and remarks upon impres-
sions of leaves and fruits, will be probably
offered by Mr Sweet on another occasion.
A. J. C.
In the report of the ordinary monthly meet-
ing of the Club held in the Royal Society's
Hall on 1 4lh December ( The Victorian
Naturalist January 1892: 132) under the
heading ‘Exhibition of Specimens' it was
noted, as follows, that some pebbles were
exhibited by George Sweet:
By Mr. G. Sweet. - Pebbles, probably
glaciated, from Mymiong.
This fleeting reference and the similarly
brief one at the end of the Werribee Gorge
excursion report (above) would hardly alert
104
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
the naive reader that something of great
importance had been found and furthermore
that its significance had been fully appreciat-
ed by the parties involved. However, this is
the essence of the claim later made by
Brittlebank upon the publication of a paper
in the Proceedings of the Royal Society ; of
Victoria by two of Frederick McCoy's stu-
dents at Melbourne University, Graham
Officer and Lewis Balfour.
Officer and Balfour’s paper titled
‘Preliminary Account of the Glacial
Deposits of Bacchus Marsh’ was read
before the Royal Society on 14 July 1892
and published in the Society's Proceedings
of 1893. Officer and Balfour first visited
the Bacchus Marsh district in June 1892
and prior to their second visit made contact
with Charles Brittlebank. In the paper they
acknowledged help given to them in their
researches by Brittlebank as follows:
Before making our next visit to the locality,
we wrote to Mr. Charles Brittlebank, of
Dunbar farm, near Myrniong who, we were
led to believe, could give us information in
our researches. Mr. Brittlebank readily
responded, and during our subsequent visits
has rendered us much valuable aid. He has
accompanied us on most of our expeditions
and shown us much hospitality, while his
intimate knowledge of the locality, as well as
his keen powers of Observation have been of
the greatest assistance to us. Mr. Brittlebank
informs us that he found glaciated stones in
this district four years ago. He thus appears
to have been the first to actually prove the
glacial origin of the deposits in question.
In fact, the claim that Brittlebank was the
first to prove the glacial origin of certain
rocks at Bacchus Marsh is not strictly cor-
rect. Even though he contributed a great
deal to their elucidation and came to know
them better than anyone else, there were
others who preceded him in suggesting and
demonstrating that they were glacial in ori-
gin (see Archbold 1998).
Previous workers on the Bacchus Marsh
glacials
Alfred Selwyn (1861) was the first to
speculate that the Bacchus Marsh sedi-
ments were ‘very suggestive of the results
likely to be produced by marine glacial
transport’ although he also noted that
‘grooved or ice-scratched pebbles or rock
fragments’ had ‘not yet been observed’.
However, at the time there was a major
international debate on the validity of
claims about the glacial origin of some
fairly recent (Pleistocene) rocks. After sev-
eral decades of debate a consensus was
emerging and the concept of an ‘Ice age’
was only just becoming accepted by north-
ern hemisphere geologists. The rocks in
question at Bacchus Marsh were known to
be much older, perhaps as much as 200 to
300 million years or more. To suggest that
there had been another earlier Ice age sev-
eral hundred million years before the
recently accepted Pleistocene one seemed
to be stretching credibility.
Richard Daintree (1866: 1 1) reported that
from ‘mud-pebble beds, on the Lerderderg
River’ he had ‘found a few pebbles
grooved in the manner I have read of as
caused by glacial action'. In 1889 EJ Dunn
visited the Bacchus Marsh area and stated
unequivocally that ‘the forms of the
included materials and the striatures and
grooves on their surfaces prove that this
conglomerate is of glacial origin’ (Dunn,
1889: 81; see also Archbold 1998).
Similarly, WH Ferguson (1891:32) report-
ed on the ‘glacial conglomerate' and stones
that were ‘striated, the result of ancient
glacial action’. All of these reports were
essentially internal reports with limited cir-
culation, and seemed to have been some-
what overlooked by contemporary' and later
commentators. However, Officer and
Balfour’s paper published in the
Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Victoria did receive wide circulation, and
despite the authors giving what they
thought at the time was due and ample
acknowledgement to Brittlebank for his
assistance (see above) Brittlebank reacted
critically and forcefully to their publication.
Priority Dispute
At the Adelaide meeting of the
Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science, held in
September 1893, George Sweet presented
a paper titled ‘Glacial Deposits of Bacchus
Marsh' which was highly critical of
Officer and Balfour’s work. The paper
implied that Officer and Balfour had
intruded into an area of their own (i.e.
Brittlebank and Sweet’s) research and had
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
105
Contributions
published carelessly and with undue haste.
Sweet claimed that ever since the Field
Naturalists excursion to Werribec Gorge in
October 1891, when he and Brittlebank
first met, they had intended publishing
their work.
Wc then commenced and have since contin-
ued working together, with the intention of
making the results of our investigations
known at as early a date as possible, and as
much was hinted at by the leader of the excur-
sion above referred to in his report to the
Field Naturalists’ Club. We soon found, how-
ever, that the subject and the locality were
such that they could not be fairly dealt with in
a hurry, and wc concluded that it was better to
delay publication than give utterance before
we had digested all the more relevant facts.
However, we communicated to such fellow
workers as we came in contact with the
results of our work; for instance, to Professor
R. Tate, in January, 1892, and one of us
exhibited several of the striated pebbles at the
Field Naturalists’ meeting in the same month
(Sweet and Brittlebank 1894: 376-377).
Officer and Balfour, who were absent
from the Adelaide AAAS conference and
clearly staggered by the criticism, were
later able to defend themselves at the next
AAAS conference in 1895. They were
adamant that when they first visited
Bacchus Marsh,
we had not the slightest idea that anyone else
was working in the same field, the latest ref-
erence to the glacial beds that we knew' of
being that of Mr. Dunn. Subsequently on our
second visit we were introduced to Mr.
Brittlebank, and learned for the first time
that Mr. Sweet had been in the district before
us. Neither of us were acquainted with Mr.
Sweet; and Mr. Brittlebank, though we
informed him of the object of our visit, never
gave us the slightest hint that they were
working together with a view to publishing
the results of their observations. (Officer and
Balfour 1896: 322).
Despite the pleading by Officer and
Balfour that they were innocent of the
charge of deliberately ‘trespassing on a
prior claim’ and that Brittlebank ‘had
given us no intimation of any desire to
publish anything on the subject’ (Officer
and Balfour 1896: 323), Brittlebank and
Sweet would have none of it. At the 1 898
Sydney AAAS meeting they stated bluntly
that ‘they have to take exception to some
remarks made by Messrs. Officer and
Balfour, at the Brisbane meeting of the
Association.’ and that they ‘would point
out that the statements made by them
[Brittlebank and Sweet] at the Adelaide
meeting are true in substance and in fact.’
(Brittlebank et at 1899: 365).
International acceptance of a late
Palaeozoic ice age
Brittlebank and Sweet's claims of priori-
ty were all but sanctified when they gained
support for their work from Professor
Edgeworth David, whose Presidential
Address at the 1895 Brisbane AAAS con-
ference was on glacial action in Australia.
David put his name to the paper quoted
above (Brittlebank et ul 1899) in which
Officer and Balfour were criticised.
David’s presentation on the Late
Palaeozoic Australian glaciation to the
Geological Society of London and the cor-
responding publication in the Society's
Journal in 1896 signifies the general
acceptance by the geological community
of a vast Southern Hemisphere glaciation.
As noted by David Branagan (1999: 333),
JE Marr in his Presidential Address to the
British Association in 1896 stated unre-
servedly ‘as a result of the masterly resume
of Professor Edgeworth David the bulk of
British geologists are prepared to admit
that there has been more than one glacial
period, and that the evidence of glacial
conditions in the southern hemisphere in
Permo-Caboniferous times is established.’
By the late 1890s the Bacchus Marsh
glacial sediments were receiving world
attention, and Brittlebank and Sweet were
now recognised as having produced the
first material evidence for this (e.g. see
Pritchard 1914). Contributors such as
Daintree, Dunn, Ferguson and Officer and
Balfour were generally overlooked.
Brittlebank, who was essentially an ama-
teur geologist, because of his assertiveness
had succeeded in gaining credit for his
contribution over more qualified profes-
sional geologists.
This case study highlights one of the
strengths of field naturalists clubs in that an
amateur naturalist can make important con-
tributions to knowledge at many different
levels and receive international recognition.
106
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Notable geological contributors to the
FNCV
In a review as brief as this it is not possi-
ble to give adequate credit to the legion of
geological contributors to the FNCV. Many
individual amateur and professional geolo-
gists have contributed in a variety of ways,
for example, by organising and leading
excursions, giving talks, writing papers, col-
lecting, identifying and displaying speci-
mens, preparing newsletters, sharing their
experience and knowledge and encouraging
others, or simply attending meetings. Some
of these individuals have been identified in
previous surveys fe.g. Gill 1980). Following
are some brief comments on a selection of
some of these outstanding figures.
Alfred William Howitt
Like Frederick McCoy, already men-
tioned, AW Howitt (1830-1908) achieved
international recognition for his multi-disci-
plinary contributions to natural history. In
Howitt’s case his considerable talents
spanned three major disciplines: geology,
botany and anthropology. He was also a
skilled bushman and in 1861 rescued John
King of the Victorian Exploring Expedition
(Burke and Wills expedition). Several
months later he returned to Cooper’s Creek
on a second mission and collected the
remains of Burke and Wills and carried
them back to Melbourne for burial. Much of
his early scientific work was done in virtual
isolation when he was Police Magistrate
and Warden of the Goldfields in Gippsland.
The region that he supervised stretched all
the way from Wilson’s Promontory to Cape
Howe. Each year he travelled thousands of
miles on horseback and in the course of his
normal duties made extensive geological
and botanical observations. He published
six papers in The Victorian Naturalist (how-
ever, only one was on geology).
James Stirling
Another notable geologist who lived and
worked in Gippsland was James Stirling
(1852-1909). He succeeded RAF Murray as
Government Geologist in 1 897. Stirling was
responsible for the opening up of the black
coal deposits in the Wonthaggi district and
also reported on the Gippsland brown coal.
Like many naturalists of his day he was pro-
ficient in several fields of natural history.
He published just one article in The
Victorian Naturalist (on botany) titled
‘Notes on the Flora of Mount Hotham’.
Thomas Sergeant Hall
TS Hall ( 1858-1915) (Fig. 2) was born in
Geelong and was a student at Melbourne
University under both Frederick McCoy
and Baldwin Spencer. He taught at Girton
College in Bendigo, was director of the
Castlemaine School of Mines, lectured in
biology at The University of Melbourne,
and later with GB Pritchard filled in for
McCoy during his illness until the arrival
of JW Gregory. One of the most capable
palaeontologists ever to work in Victoria,
his success in unravelling the local
Ordovician graptolites sequence and his
labours on Tertiary stratigraphy led to
international recognition. Active in a num-
ber of forums including the Royal Society
of Victoria and the AAAS, Hall joined the
FNCV in 1888 and was President from
1901 to 1903. He was the first major geol-
ogist to fully dedicate himself to promot-
ing the FNCV, publishing some 40 articles
on a range of topics in The Victorian
Naturalist. In 1909 he published the popu-
lar book Victorian Hill and Dale.
Fig. 2. Thomas Sergeant Hall. The Victorian
Naturalist, vol. 32. p. 129.
George Baxter Pritchard
GB Pritchard (1869-1956) was a student
of Frederick McCoy and collaborator with
TS Hall on the stratigraphy of the Victorian
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
107
Contributions
Tertiary. He worked briefly with Ralph
Tate at the University of Adelaide before
becoming a lecturer in metallurgy and
assaying at the Working Man’s College
(later RMIT). 1 1 is broad palaeontological
concerns included a special interest in mol-
luscs. He also collaborated with JH Gatliff
on living molluscs. Prichard was an active
member of the FNCV and published a
number of short papers and excursion
reports in The Victorian Naturalist. In 1910
he published The Geology> of Melbourne.
John Dennant
An early contributor, John Dennant was a
school inspector at Hamilton, and in col-
laboration with Ralph Tate worked on the
rich deposits of Tertiary fossils at Muddy
Creek and Grange Burn (west of
Hamilton), in particular on bivalve mol-
luscs and corals. Beginning in 1885 he
published a significant serial article on the
geology of south-west Victoria in The
Victorian Natural ist.
Albert Ernest Kitson
One of the most distinguished early mem-
bers was AE Kitson (1868-1937), who spent
many years as a ‘fifth class’ clerk in the
Victorian Public Service, first at the General
Post Office, then the Lands Department and
finally at the Geological Survey. He took a
keen interest in geology', and while working
in the Public Service pursued part-time stud-
ies in geology and mining. During this peri-
od he published a number of articles on a
variety of topics in The Victorian Naturalist.
In 1906 he was appointed head of the miner-
al survey of the Nigerian coast, and in 1915
became Director of the Gold Coast
Geological Survey. He also helped set up the
Geological Survey of Kenya. He was
knighted in 1927.
Edmund Oswald Teale (aka Thiele)
EO Teale (1874-1971) followed a nearly
parallel career path to that of AE Kitson in
that he was also an employee of the
Geological Survey of Victoria who gained
a post in Africa. He served as Director of
the Geological Survey of Tanganyika and
as a mining consultant to the Tanganyika
government from 1926 to 1940. Also like
Kitson, he was a member of the FNCV and
published a series of brief notes in The
Victorian Naturalist.
Frederick Chapman
One of the most prolific geological con-
tributors to the FNCV was Frederick
Chapman ( 1864-1943) who published some
108 papers in The Victorian Naturalist. He
was a world authority on the foraminifera.
Chapman has sometimes attracted criticism
for the accuracy of his work, but in his
defence, as the first specialist palaeontolo-
gist at the National Museum he had the
almost impossible job of describing fossils
in the large collections of the Geological
Survey of Victoria and at the University of
Melbourne, which were transferred to the
Museum. In 1927 he was appointed to an
equally demanding job of tiie first
Commonwealth palaeontologist.
Irene Crespin
Assistant to Frederick Chapman, and
later his successor as Commonwealth
palaeontologist, Irene Crespin (1896-1980)
was also an expert in the foraminifera. She
published just one article in The Victorian
Naturalist , a report on an excursion to
Green Gully.
Thomas Steven Hart
Teacher and lecturer in various Victorian
schools and Professor of Geology at the
Ballarat School of Mines, TS Hart (1871-
1960) contributed 5 1 articles and excursion
reports to The Victorian Naturalist, mainly
on geology and botany. 1 lart had an extra-
ordinarily broad encyclopaedic grasp of
general knowledge and natural history. He
was a lifelong contributor to the FNCV.
Daniel James Mahony
Links between the FNCV and the
Melbourne Museum (formerly National
Museum) have always been strong. DJ
Mahoney (1878-1944), who studied geolo-
gy under JW Gregory and EW Skeats,
wrote several articles for The Victorian
Naturalist in his younger days, and in 1931
became director of the Museum. He
encouraged cooperation between the muse-
um staff and amateur naturalists and estab-
lished a policy of using honorary staff to
assist the museum curators in their work.
Edmund Dwen Gill
The museum connection was further
enhanced when ED Gill (1908-1986)
became Curator of Fossils at the National
108
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Museum and eventually Deputy Director.
He was a dedicated supporter of the
FNCV, contributing over 70 articles on a
variety of geological and palaeontological
topics to The Victorian Naturalist .
Alfred A Baker
In 1946 three specialist discussion groups
were established, one of which was the
Geology Group led by AA Baker. He
remained secretary of the Geology Group
for many years and was FNCV President
1953-1955. Baker contributed 16 articles
to The Victorian Naturalist . The Geology
Group has remained a viable active group
for most of the time since its foundation as
a specialist group.
John |Jack| Gordon Douglas
A long-time member and president of the
FNCV 1986-1988. geologist and palaeob-
otanist Jack Douglas (b. 1929) has been a
generous contributor to the Geology
Group. His book What fossil plant is that?
(Douglas 1983) has been a handy refer-
ence. In 1992 when the FNCV as a whole
experienced some difficulties, and the
Geology Group briefly ceased regular
meetings, Jack Douglas agreed to act as
chairman and from that time the group has
generally functioned very well.
Neil Wilfred Archbold
Over the years the Geology Group has
been assisted by a number of eminent pro-
fessional geologists and palaeontologists.
Neil Archbold (1950-2005) originally
taught regular CAE courses in geology,
which inspired several members to take up
an interest in geology and fossils and join
the FNCV. A noted brachiopod expert, he
also made contributions to the history of
geology and palaeontology. As Professor
of Palaeontology at Deakin University he
gave frequent talks, led excursions and was
a steadfast supporter of the Geology
Group, encouraging postgraduate students
to participate in meetings and publish in
The Victorian Naturalist.
Noel William Schleiger
One of the most committed FNCV mem-
bers since joining in the late 1980s, Noel
Schleiger (b. 1926) has been a major con-
tributor to Geology Group activities. He
has lectured, led excursions, published arti-
cles on geological topics and injected
enthusiasm and energy into the group. His
book Roadside Geology : Melbourne to
Ballarat (Schleiger 1995), in particular, is
an attractive and useful guide.
Other Contributions
Many other professional and distin-
guished amateur geological contributors
could have (and should have) been men-
tioned. Lack of space and in a few cases
lack of information prevents further
detailed descriptions. Some of the earlier
figures who made geological contributions
to varying degrees include RW Armytage,
W Baragwanath, FS Colliver, AW
Cressweli, CJ Gabriel, JH Gatliff, HJ
Grayson, JT Jutson, RA Keble, SR Mitchell,
WJ Parr, AL Scott. No doubt there are
many others worthy of mention who have
been overlooked.
Recent contributions have been made by
many professional geologists such as Ken
Bell, Bill Birch, Eric Bird, Phil Bock,
Dermot Henry, Bruce Hobbs, Julian
Hollis, Bemie Joyce, Graham Love, Roger
Pierson, Ian Plimer, Stan Rowe and Alan
White. Considerable contributions also
have been made by many serious amateurs
such as Lyn Ansell, Clem Earp, Rob
Hamson, Doug Harper, Frank Holmes,
Dan Mclnnes, Ray Power and John
Stewart.
The Geology Group since its sormation
in 1946
Except for a few brief vacant periods in
the 1990s, the Geology Group has been
fortunate to have had a number of dedicat-
ed long-serving Group Secretaries, begin-
ning in 1946 with Alf Baker who headed
the group until around 1960. He was fol-
lowed by RR Dodds (1960-1965), R Box
(1966-1967), Tom Sault (1968-1983) and
Helen Bartoszewicz (1984-1991).
Numbers were boosted when in the early
1990s the Adult Education Association
(AEA) Geology Group ceased operating
and most of the members transferred to the
FNCV. Members such as John Spencer
and Noel Brown have regularly attended
the FNCV Geology Group meetings since
that time.
In the early 1990s the FNCV suffered
some organizational and accommodation
problems and the Geology Group briefly
ceased having regular meetings. Following
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
109
Contributions
that short interruption there was a return to
business as usual and meetings were
resumed with the support of Jack Douglas.
Graham Love took over as Secretary in
1992, followed by Karina Bader (1993-
1994) then Doug Harper ( 1994-1998).
Recent Progress
In 1998 there was another brief break in
the succession. A committee was formed,
assisted by Clem Earp, and since 1998 a
stable period has ensued with Rob Hamson
as Secretary. Attendances over recent years
have been very healthy, averaging between
25 to 30 persons per meeting. The frequen-
cy of geological excursions, which declined
markedly in the early 1 990s, now averages
about six per year, a comfortable number.
Rob Hamson has been an extremely able
and diligent organiser and the Group has
prospered under his stewardship.
In February 2005 a Committee was
established to assist with the running of the
Group. The five members elected were
Rob Hamson, Noel Schleiger, Ray Power,
Clem Eaip and Lyn Ansell.
The quality of the monthly presentations
has been excellent, as can be seen from the
reports in the Field Nats News , All of this
is good news for the present and bodes
well for the future. Although there is a lack
of teaching of geology in schools at pre-
sent, members of the public can still come
along and join an accessible and friendly
community-based group and share in the
‘geological experience’.
Acknowledgements
1 would like to thank Neil Archbold, Roger
Pierson, Noel Schleiger, Rob Hamson and John
Spencer for supplying relevant references and
documents and for their helpful comments and
constructive criticisms.
References
Allen DA (1994) The Naturalist in Britain: a Social
History >. 2 ed (Princeton University Press: Princeton,
New Jersey)
Archbold NW (1998) History of Geological and
Palaeontological Studies on the Permian Glacially
Derived Sequences of the Bacchus Marsh District,
Victoria, Australia. Proceedings of the Royal Society'
of Victoria 110(1/2), 31-43.
Barnard FGA ( 1906) The First Quarter of a Century of
the Field Naturalists' Club of Victoria. The Victorian
Naturalist 23. 63-77.
Barnard FGA (1920) The Field Naturalists' Club of
Victoria. 1905-20: A Retrospect. The Victorian
Naturalist 37, 7 1 -78.
Barnard FGA (1930) The Field Naturalists’ Club of
Victoria, 1920-30. The Victorian Naturalist 47 ,39-50.
Branagan DF (1976) The Geological Society of
Australasia 1885-1907. Journal of the Geological
Society / of A ustralia 23 , 169-182.
Branagan DF (1999) Antipodean Ice Ages. Ecologae
Geobgicae Hclveriac 92. 327-338.
Brittlebank C’C. Sweet G and David TWE (1898)
Further Evidence as to the Glacial Action in the
Bacchus Marsh District, Victoria. Report of the
Seventh Meeting of the Australasian Association for
the Advancement of Science 7. 36 1 -365, pis 1 7, 1 8.
Campbell A.I (1900) Nests and Eggs of Australian
Birds: including the geographical distribution of the
species and popular observations thereon. (Pavvson
and Brails ford: Shellfield)
Campbell AJ (1891) I he Werribee Gorge Excursion.
October. 1891. The Victorian Naturalist 8, 99-
100.
Coghill G et al (1950) Proceedings [70^1 Anniversary
Meeting], The Victorian Naturalist 67, 61-76.
Daintree R ( 1 866) Report on the geology of the District
of Ballan, including remarks on the age and origin of
gold. etc. Parliament of Victoria, Legislative
Assembly, Parliamentary Papers 1866, Vol. 2. 15, I-
11.
David TWE 1896 Evidence of Glacial Action in
Australia in Permo-Carboniferous Time. Quarterly
Journal of the Geological Society of London 52, 289-
301.pl 12.
Douglas JG (1983) What Fossil Plant is That?: a
Guide to the Ancient Floras of Victoria. (FNCV:
Blackburn, Victoria)
Dunn E.I (1889) Report on alleged coal seams at
Bacchus Marsh. Reports of the Mining Registrars for
the Quarter ended 30 September , 1888, 80-81.
(Government Printer: Melbourne)
Ferguson WH ( 1891 ) Report on the rocks and fossils at
Bacchus Marsh. Reports and Statistics of the Mining
Department for the Quarter ended 30 June 1801 , 31-
32, l pi. of sections. (Government Printer:
Melbourne)
Fmney CM (1993 ) Paradise Revealed: Natural History
in nineteenth-century Australia (Museum of Victoria:
Melbourne)
French C (1891-191 1) A handbook of the Destructive
Insects of Victoria: with notes on the methods to be
adopted to check and extirpate them. Prepared by
Order of the Victorian Department of Agriculture. 5
Vols. (Government Printer: Melbourne)
Gill ED (1980) Contributions to science by early geolo-
gists of FNCV The Victorian Naturalist 97, 107-113.
Hall TS (1909) Victorian Hill and Dale a Series of
Geological Rambles. ( I C Lothian: Melbourne)
Houghton S (2001) Frederick McCoy and the FNCV.
The Victorian Naturalist 1 18, 314-318.
Marr JE (1896) Presidential Address to the Geological
Section of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, Liverpool. (Spottiswoode:
London )
McCoy E ( 1881) Presidents Address. Southern Science
Record 1 . 102-107.
Neil L (1950) Past Geologists of the Club. The
Victorian Naturalist 67. 63-65.
Officer G and Balfour 1. (1893) Preliminary Account of
the glacial deposits of Bacchus Marsh. Proceedings
of the Royal Society of Victoria, new series 5, 45-68,
pis 10-12; Discussion '262-275.
Officer G and Balfour E (1896) The Glacial Deposits
of Bacchus Marsh. Report of the Sixth Meeting of the
Australasian Association for the Advancement of
Science 6, 321-323.
Pescott EE (1940) Sixty Years of Work The Story of
the Field Naturalists' Club of Victoria, Year by Year
The Victorian Naturalist 57, 4-3 1 .
Pescott EE (1946) The Late Charles C. Brittlebank The
Victorian Naturalist 62, 1 89- 191.
110
The Victorian Naturalist
Tributes
Pritchard GB (1910) The Geology of Melbourne (Peter
G. Tait: Melbourne).
Pritchard GB (1914) Notes on the Geology of the
Bacchus Marsh District. In Handbook to Victoria.
British Association for the Advancement of Science
Australian Meeting 1914. Eds AM Laughton and TS
Hall, pp. 1 -2 (Government Printer: Melbourne)
Selwyn ARC (1861) Geology of the Colony of
Victoria. In Catalogue of the Victorian Exhibition
1961, with prefatory Essays, indicating the Progress,
Resources, and Physical characteristics of the
Colony, pp. 175-191 (Government Printer,
Melbourne)
Schleiger NW (1995) Roadside Geology: a drive of
discovery, a trip through time, an explanation of
landscape and underlying geological structure:
Melbourne to Ballarat (GSA Vic Division and
FNCV: Blackburn, Victoria)
Sweet G and Brittlebank CC (1894) The glacial
deposits of the Bacchus Marsh District. Report of the
Fifth Meeting of the Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science 5, 376-389, pis 12-13.
Willis J 1 1 (1980) The First Century of the Field
Naturalists Club of Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist
97, 93-106.
Received 10 November 2005; accepted 9 February 2006
Ellen Margery McCulloch OAM
23 April 1930 - 13 November 2005
Ellen Margery McCulloch (nee O’Neill)
who died on 13 November 2005, aged 75,
was born on 23 April 1930. She was
awarded the Australian Natural History
Medallion in 1990, in recognition of her
dedicated and tireless efforts for conserva-
tion of the environment, relating particu-
larly to birds - a well -deserved reward.
Ellen’s interest in birds commenced dur-
ing walks to and from school in Kallista. It
was an interest she never lost. Many years
later, when she attended Jack Hyett’s lec-
tures at the Council of Adult Education
(CAE), she realised that bird- watching,
and all that it involved, was the recreation
she most wanted to pursue. From then on
she led a life of ceaseless activity. Despite
having two small daughters, and home
cares, she found time to involve herself
more and more in the world of natural his-
tory. When she felt she was competent
enough she also became a lecturer for the
CAE. She also enjoyed cricket, music and
spinning.
She joined Bird Observers Club of
Australia (BOCA) in 1963 and held secre-
tarial positions in that organisation for
more than ten years. However, she really
came into her own when she was appoint-
ed as the Club’s Public Relations Officer.
In this capacity she was responsible for
setting up displays at shopping centres,
nurseries and libraries. She also gave talks
to schools, church groups and garden
clubs. No opportunity was missed to fur-
ther the cause of her beloved birds.
All of this was fitted in with her work as a
twice-weekly volunteer in the Ornithology
Department of the Museum of Victoria. She
stayed there for sixteen years.
As a delegate for BOCA she attended
meetings of the Department of
Conservation, Forests and Lands. She was
invited, as a lay person, to the Royal
Melbourne Institute of Technology
Experimental Ethics Committee, and
chaired the Roadsides Conservation
Committee.
During discussions between the Japanese
and Australian governments, when they
were putting into place a scheme to pro-
vide protection for migratory birds, Ellen
was a non-governmental delegate, con-
tributing her extensive and practical exper-
tise. During the 1970s she was a BOCA
representative at a series of lengthy discus-
sions with the Victorian Fisheries and
Wildlife Division. These led, in 1981, to
the Land for Wildlife project. To be able to
display the Land for Wildlife logo, inter-
ested property owners were required to ful-
fil certain requirements, such as providing
habitat for birds and other wildlife. Today,
thousands of property owners participate
in this scheme, and of all Ellen’s achieve-
ments this gave her the most pride.
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
111
Tributes
She was responsible for many surveys on
such species as Yellow-tailed Black
Cockatoos, Pelicans and Bush Stone-
curlews, and organised a team to monitor
the dwindling Superb Fairy-wren popula-
tion in the Royal Botanic Gardens.
She produced many leaflets on topical sub-
jects in addition to writing numerous articles
for a wide variety of publications. One
leaflet, ‘Australian Birds and the Law', was
translated into nine languages. Her book.
Your Garden Birds ( 1987) was followed by
Birds in Your Garden (2000), an expanded
and updated version of the earlier work.
She promoted bird feeders but when the
trend veered away from inappropriate (e.g.
human) food for birds, she publicised this
fact. Instead she advised bird lovers
always to provide drinking water - out of
reach of cats.
An entry, ‘Birds’, appears above her
name, posthumously, in the magnificent
Encyclopedia of Melbourne (2005). She
would have been proud.
She was honoured with a Life Membership
of BOCA in 1985, the Australian Natural
History Medallion in 1990, and in 1991 with
a Medal of the Order of Australia, for '‘ser-
vices to ornithology’.
Tess Kloot
8/114 Shannon Street
Box Hill North, Victoria 3129
If*
\
Ellen McCulloch OAM. Photo Gael Trusler
One Hundred Years Ago
A tramp from Healesville to Buxton.
Botanical and Ornithological Notes for September.
By A.D. Hardy, F.L.S. and Mrs. Hardy.
...Leaving Narbethong and Fisher’s Creek behind, we climbed the spur beyond. The
third animal, other than birds, we saw here - a Wombat, Phascolomys mitchelli ,
Owen, standing with its legs deep in snow, and with the ends of a grass-like plant
projecting from its mouth, being a very conspicuous object. It was far from any cover,
and stood motionless, and apparently numbed with cold, until we stood within six feet
of it. Our voices, however, caused it to beat a precipitous retreat down the steep hill-
side, a shower of snow followang as the weighed down bracken fronds were released
and the stems acted like springs. Everywhere the stems of buried bracken fronds
appeared like countless croquet hoops. We followed back the Wombat's tracks to
ascertain what plant the animal had been eating, and found it to be Xerotes longifolia ,
of which the leaves had been pulled up, and the sweet, white, succulent parts near the
root eaten. Here and there we found this Xerotes with the comparatively hard green
leaves cropped off to the surface of the ground, the root parts being neglected.
From The Victorian Naturalist , XXII, p. 167, February 8, 1906
112
The Victorian Naturalist
Tributes
Neil Wilfred Archbold
14 August 1950 - 28 November 2005
It is with deep sadness that news of the
death of Professor Neil Archbold has been
received by members of the FNCV. It was
only in May 2005 that Neil delivered the
opening address at the Club’s 125"’
Anniversary Symposium. He was a long-
standing and committed supporter of the
Club and encouraged others, including his
students, to participate in Club activities.
Professor Archbold was a palaeontologist
of international standing. As well as being
a leading fossil brachiopod specialist, tax-
onomist and biostratigrapher he was also a
keen amateur field naturalist and had an
interest in the history of geology and
palaeontology.
It was not generally well known that as a
child Neil suffered from a chronic life-
threatening illness, and between the ages
of eight and twelve underwent a long
series of operations by distinguished
wartime surgeon Sir Albert Coates, which
saved his life. Over the years Neil periodi-
cally underwent further surgery but he
always remained cheerful, alert, uncom-
plaining and optimistic. Consequently,
despite periodic bouts of poor health in
recent years, his death still came as a
severe shock. Throughout his working life
Neil had a remarkable ability to focus on
his scientific research and pursue his acad-
emic interests no matter what his prevail-
ing medical circumstances.
Neil’s interests were many and diverse.
He was a great collector. At an early age he
began collecting all sorts or natural objects
as well as stamps, coins and books. From
about the age of eight he displayed a deep
interest in natural history, especially the
Lepidoptera. As well as butterflies and
moths he also turned his attention to spi-
ders, native birds, native animals and native
plants generally, rocks, minerals, fossils,
astronomy and later, to conservation issues,
in particular the preservation of native fauna
and flora and also geological heritage.
He followed his brother Jim in his devo-
tion to natural history and to butterflies in
particular. The family home was in Barkly
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
Neil with butterfly net at his family home in
Mitcham c. late 1950s.
Terrace, Mitcham, and the local butterfly
species collected included the Emperor
Gum Moth ( Opodipthera eucalypti ),
Wanderer or Monarch Butterfly (Danaus
plexippus). Orchard Swallowtail ( Papilio
aegeus). Painted Lady ( Vanessa kershawi)
and the little brown Skippers
(Hesperiidae). They collected the eggs and
the caterpillars and bred them. Eventually
the progeny were released. For several
years they carried out banding of the
Wanderer Butterfly. They noted popula-
tion changes in years of abundance or
scarcity. Neil and Jim took a strong inter-
est in the accidental introduction of the
European wasp, which had a negative
impact on their beloved caterpillars, and
they vigorously sought out wasp nests and
destroyed them.
113
Tributes
Neil Archbold at Deakin University c. mid
1990s.
Later Neil and his wide Linda cultivated
a flourishing, mainly native, garden at their
home in Doncaster Hast, featuring many
drought-tolerant plants and a number of
uncommon species such as araucarias and
ginkgo. Neil grew specific plants to attract
butterflies, such as stinging nettles ( Urtica )
to attract Painted Ladies, Swan plant
( Asclepias ) to attract Wanderers and
Buddleia (for many species).
After completing his secondary school
education at Camberwell Grammar School
in Canterbury in 1969, Neil completed a
BA (1973), MSc (1976) and PhD (1983)
all at the University of Melbourne. His
PhD was on Permian brachiopods in which
he eventually became a recognised world
authority. His supervisor was George
Thomas, who had a special interest in
Western Australian brachiopod faunas on
which Neil did his original work and
remained interested in throughout his
career. This work expanded to include Late
Palaeozoic biogeography and local and
international stratigraphic correlations. For
example, Neil published on stratigraphical
relationships within Australia, such as
between the Eastern and Western
Australian provinces, as well as between
the Australian faunas and those of other
Gondwanan faunas, such as those in India,
Timor, Irian Jaya and Thailand, and those
even further afield, for example in Russia
and Serbia.
Neil published more than 160 scientific
papers. Of these he was sole author of 76
papers but he was also a great collaborator,
publishing some 85 papers with 40 or so
co-researchers from more than 20 institu-
tions around the globe. The topics ranged
from the taxonomy of brachiopods to
palaeogeography, palaebiogeography,
palaeoelimatology, palaeoccology, ocean
circulation patterns, global stratigraphy and
the history of geology and palaeontology.
His taxonomic output was impressive,
describing more than 150 new species,
nearly 40 new genera or subgenera, five
new subfamilies and one new family ol
brachiopods as well as a new species ot
bivalve and a new genus and species ot
trilobite.
The Permian glacially-derived sediments
of the Bacchus Marsh district held a spe-
cial interest for Neil and he frequently con-
ducted field trips with his students to this
area. He was particularly interested in elu-
cidating the palaeontological and geologi-
cal details of what appeared to be a brief
marine incursion in the area. He was
pleased when he and his colleagues dis-
covered that the marine incursion was far
more extensive than had been previously
believed despite 150 years of prior inter-
mittent investigation.
Neil’s academic career began in 1973 at
the University of Melbourne where he was
employed firstly as a part-time tutor (1973-
1980) and then full-time tutor (1980-1982)
in the Geology Department. He also
tutored for many years ( 1973-1989) tor the
Council of Adult Education where he
inspired many students to take up an inter-
est in geology and palaeontology. A num-
ber of his mature-age students became
active members of the Geology Group ot
the FNCV. He taught at a number of insti-
tutions until, in 1989, he became a full-
time lecturer at Rusden campus of Victoria
College (which was incorporated into
Deakin University in 1992). He then
underwent a rapid series of promotions,
becoming Professor (personal chair) in
114
The Victorian Naturalist
Naturalist Notes
1996. From 1985 onwards he received 15
research grants from the Australian
Research Council. He raised the status of
the geology section at Deakin University
from relative obscurity to one of national
and international significance.
He was an encouraging and much appre-
ciated tutor, lecturer and postgraduate
supervisor. His own research received
wide recognition and he established pro-
ductive linkages with scientists both at
home and abroad. He had a strong commit-
ment to international cooperative research
and the development of science in coun-
tries such as Russia, China, India,
Argentina and Timor. He was a member of
numerous scientific and academic societies
and served on many local and international
committees.
Perhaps his most treasured institutional
contribution was to the Royal Society of
Victoria where he served as honorary
librarian for many years. He joined the
RSV in 1975 and became a member of
Council (1992-2005), Vice- President
(1999-2000) and President (2001-2004).
His work as custodian of the Society’s
valuable library and in finding it a perma-
nent home was decisive to its preservation.
He helped broaden the Society’s appeal to
the general public and defended and pro-
moted the Society’s traditional scientific
emphasis. His legacy is a vital, active
Society with a growing membership, in
comparison with some similar institutions
that at present are struggling for relevance
and viability.
Universally regarded as a gentleman,
Neil was admired and loved by his col-
leagues. He was an inspirational scientist,
intellectual and teacher. His wisdom,
insight, humour, gentleness and fortitude
will be deeply missed. His untimely pass-
ing at the peak of his career is a grievous
loss to science and natural history.
Acknowledgements
The author gratefully acknowledges assistance
from Linda Archbold, Jim Archbold, John
Talent and Monica Campi in the preparation of
this obituary.
Doug McCann
School of Life and Environmental Sciences
Deakin University, Melbourne Campus
221 Burwood Highway, Burwood Victoria 3125
Survival of a blind Bobuck Trichosurus cunninghami ,
Phalangeridae
The Bobuck or Mountain Brushtail
Possum Trichosurus cunninghami is a large
(2. 6-4.2 kg), semi -arboreal, nocturnal mar-
supial which dens in tree hollows or, less
often, hollow logs, disused Common
Wombat Vornhatus ursinus burrows or
thickets on the ground. Its predominant
food is foliage of Silver Wattle Acacia deal-
bata , and it spends most of its active time
on the ground, moving between wattle trees
and feeding on additional items including
fungi and various understorey and ground-
layer plants. General accounts of the
Bobuck are provided by Menkhorst ( 1 995,
as T. can inns) and Kerle (2001, as T. cani-
nus ); Bobucks in the Strathbogie Ranges, in
Victoria, have been intensively studied by
Marlin (2005; see also Martin etal. 2004).
On 16 October 2005, two of the authors
(AAM, SMM) encountered an adult
female Bobuck on the ground at
Marraweeny (36° 44’S, 145° 45 ’E) in the
Strathbogie Ranges, at 1705 hours on a
warm, sunny day. She was in a grassy,
creek- side area with fern-thickets and scat-
tered Silver Wattles, moving towards the
adjacent Peppermint (Eucalyptus radiata
and E. dive s) forest. The forest had been
logged and included few hollow-bearing
trees, but there were numerous used and
disused Common Wombat burrows in the
area. She was carrying a large back-young;
both animals appeared to be well-fed and
in excellent condition. In this area young
are born in autumn or early winter and
leave the pouch to travel on the back at
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
115
Naturalist Notes
about 6 months of age; hence this individ-
ual would have been 7-8 months old.
When binoculars were trained on the ani-
mals it was seen that the corneas of both
eyes of the female were bluish-white and
opaque (Fig. 1 ), although the eyes of the
back-young appeared normal. There can be
no doubt that she was completely blind;
nevertheless, she climbed without hesita-
tion on to a fallen tree-trunk and moved
confidently along it.
Attention was first drawn to the animals
by the barking of a dog. We do not believe
that the female had been foraging; but
think it likely that she had denned in a
ground-level, creek-side thicket and was
stirred from it by the dog. Although the
dog did not continue to harass or pursue
her, she did not forage or move from the
log over the subsequent 10 minutes for
which she was under observation.
On 13 January 2006, at 0625 hours (first
light 0544; sunrise 0614), in clear, bright
conditions, one of us (AAM) observed a
blind Bobuck (doubtless the same animal)
within 30 m of the previous sighting. On
this occasion she climbed a Silver Wattle
sapling about 2.5 m tall, and fed for about
5 minutes on foliage in its crown. She
again appeared to be in good condition, but
no back-young was present.
It is remarkable, in an area where dogs,
foxes and feral cats are frequently seen and
heard, that a blind animal should have sur-
vived at all, let alone coped with the haz-
ards of diurnal foraging on the ground.
There is direct evidence of foxes, at least,
preying on Bobucks in this area (Martin
2005). There is no way of knowing how
often this blind female Bobuck has foraged
by day, nor for how long she has been
blind. The fact that she has bred reveals
that she was at least 3 years old in autumn
2005 (Martin 2005), but she may not have
been blind for all of that time.
Back-young normally become indepen-
dent of their mothers at about 12 months of
age in this area; hence it is more likely that
the back-young died (perhaps by falling
victim to a predator) between October and
January than that it achieved indepen-
dence. It is also possible, however, that the
young left its mother earlier than is usual if
it was more reluctant than she was to be
active in daylight.
Martin (2005) found that the home range
area of adult Bobucks (male and female) in
a forested area in the Strathbogies was 6.0
+ 0.4 ha (mean ± SE). The surprising sur-
vival of the blind female may, in part, be
due to occupation of an atypically small
home range. The presence of the perma-
nent creek, the lush creek-side vegetation
with dense thickets, the abundance of Sil-
ver Wattle and the availability of Common
Wombat burrows may mean that she can
find a number of refuges and other essen-
tial resources within a very small area
which she has come to know intimately.
Martin (2005) recorded female Bobuck
home ranges as small as 1.1 ha in roadside
habitat that contained abundant den-sites
and food resources.
References
Kerle, A (2001) Possums: The Brushtails, Ringtails
and Greater Glider. ( Australian Natural History
Series, University of New South Wales Press:
Sydney).
Martin, JK (2005) Behavioural ecology of the Bobuck
( Trichosurus cunninghami). (Unpublished PhD
Thesis, University of Melbourne).
Martin JK. Handasyde KA. Wright CM, Ayers LT.
MeDonald-Madden k, .Reside A, (2004). Aspects ol
the ecology of the Bobuck Trichosurus caninus in the
Strathbogie Ranges. Victoria. In The biology of
Australian possums and gliders. Kds RL Goklingay
and SM Jackson, pp 484-489. (Surrey Beatty & Sons:
Chipping Norton, NSW)
Menkhorst, PW (ed.) (1995 ) Mammals of Victoria:
Distribution, Ecology and Conservation. (Oxford
University Press: Melbourne).
JK Martin
Department of Zoology
University of Melbourne, Victoria, 3010
AA Martin and SM Martin
RMB 3023, Boho South
Victoria, 3669
116
The Victorian Naturalist
Naturalist Notes
The Gurdies Bobucks: how are they faring?
Readers of The Victorian Naturalist may
recall that a previously unrecorded popula-
tion of Bobucks Trichosurus caninus was
reported from The Gurdies Flora and
Fauna Reserve on Westernport Bay
(Hynes and Cleeland 2005). In October
and November 2005 a brief follow-up sur-
vey was carried out in The Gurdies and
further south along the banks of the Bass
River. Again, infrared-sensitive automatic
cameras were used.
Although this second survey was far
from exhaustive, it is now apparent that the
Bobucks of The Gurdies are by no means
confined to the Reserve itself. The cameras
detected Bobucks at night on the ground in
a creek bed approximately 100 m upstream
from its confluence with the Bass River.
Moreover, juvenile animals were pho-
tographed in the care of the female parent
at both the Bass River site and within The
Gurdies Reserve.
The fact that young are being detected
indicates that the population is resident and
not itinerant and that it is at least stable.
Perhaps it is even expanding. It thus
appears that Parks Victoria, the manage-
ment organisation responsible for The
Gurdies Flora and Fauna Reserve, suc-
ceeded in preserving a refuge for a repro-
ductively viable subset of this unusual
remnant Bobuck population.
Over a period of several months prior to
October cameras were placed at various
locations within the Reserve, but well
away from the original 'Bobuck Creek’
site. Animals such as Common Brushtail
Possums, antechinus, rodents, wallabies,
stray dogs and snakes were photographed.
But no Bobucks.
While no systematic study of the ani-
mals’ distribution within the study area has
been attempted so far, it appears that
Bobucks in this pail of Gippsland may live
only in close proximity to natural water-
courses. The availability of thick ground
cover in and around such watercourses
seems to be a critical part of the animals’
habitat. Sparse ground cover appears to
mean no Bobucks, even where apparently
suitable trees are present.
The Bass River site divulged a very
numerous native fauna. Over a mere three
night ‘stake out’ in November, wallabies,
Common Brushtail Possums, wombats,
rodents and echidnas were photographed
as well as Bobucks. The author believes
such rich diversity of native wildlife is
entirely due to the presence of extensive
stands of vegetation along parts of the
Bass River and in declared parks such as
The Gurdies Flora and Fauna Reserve.
For this the community at large perhaps
owes a debt of gratitude to Trust For
Nature who covenanted part of the only
stretch of remnant riparian vegetation on
the Bass River, thus permanently protect-
Fig. 1 • Baby Bobuck at Gurdies
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
117
Book Reviews
ing a unique habitat for these Bobucks and
other native creatures.
Additional images of animals so far
recorded in this survey may be viewed at
the following website: http;//www.thyla-
coleo.com/news/oct_dec2005/oct_dec2005
.html
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank Anne and Phil
Westwood for providing access to the Bass
River that backs their ‘Bassbush’ property, and
who provided many suggestions for useful
improvements to the content of this article. The
author thanks Mike Cleeland of Philip Island
Landcare who likewise proofread and offered
helpful advice in the writing of this report.
References
Hynes D and Cleeland M (2005) Presence of Bobucks
( Trichosurus caninus ) in The Gurdies on
Westemport Bay, Victoria. The Victorian Naturalist
122, 141-145.
Debbie Hynes
POB 285 Burwood 3125 Victoria
Thylacoleo Imagery, www.thylacoleo.com
Wildlife of the Box-Ironbark Country
by Chris Tzaros
Publisher: CS1RO Publishing, 2005. 256 pages, paperback and CD; colour
photographs. ISBN 0643069674. RRP $39.95
Local and regional natural history and
field guides are a useful starting point for
learning about an area that is new, espe-
cially when written by someone such as
Chris Tzaros, with a deep knowledge and
love for the region being described. The
author writes in the preface to Wildlife of
the Box-Ironbark Country, T hope that this
book will be used by many people, not
only workers or students in the field of
land and wildlife management, community
extension or regional planning, but also
landholders, naturalists, tourists, and any-
one who may simply wish to learn more
about the wildlife of Victoria’s wonderful
box-ironbark country’. I think he has suc-
ceeded; there is something in this book for
everyone. This book would be especially
useful for newcomers to the Box-ironbark,
such as landholders and research students
who are unfamiliar with the region.
Over the past 200 years, Victoria’s Box-
ironbark forests and woodlands have been
so heavily cleared and modified for timber,
mining and farming that now only about
15% remains, mostly in isolated remnants
or as corridors along roadsides. Although
there are some larger remnants, such as
Warby Range State Park (1 1 084 ha), most
of the remaining Box-ironbark remnants are
tiny, degraded fragments. Take a look at the
maps of the 16 Box-ironbark parks and
conservation areas in this book and you will
see that many, although seemingly large,
are really only smaller areas cobbled togeth-
er, many with long, ragged edges. It is
sobering to note that there is only one very
small patch of Box-ironbark remaining that
matches the official criterion of undisturbed
and uncut ‘old-growth’ woodland.
What is left of the Box-ironbark forests
and woodlands provides critical habitat for
a large number of woodland plants and
animals, now threatened because of
destruction of their habitat. Many species,
such as the Regent Honeyeater, Swift
Parrot, Squirrel Glider and Brush-tailed
Phascogale, are dependent on the remnants
that remain.
The first three chapters provide an excel-
lent summary of the Box-ironbark region,
its history and its wildlife. The natural dis-
tribution of Box-ironbark species, why the
region has such a diversity of species and
how they have been affected by the habitat
destruction and modification of the past
200 years are covered. A succinct summa-
ry points out how current land-uses and
118
The Victorian Naturalist
Book Reviews
processes and the loss of certain habitat
features, such has tree hollows, ground-
layer (leaf litter and fallen timber) and
mature trees, has contributed to the decline
of species in this region.
‘Box-Ironbark habitats’ is my favourite
chapter and is an excellent introduction to
Box-Ironbark floristics. The author has
grouped the 25 floristic communities of the
Box-Ironbark region (Muir et al. 1995)
into six broad habitat types, for example
'Granitic hills woodlands and shrublands’.
A full page is devoted to each habitat type,
and the plant species which make up the
overstorey, understorey and ground-layer,
as well as the characteristic fauna found in
each habitat type, are described. Plant
species referred to in the descriptions are
also listed at the back of the book (p 232).
The author has wisely not included species
descriptions or illustrations of individual
plants in this book as they have been ade-
quately covered in other publications such
as Victoria 's Box-Ironbark Country: A
Field Guide (Calder and Calder 2002).
You can also refer to specialist floristic
publications such as Costermans (1992)
and Corrick and Fuhrer (undated) to look
up plants mentioned in the book.
In the ‘field guide’ section (Chapter 4),
there is a description, colour photograph
and distribution map for each species of
mammal, bird, reptile and amphibian. The
distribution maps, compiled from records
in the Atlas of Victorian Wildlife database,
contain a lot of information-the species
distribution within the Box-Ironbark region
and throughout Victoria, and the distribu-
tion records before and after 1970. The
Growling Grass Frog map on page 182 is
of particular concern as it indicates how
quickly the populations of this animal have
declined. The maps tell a similar story for
many other species. I recommend that you
read the section ‘Interpreting the species
maps’ on page 1 1 carefully, as there is
much more information to be gleaned from
the maps than I initially realised. The only
quibble I have with the species accounts
maps is that the green and red dots showing
the ‘before 1970’ and ‘since 1970’ time
periods are very tiny and my failing eye-
sight made it very difficult to interpret
some of the detail without the aid of a mag-
nifier. Each species account also describes
range and status, habitat, habits (which can
be very useful for identifying unfamiliar
species) and suggestions for locations
where you can observe the animal.
Detailed maps of the locations mentioned
in the species accounts are provided in
Chapter 5, ‘Where to watch wildlife’.
Sixteen maps of parks and reserves give
details of the characteristic flora and fauna
and information about park facilities such
as camping, toilets and water, and the near-
est accommodation. There are also notes
on the biodiversity values of the park,
species that can be observed and a habitat
description.
Unfortunately the numbers on the main
map on pages 184-185 do not correspond
to the numbers allocated to the wildlife
viewing sites in the key, but this mistake
has been corrected on the CSIRO website
( w w w . pub 1 i sh . c s i ro . au/p i d/4 8 5 6 . h tm ) and
a corrected PDF map can be downloaded
via a link from this site.
Towards the back of the book (p 225)
there is a checklist of Box-Ironbark
wildlife, with a box for ‘tickers' to mark
off sightings. Other features are a glossary,
extra reading list and CD tucked into the
back cover titled ‘Box-Ironbark nature
soundscape’. Over 85 species of bird, frog
and mammal star in this recording. Field
notes (p 243) provide a guide to the songs
and calls on each track.
A more comprehensive index would
enhance the value of the book. Species
accounts arc indexed, but there is plenty of
other useful information that could be
included, for example the interesting map
on p 18 showing how the Grey-crowned
Babbler has declined over the past 30
years, the Noisy Miner as a problem native
species on p 35 and conserving the Brush-
tailed Phascogale on p 30. Other examples
are the text boxes describing the Swift
Parrot recovery effort and the Lurg Hills
Regent Honeyeater project. The wildlife
viewing areas (parks and reserves) and the
Box-Ironbark habitat types would also be
useful additions to the index.
Outstanding photography, particularly of
birds, is a highlight. (The most delightful
photo in the book is that of the Dusky
Woodswallows on pages 56-57.) There are
a few photos that are not up to the general
standard but this is understandable as they
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
119
Book Reviews
are of nocturnal animals which are particu-
larly difficult to photograph. Some photos
are repeated in the book, for example the
Crested Shrike-tit (pp 10 and 135) and
White-bellied Cuckoo-shrike (pp 54 and
142). Perhaps the space could have been
better filled with more views of the differ-
ent Box-lronbark habitat types.
The few criticisms I have mentioned are
all of a minor nature and do not detract
from the book’s usefulness. I recommend
Wildlife of the Box-lronbark Country to all
who have a love of, or an interest in. the
Box-lronbark. Whether you are an experi-
enced Box-lronbark observer or a new
chum to the region, you will learn some-
thing from this book. The CD from the
back pocket is now in the stacker in my car
so I can test myself on bird calls while
going about my work, and the book now
forms a valued addition to my ‘car boot
library’ for use on future field trips.
References
Calder M and Calder J Victoria's Box-lronbark
Country: A Field Guide. Victorian National Parks
Association; Melbourne.
Corrick MG and Fuhrer BA (undated). Wild flowers of
Victoria. Bloomings Books; Hawthorn.
Costermans L (1992). Native Trees and Shrubs of
South-eastern Australia. Weldon Publishing: Sydney.
Muir AM Edwards SA and Dickins MJ (1995).
Description and Conservation Status of the
Vegetation of the Box-ironbark Ecosystems in
Victoria. Department of Conservation and Natural
Resources, Victoria.
Merilyn J Grey
8 Martin Road
Glen Iris, Vic 3146
The nature of plants: habitats, challenges
and adaptations
by John Dawson and Rob Lucas
Publisher: CS1RO Publishing, 2005. 314 pages, hardcover, colour photographs;
ISBN 0643091610. RRP $64.95
The first thing that strikes a person
regarding this fascinating book is the
excellent quality of the colour pho-
tographs. depicting such diverse plants,
associated animals and habitats as:
• the tussock grass alpine landscape ot
Fiordland National Park, New Zealand,
• an outcrop of ultramafic rock with scat-
tered, stunted pines and chaparral shrubs
in the Coast Ranges of California,
• a ‘giant daisy’ on Mount Kilimanjaro,
Tanzania,
• a baobab from Madagascar,
• Australian staghorn ferns,
• a grove of Araucaria columnaris on New
Caledonia,
• a cabbage tree moth camouflaged on a
dead leaf of a cabbage
• a puririmoth with a wing span of 1 5 cm
• the massive fronds of bull kelp, Durvillea
antarctic a
• and much, much more.
The photographs clearly depict and
enhance the accompanying text which is
120
The Victorian Naturalist
Book Reviews
written for those unfamiliar with scientific
terms, but scientists also will appreciate
the depth and breadth of information
offered in The nature of plants.
There are nine chapters. Chapter 1, The
freeloaders - plants using plants1, includes
an introduction to stem and leaf anatomy
and photosynthesis, as well as an account of
how many epiphytes there are and the adap-
tations that allow their survival This chap-
ter also includes a section on direct para-
sites, indirect parasites and the effect of par-
asites on their hosts. The authors describe
the intriguing Balanophoraceae for which
little is known of the pollination of their
flowers. In fact, some species do not require
pollination as they can form embryos by a
‘type of cloning' ! Some mycotrophic para-
sites feed from their host by an intermedi-
ary, a fungus that takes sugars from host
tree roots and, in return, supplies water and
some mineral nutrients to the tree. The par-
asite takes some of the sugars and other
organic compounds from the fungus and,
probably, gives nothing in return.
Chapters 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 discuss plants
from deserts and seasonally arid places,
plants in fire prone areas, in regions of
toxic soils, of aquatic and marine systems,
and of alpine and arctic regions respective-
ly. Plants from regions all around the
world are explored. One particularly fasci-
nating story comes from New Caledonia
where certain trees, such as Sebertia
acuminata , can actually store nickel in
quantities sufficient to turn the milky latex
it exudes when cut a bright blue-green.
Another story, not commonly known, is a
phenomonon related to survival of some
Myrtaceae, where survival is not directly
through the lignotubers but via scaly rhi-
zomes arising from them. These rhizomes
form an extensive network as much as 20
cm below the ground's surface and can
form groves of trees up to 10 m high.
Plants spreading by rhizomes are common
among herbaceous plants but unusual for
tree species. The authors have made a
wealth of information available to the pop-
ulace at large by their simple, clear and
concise language and the many examples
provided. One cannot convey the diversity
of topics encompassed within these chap-
ters. The book is highly recommended and
will supply many hours of enjoyable read-
OF PLANTS
Habitats, Challenges, araBral'
and Adaptations
MM
JOHN DAWSON A ROB LUCAS
ing. It is not the type of book one would
read from cover to cover in a single sitting.
The brain would go into overload with the
sheer volume of information. It is a book
that one would delve into many times in a
day, a week, a month. It is a book, howev-
er, that one would pick up repeatedly.
The final three chapters deal with ‘A
love-hate relationship - plants and ani-
mals’, ‘mostly hidden relationships -
plants, fungi and bacteria’ and ‘plant evo-
lution through the ages - an overview1. The
authors describe how some ants cut por-
tions of leaves much larger than them-
selves, carry them to their nest and use
them to make fungus gardens and then
feed on the fungal growths. Another story
relates to pollination of the fig which
forms a specialized structure, the syconi-
um, which is lined with flowers on the
inside. The syconium has a small opening
to the outside which is partly blocked by
small scales. Usually there is an exclusive
relationship with the fig and its pollinator,
mostly a type of wasp that lays its eggs in
the syconium. The male wasps hatch
before the females, bore into flowers occu-
pied by females, fertilise them and die.
The female wasps hatch when the male
flowers release pollen, thus as the female
emerges from the syconium, it collects
Vol.123 (2) 2006
121
Software Reviews
pollen over itself. If the female wasp then
enters a female syconium to lay its eggs in
the neuter flowers, it pollinates the female
flowers in the process. Some of the hidden
relationships include those of the nitrogen
fixing bacteria and the mycorrhizae. The
final chapter dealing with plant evolution
is a romp through geologic time and pre-
sents an excellent overview.
The book provides hours and hours of
entertainment and is highly recommended.
It is ideal for those with little or no back-
ground in plant biology and would provide
a wonderful and instructive resource for
teachers and their students. It is also ideal
for the armchair traveller, but beware, the
armchair may be traded in for a ticket to
any one of the fantastic places illustrated.
Bye now. I’m off to see how anything can
grow at Coyote Buttes near the Arizona-
Utah border.
Maria Gibson
Plant Ecology Research Unit
School of Biological and Chemical Sciences
Deakin University, Burwood, Victoria 3125
Forgotten Flora Resource Kit
by J Milne, T Lebel, A Veenstra-Quah and G Shadforth
Publisher: Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne, Australia, 2004. 3 CD-R
and 10 posters, ISBN 0975136232. RRP $154.00
Forgotten Flora is aptly named. Indeed,
bryophytes, fungi and lichens (fungi with
one or two algal symbionts) have been
overlooked by scientists and the public
alike, yet they are vital to the ecology and
health of all terrestrial habitats and most
aquatic habitats. The resource kit consists
of three CDs and ten posters. It is aimed
primarily at teachers and is presented at a
level such that those untrained in plant
biology or mycology can understand and
successfully use the information presented.
The authors aimed to promote increased
awareness of the Forgotten Flora, educate
people about their importance to the envi-
ronment, and show their beauty. They have
done this admirably, and producing the kit
for teachers of older primary and sec-
ondary school children ensures a future
generation with a better understanding and
appreciation of these small but exceeding-
ly important organisms.
The CDs are presented much like a text
book but are partially interactive.
Flopefully, the next edition will be fully
interactive. Each CD includes a brief intro-
duction to the groups of organisms com-
prising the forgotten flora, and explains the
existence of the other two CDs and the ten
posters. The ‘Educators Note’ explains
how the information in the kit can be
incorporated into the Key Learning Areas
of the Curriculum and Standards
Framework for Biological Science.
Following the general introduction, which
is specific to the group of organisms perti-
nent to the CD in question, there are five
sections which provide detail on the rele-
vant group of organisms, their interactions,
how to study them, a list of activities and
associated worksheets and a bibliography
and glossary. These are accompanied by
superb photographs and drawings. The
activities, which would be of great benefit
to teachers, include making spore prints of
fungi, using fungi to make ink, looking at
what lives in the fruiting structures of
fungi, graveyard lichens, finding out
whether lichens are ‘fussy’, using lichens
as bioindicators of pollution, finding out
122
The Victorian Naturalist
Software Reviews
why mosses have teeth and making a moss
terrarium. Wordfinds, crosswords and a list
of possible projects also are provided. The
activities and worksheets sections begin
with ‘Fascinating Facts’.presented as
answers to a series of questions, for exam-
ple: What have mosses got to do with the
Tyrolean man? What are the green umbrel-
las growing with my pot plants? Each
activity comes with a complete set of
instructions and includes a list of materials
so that the inexperienced teacher/techni-
cian easily can prepare and/or run the
activity.
Although the bibliography provides a
useful list of story books, general text
books, field guides and keys, it would be
more helpful if it was annotated to indicate
the level of expertise required to use the
item. For example, the key to the genera of
Australian mosses by Buck ef al. requires a
good knowledge of bryology and associat-
ed terms while the field guide to mosses
and allied plants by Meagher and Fuhrer
can be used by both experienced and inex-
perienced bryologists.
Production of the CDs seems to have
been rushed, indicated by the number of
typographical errors, the admission that the
CDs were only partially interactive and the
occasional repetition of information in
some sections. The posters, however, are
excellent. They are visually pleasing, clear-
ly presented and would be informative dis-
plays for primary, secondary and tertiary
students. They also would be excellent for
public displays and are ideal to educate the
public on the ecologic significance of the
Forgotten Flora. The posters centre around
particular themes such as ‘taking a liking to
lichens’ or ’Poisonous mushrooms’, and
provide answers to intriguing questions, for
example, what mushrooms caused symp-
toms displayed by ‘witches7 in the 17th
century and what are the little cups growing
in the carpet of my car?
Limited resources dealing with
bryophytes, fungi and lichens are available
to teachers and the general public.
Forgotten Flora successfully fills that void
and is a valuable addition to any class-
room. The authors are commended for
their initiative and imagination and the
resource kit is certain to fulfill their aim of
increasing awareness, knowledge and
appreciation of the forgotten flora. The
CDs and posters are highly recommended
for anyone with an interest in these fre-
quently overlooked organisms but particu-
larly to teachers.
Maria Gibson
Plant licology Research Unit
School of Biological and Chemical Sciences
Deakin University, Burwood, Victoria 3125
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
123
1 5b
Naturalist
Volume 123 (3)
June 2006
Published by The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria since 1884
From the Editors
We are pleased to offer this issue of The Victorian Naturalist for the enjoyment and edi-
fication of readers. The contents cover a wide range of subjects and are certain to be of
interest to many naturalists.
A notable feature of this issue is that two of the published articles relate to the work of
government instrumentalities in giving legislative protection to the natural resources of
this state. The first instance of this is the paper by James Fitzsimons, Cameron Williams
and Paul FitzSimons, which provides detail of areas recently added to the protected
estate. In the second instance, recent additions to the Fauna and Flora Guarantee Act are
also listed.
Looking ahead to future events that may impact on the contents of The Victorian
Naturalist , the next FNCV Biodiversity Symposium will be held in September of this
year, and will focus on invasive species. Details about the Symposium can be obtained by
contacting the FNCV office, on Monday to Wednesday. Following our usual practice, it
is likely that papers from this Symposium will be presented in a future edition of this
journal. This will happen either in a later issue of the current volume, or early next year.
In the meantime, we can give readers advance notice that the special issue of The
Victorian Naturalist this year will be in August and will focus on bryophytes. Papers for
this issue are well into preparation and, with the facility to include colour images, this
promises to be a landmark issue.
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Victorian
Naturalist
June
Volume 123 (3)2006
Editors: Anne Morton, Gary Presland, Maria Gibson
From the Editors * 126
Research Report Flowering, pollination, and fruit set in Tongue Orchids
Cryptostylis spp., by AC Gaskett and ME Herberstein 128
Contributions Ecological attributes of strategic land acquisitions for addition
to Victoria’s public protected area estate: 2004-2005,
by James A Fitzsimons, Cameron Williams and
Paid FitzSimons 1 34
Terrestrial mammals of Phillip and French Islands, Western
Port, Victoria, by Roger Kirkwood and Michael Johnston 146
Annotated records of the Feathertail Glider A crobates
pygmaeus from The Victorian Naturalist, by Jamie M Harris
and K Shane Maloney 157
Studies on Victorian bryophytes 3:
The genus Leptodon D Mohr, by David Meagher 166
The Yellingbo population of Leadbeater’s Possum
- remnant or introduced? by Dan Harley 170
Tributes David Hungerford Ashton OAM, by Linden Gillbank 1 74
Naturalist Notes The Victorian Twitchathon: racing for ornithological
conservation, by Tim Dolby 1 76
An observation of a Southern Water Skink
Eulamprus tympanum giving birth, by Peter Homan 181
Book Reviews Fossil Invertebrates by Paul D Taylor and David N Lewis,
reviewed by Roger Pierson 1 82
Ocean shores to desert dunes: the native vegetation of
New South Wales and the ACT by David Keith,
reviewed by Maria Gibson 183
Albatross: elusive mariners of the Southern Ocean
by Ale ks Terauds, reviewed by Rohan Clarke 184
Yarra: A diverting history of Melbourne’s murky river
by Kristin Otto, reviewed by Gary > Presland 1 86
Legislation Additions to the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1 988 1 87
ISSN 0042-5184
Front cover: Crested Tern Sterna bergii (see article on page 176). Photograph by
Jonathon Thornton.
Back cover: Pussy Tails Ptilotus spathulatuson in the newly-purchased Melton Gilgai
Woodlands Nature Conservation Reserve (see article on page 134). Photograph by
J Fitzsimons.
Research Report
Flowering, pollination, and fruit set in
Tongue Orchids Cryptostylis spp.
AC Gaskett and ME Herberstein
Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, NSW 2109
Corresponding author: agaskett@bio.mq.edu.au
Abstract
Study of Australian Tongue Orchids addresses questions of widespread interest about the evolution
of sexually deceptive pollination, and provides information for conservation and management . We
present recent data on flowering, pollination, and fruit set for three Cryptostylis species: the Bonnet
Orchid C. erecta RBr, the Small Tongue Orchid C. leptochila F Muell. Ex Benth, and the Large
Tongue Orchid C. subulata (Labill.) HG Reichb. (Jones 1988). These species are pollinated by male
Orchid Dupe Wasps Lissopimpla excelsa (Ichncumonidae) when they ‘pseudocopulatc’ with the
flowers. Cryptostylis subulata flowered from December to February, and C. erecta flowered from
November io March. Ciyptostylis leptochila began flowering in December, and pollination was still
occurring in late April. This species had the most flowers, but the lowest fruit set. In most field sites,
the earliest flowers on a racetne were pollinated most often, although this did not occur when polli-
nators were scarce. Orchids may attract pollinators more easily at the start of the flowering season
before the female wasps emerge, or pollinators could learn the locations or appearance of orchids
and avoid later-opening flowers. We also found that pollinator abundance varied during and between
seasons, there was no evidence of self-pollination, and C. erecta racemes were more likely to be
eaten by predators after fruit set. ( The Victorian Naturalist 123 (3), 2006,128-133)
Introduction
Species from the fascinating terrestrial
orchid genus Cryptostylis are distributed
throughout Australasia and the South
Pacific (Jones 1988). There are five
Australian species: the Bonnet Orchid
Cryptostylis erecta RBr, Small Tongue
Orchid C. leptochila F Muell. Ex Benth.,
Large Tongue Orchid C subulata (Labill.)
HG Reichb., Leafless Tongue Orchid C.
hunteriana Nicholls and Slipper Orchid C.
ovata RBr (Jones 1988).
The abundance and rarity of Ciyptostylis
species vary throughout their distributions.
For example, C. erecta is common in NSW
(Bishop 2000), but is listed as ‘vulnerable’
under Victorian legislation (Flora and
Fauna Guarantee Act 1988). Cryptostylis
leptochila can be locally common in
Victoria and New South Wales, but is list-
ed as ‘endangered’ in Tasmania’s
Threatened Species Protection Act 1995.
One species, C. hunteriana , is extremely
rare throughout its range in Victoria, New
South Wales, and Queensland (Bell 2001;
Clark et al. 2004). It is considered ‘threat-
ened’ under the Victorian Flora and
Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 and ‘vulnera-
ble’ under both the NSW Threatened
Species Conservation Act 1995 and the
Commonwealth Environment Protection
and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.
Research into the natural history of these
species is valuable for the preparation of
recovery plans, and general conservation
and management activities. Furthermore,
study of the most common Cryptostylis
species in their areas of greatest abundance
provides information that may be applied
to rare Cryptostylis species, and other
orchids with similar sexually deceptive
pollination systems.
Whilst C. hunteriana is a leafless sapro-
phyte, all other Australian Cryptostylis
species have a solitary, evergreen leaf
(Jones 1988). In C. erecta and C leptochi-
la>, the leaf underside is purple. The flow-
ers of Cryptostylis are resupinate with a
very large label lurn that is predominantly
red or burgundy (Jones 1988). Plants can
produce a single flower raceme between
August and April. The multiple inflores-
cences on the raceme are thought to open
sequentially throughout the flowering season
(Jones 1988). The frequency of flowering in
individual plants appears to vary unpre-
dictably between years, a common charac-
teristic of terrestrial orchids (for a review,
see Kindlemann and Balounova2001 ).
Cryptostylis species attract pollinators by
sexual deception. The orchid flowers are
128
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Report
thought to mimic the appearance and scent
of female insects. Male insects that
respond to the mimicry and attempt to cop-
ulate with the orchids’ flowers inadvertent-
ly collect and distribute the pollinia.
Australian Cryptostylis species are polli-
nated by males of a single species of
Ichneumonid wasp, the Orchid Dupe
Lissopimpla excelsa (Costa) (CSIRO
1991). For first-hand descriptions of polli-
nation in Cryptostylis species see Coleman
(1928, 1929, 1930), Dacy (1974), Watson
(1961), and Stoutamire (1974). Although
Ciyptostylis species share a pollinator, and
often have overlapping flowering seasons
and distributions, no hybrids have been
reported between species (Stoutamire
1974; Jones 1988). Cross-pollination of the
species by hand suggests there are strong
internal mechanisms that prevent hybridis-
ation (Stoutamire 1974; Jones 1988; Llovd
2003) .
Pollinators are initially attracted to
Cryptostylis orchids with a chemical signal
thought to mimic sex pheromones emitted
by female L. excelsa wasps (Schiestl et al.
2004) . Other visual and tactile signals, e.g.
colours, shapes, and textures that resemble
the features of female wasps, may then
stimulate males to attempt to copulate with
the flower, and thus move vigorously
enough to transfer pollinia. Deception by
orchid flowers may impose costs upon
duped insects (e.g. Wong and Schiestl
2002), and insect behaviour and learning
may influence pollination success (e.g.
Ferdy et al. 1998).
Here we report some interesting recent
field observations and data on flowering,
pollination, and fruit set for three species
of Cryptostylis : C. erecta , C. leptochila ,
and C. subulata.
Methods
Field observations were made of natural
populations of Cryptostylis erecta , C. sub-
ulata , and C. leptochila in open woodlands
in New South Wales and Victoria. We
used tw o populations of sympatric C. erec-
ta and C. subulata near Sydney and
Nowra, and one sympatric C. leptochila
and C. subulata site near Melbourne. The
fourth site, near Nowra, had only C. subu-
lata. At each site we identified patches of
orchids for study. A patch was defined as a
cluster of plants that was more than two
metres from any other Cryptostylis plants
(Table 1).
In the summer of 2003-04. we visited the
Sydney C. erecta and C. subulata site eight
times throughout the flowering period and
made detailed observations of individually
labelled plants. We recorded the period for
which individual flowers were open, the
interval until pollinia collection and/or
deposition, and the occurrence of fruiting,
seed set, and predation.
During summer 2004-05, we visited all
four field sites three times and made less
intensive observations of flowering, seed
set, and predation. Patches of orchids mea-
sured at the Sydney site during the first
field season were not remeasured during
the second year of the study. Analyses
were pooled for each species, and confi-
dence intervals of 95% were used.
At each field site, regression analyses
were used to determine whether the posi-
tion of a flower along a raceme (i.e. how
early in the season it opened) affected its
likelihood of being pollinated. For these
analyses, the dependent variable was the
proportion of pollination that occurred for
flowers in each position along a raceme.
The data were pooled according to field
site because all Cryptostylis species share a
single pollinator and pollinator abundances
Table 1. Number of patches surveyed for three species of Tongue Orchid Cryptostylis at four sites in
New South Wales and Victoria, ^denotes data combined from two study seasons, Summer 2003-04
and Summer 2004-05.
site
C. erecta
C. leptochila
C. subulata
C. erecta and
C. subulata
Sydney
26*
5*
1
Nowra 1
1
-
6
1
Nowra 2
_
_
7
_
Melbourne
-
15
8
_
Total
27
15
26
2
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
129
Research Report
may differ between the field sites. In two
final regression analyses on the effect of
flower position, we used data from C.
erecta at the Sydney site for each of the
two study seasons to compare pollination
between years.
To test for self-pollination, we selected
four pairs of flowering C. erecta plants in
the Sydney field site. We isolated each
plant in a mesh bag that prevented insect
access to the flowers. One plant of each
pair was hand-pollinated during the sea-
son. The second plant was not hand-polli-
nated, but used as a control. All the
racemes were checked for fruit set during
and after the flowering season.
We also assessed pollinator abundance
and activity in an ad hoc manner by con-
sidering the time necessary to capture
wasps on different days throughout the
2004-05 flowering season at the Sydney
field site. Wasps were captured with a
hand net when they arrived at our ‘bait’
flowers, as described by Peakall and
Handel (1993) and Bower (1996).
Results and Discussion
Data were collected from 70 patches of
orchids, including two patches of mixed C.
erecta and C. subulate , which were
excluded from subsequent analyses about
single species patches. See Table 1 .
Flowering seasons
In all sites, C. subulata had the shortest
flowering period of the three species
(December to February). For C. erecta ,
flowering commenced in November and
had mostly finished by early March,
although one plant with a flower was
found in a sheltered area near a creek in
May 2005. The populations of C. leptochi-
la near Melbourne had a very long flower-
ing season that began in December and fin-
ished as late as April, consistent with
Backhouse and Jeanes (1995). Others have
reported the flowering season for C. lep -
tochila to end in February (Clyne 1970;
Jones 1988), or March (Bishop 2000). In
March, 48 racemes (92%) still had open
flowers, but by May, only three racemes
were still active (5.8%). Successful polli-
nation occurred as late as April (nine flow-
ers on seven different racemes).
Plant density and flowering
The average number of plants in each
patch was highest in C. erecta , and lowest
in C. subulata , but one patch of C subula-
ta had 900 plants (Table 2). The number of
racemes per patch was similar for all three
species, but C. leptochila had a higher
average number of flowers per raceme
(Table 2). One plant of C. leptochila had
35 flowers, which is three times the maxi-
mum number of flowers reported by Jones
(1988), and twice that reported by Bishop
(2000).
After opening, the flowers of C. erecta
and C. subulata had pollinia collected or
deposited after an average of 3.1 days.
Some flowers were visited on the day they
opened, and the maximum time until polli-
nation was 8 days, but this was for a
flower with a damaged label lum. On aver-
age, each flower was open for 6 days (min.
= I, max. = 9). Generally, each flower
opened as the previous flower on the
raceme was closing. Sometimes a flower
opened up to six days before the previous
flower closed. However, in one case, nine
Table 2. Flowering, pollination, and fruit set
in three species of Tongue Orchids Cryptostylis. Values
with parentheses are: mean (min., max.).
C. erecta
C. leptochila
C. subulata
2003-04 2004-05
2004-05
2003-05 2004-05
plants surveyed
696
806
754
271
1687
% plants in flower
14.4
4
9.3
5.9
3.4
racemes per patch
8.3
4
4.7
5.3
2.5
0.27)
(1, 16)
(MO)
(1,8)
(1,10)
flowers per raceme
5.5
5
9.6
7
4.7
(3, 12)
(3, 11)
(2, 35)
(3, 12)
(1, 11)
pollinated flowers
2.7
1.13
0.28
2.86
0.77
per raceme
(0, 9)
(0, 7)
(0,3)
(0,9)
(0,5)
% plants that set fruit
72.6
71.9
27.6
75
50
% plants without fruit
19.4
27.1
54
25
38
% racemes predated
8
1
18.4
0
12
130
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Report
days passed between the closing of one
flower and the opening of the next on the
same raceme.
Pollination and fruit set
Despite the large number of flowers per
raceme produced by C. leptochila , this
species had the lowest average number of
pollinated flowers per raceme and the low-
est percentage of plants with some fruit set
(Table 2). Approximately 70% of C. erectu
and C subulata plants had at least one pol-
linated flower in 2003-04, but only 50% of
G subulata were pollinated in the 2004-05
season. Schiestl et al. (2004) reported pol-
lination rates of 85% for C. erecta and C
subulata in the Blue Mountains near
Sydney in 2000. These data demonstrate
that Cryptosty/is species have a higher rate
of pollination than that typically expected
for orchids with deceptive pollination syn-
dromes in the temperate southern hemi-
sphere (~40%: Neiland and Wilcock 1998)
and globally (-20%: Tremblay et al.
2005).
For three of the four field sites, the posi-
tion of a flower along a raceme significant-
ly affected the likelihood of pollination
(Sydney: R:=0.53, F, 15=15.52, p<0.05;
Nowra 1: R:=0.45, F, ,,=8.03, p<0.05;
Nowra 2: R:=0.16, F, 7=1.37, p>0.05;
Melbourne: R:=0.53, F, 33=33.96, p<0.05).
Pollination was most likely for flowers that
opened earlier in the season (Fig. 1).
Coleman (1928) suggested this was
because the male Lissopimpla excelsa
emerged earlier than females, and were
most active as pollinators until the females
were available. A second explanation may
involve the learning abilities of the male
wasps. In several sexually deceptive polli-
nation systems, pollinators initially are
a) Sydney b) Melbourne
Flower position on raceme
Fig. 1. Frequency of pollination of each sequentially-opening flower positioned along racemes of
Tongue Orchids Cryptosty/is erecta , C. leptochila , and C. subulata , in four sites in open forest in
New South Wales and Victoria. Maximum value on x-axis is maximum number of flowers per
raceme at site. Statistically significant effect of flower position at <0.005 level denoted by **, at <
0.05 level denoted by *
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
131
Research Report
attracted strongly to a flower, but this
decreases rapidly over a short period, pre-
sumably as the duped male pollinators
learn that the flower is not a real female
insect (e.g. Peakall et ai 1990; Peakall and
Handel 1993; Wong and Schiestl 2002).
Male wasps may remember and avoid the
location of a false signal for some time,
thus subsequent flowers on a raceme may
not be visited. Furthermore, male ability to
recognise flowers as false signallers may
be frequency dependent and increase with
repeated exposure (Ferdy et at. 1998).
The impact of male insect learning on
orchids’ pollination success also may
depend upon pollinator abundance. In
2003-04, the effect of flower position on
fruit set in Sydney C. erecta was highly
significant (R2=0.745, F, ,,=29.15,
p<0.001), and the first flower to open on
any raceme had a very high frequency of
pollination (Fig. 2). However, during the
second study season at this site, there were
fewer pollinator visits, flowers 1-8 on
racemes of C. erecta had similar pollina-
tion frequencies (Fig. 2), and flower posi-
tion had no significant effect on pollination
Flower position on raceme
Fig. 2. Frequency of pollination of each
sequentially opening flower positioned along
racemes of the Bonnet Orchid Cryptostylis erec-
ta in an open forest site near Sydney during two
flowering seasons: a) 2003-04 and b) 2004-05
(R2=0.195, FU2=2.671, p>0.05). As more
flowers open during the season, males’ fre-
quent exposure and subsequent learning
may lead to avoidance of most flowers.
Pollinators appeared most active between
approximately 9.30 am and 2 pm on warm,
sunny days. There were obvious peaks in
abundance on certain days in different
regions. For example, on one day during
February 2005, nine wasps were caught in
less than two hours at the Sydney field site
(-4.5 wasps/hour). Previous capture efforts
in the same area during January and
February resulted in only four wasps in
18.5 hours searching over eight days (-0.2
wasps/hour).
Only two of the four pairs of bagged and
isolated inflorescences survived the sea-
son. However, only those flowers cross
pollinated by hand set fruit. None of the
Bowers in the control bags set fruit. This
low sample size still corroborates evidence
provided by Dacy (1974), Jones (1988),
and Lloyd (2003).
Predation
The predation of racemes was quite low
for all species except C. leptochila (Table
2). The higher level of predation at the
Melbourne field site may have contributed
to the lower pollination success for this
species. Data from 2003-04 showed that
87.5% (n = 8) of the C. erecta racemes that
were eaten by predators had recently set
fruit. The fleshy fruit of Cryptostylis seem
to be attractive food for browsing animals.
Despite their shared pollinator, and simi-
lar habitat and flowering season, the
Cryptostylis species varied considerably in
their patch sizes, flower numbers, fruit set,
and predation rates. CryplstyUs leptochila
appears to invest heavily in flowering, pro-
ducing many flowers during an extended
season. These features have been associat-
ed with strategies to maximise pollination
success in other deceptive orchids (Neiland
and Wilcock 1995; Kindlemann and
Balounova 2001; Tremblay et ai. 2005).
However, C. leptochila had the lowest fruit
set of the species studied. This may mean
that extra investment in flowering has little
effect on fruit set, particularly if there are
other negative impacts, e.g. predation of
fruits.
132
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Report
The generally high fruit set we observed
suggests that, unlike many other orchid
species, pollinator limitation is not a major
conservation issue for Cryptostylis species.
Management strategies could prioritise
protecting plants from predation during the
flowering season and conserving suitable
open forest habitat (see Clark et al. 2004).
In addition, care should be taken if infor-
mation about Cryptostylis species is used
to develop conservation plans for other
orchid genera, which are likely to have
considerably lower pollination rates (see
Tremblay et al. 2005).
Acknowledgements
Field work assistance was primarily provided by
Noel Gaskett, Greg Holvvell, and Katy Dika,
plus Katie Robinson, Peter Abrahams. Jessica
MacDowell, and Matt Kovach. Field sites were
suggested by Alan Stephenson, Dick and
Marion Thomson, and Andrew Dilley
(Australasian Native Orchid Society), Craig
Angus (Macquarie University), and Michelle
Mueller (Parks Victoria). Permission to conduct
fieldwork on private land near Nowra was grant-
ed by the Jervis Bay Baptist Church and Realty
Realizations Pty Ltd. This work was conducted
under permit numbers SI 1401 (NSW) and
10003057 (Vic). Funding for ACG is via a
Furniss Foundation/American Orchid Society
Fellowship, a Macquarie University
Postgraduate Research Grant, and from Munich
Reinsurance (2004).
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Received 7 July 2005; accepted 2 February 2006
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
133
Contributions
Ecological attributes of strategic land acquisitions for addition
to Victoria’s public protected area estate: 2004-2005
James A Fitzsimons'-', Cameron Williams1, Paul FitzSimons'
Parks and Protected Areas Section, Department of Sustainability and Environment
Level 3, 8 Nicholson Street, East Melbourne 3002
: School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University
221 Burwood Highway, Burwood Victoria 3 125
3 Current address: Victorian Environmental Assessment Council, Level 1, 8 Nicholson Street
East Melbourne 3002, Email james.lltzsimons(«!dse. vie. gov.au
Abstract
The development of a comprehensive, adequate and representative reserve system is the key objec-
tive of the National Reserve System, and is supported by all Australian States and Territories. In
Victoria, the purchase of private land for incorporation into the parks and reserves system assists in
the protection of some of the State’s most endangered ecosystems. This article outlines the ecologi-
cal attributes of private land purchased for addition to the Victorian public protected area system
between 2004 and 2005. ( The Victorian Naturalist 123 (3) 2006, 134-145)
Introduction
This article documents some of the more
significant land purchases made by the
Department of Sustain ability and
Environment for addition to the public
conservation estate from early 2004 until
late 2005, and provides a brief description
of their ecological attributes. It serves as
an extension to previous descriptions of
the operation of the Department's
Conservation Land Purchase Program in
Victoria (see Fitzsimons and Ashe 2003,
Fitzsimons et ai. 2004). The program aims
to systematically improve the comprehen-
siveness, adequacy, and representativeness
of the reserve system, with particular
emphasis on high-quality examples of
threatened and under-reserved ecosystems
such as native grasslands and grassy wood-
lands. All acquisitions are on a completely
voluntary basis.
Purchase priorities are derived from
inventories of the most significant sites
containing threatened ecosystems through-
out the State and assessed in relation to the
comprehensiveness, adequacy and repre-
sentativeness of the existing reserve sys-
tem. The Department also purchases pri-
vate land to link park and reserve areas and
remove inliers in order to consolidate pro-
tected habitat and alleviate potential man-
agement problems. All purchases described
in this paper are managed for the conserva-
tion of biodiversity by Parks Victoria
except for Melton Gilgai Woodlands
Nature Conservation Reserve, which will
be managed by the Shire of Melton.
The conservation status of all species list-
ed in this paper is outlined in Appendix I,
while Appendix 2 lists communities listed
under the Floret and Fauna Guarantee Act
1988 represented in the new reserves. Fig.
1 indicates the location of recent purchases
within Victoria.
1. Mumbannar Wetlands and
Woodlands
This 155 ha block in Mumbannar, south-
west Victoria, protects high-quality
Freshwater Meadows and Damp Sands
Herb-rich Woodland/Damp Heathland/
Damp Heathy Woodland Mosaic Ecological
Vegetation Classes (EVCs). Both ecosys-
tems are endangered in the Naracoorte
Coastal Plain (a national biodiversity
hotspot) and very poorly reserved.
The wetlands and woodlands represented
on the property, which have been substan-
tially cleared and modified throughout
south-western Victoria, are priority ecosys-
tems for addition to the protected area sys-
tem. The vegetation is characterised by a
Brown Stringybark Eucalyptus baxteri
woodland occurring on the higher areas of
the property, with an intact understorey
including Xanthorrhoea and Exocarpus
species. This grades into a Prickly Tea-tree
Leptospcrmum continentalc and Scrub
Sheoak Allocasuarina paludosa shrubland
134
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Fig. 1. Location of recent land purchases (numbered) for addition to the reserve system (existing
reserve system shaded).
and heathland, ultimately fringing a
Ghania and sedge-margined wetland.
Significant flora recorded on-site includes
the Small Spotted Sun-orchid Thelymitra
aff. ixioides (Western Victoria).
The property provides known habitat for
nationally endangered species such as the
Red-tailed Black-Cockatoo Calypto-
rhynchus banks'll grapfogyne and Southern
Brown Bandicoot Isoodon obesulus obesu-
lus, and acts as an important ecological
stepping stone between larger protected
forests. Other significant fauna recorded
on the property include Brolga Grus rubi-
cunda, Swamp Skink Egernia coventryi
and Swamp Antechinus Antechinus min-
imus maritimus.
The new reserve is known as the
Mumbannar Nature Conservation Reserve.
2. Bessiebellc Stony Rises Woodland,
Mount Eccles
This 162 ha addition to the Mount Eccles
National Park contains very high quality
stands of Stony Rises Woodland EVC
which is considered vulnerable and under-
reserved in the Victorian Volcanic Plain.
Stony Rises Woodland occurs on 138 ha of
the property.
The remainder of the property contains
the endangered Swamp Scrub/Plains
Sedgy Wetland/ Aquatic Herbfield Mosaic
EVC. This ecosystem occurs on the
drained seasonal wetland at the edge of the
lava flow. The EVC once covered 8700 ha
of the bioregion, but has now been reduced
to less than 0.4% of this former range and
is almost unreserved.
The Stony Rises Woodland provides
potential habitat for the Spot-tailed Quoll
Dasyunts maculatus which occurs in the
adjoining National Park. The Stony Rises
Woodland sections of the property are in
excellent condition, with hollow-bearing
veteran trees providing habitat for species
such as the Yellow'-bellied Glider Petuarus
australis. The shrub and ground layers are
intact w'ith no woody w-eeds and very few
grassy weeds present. The nationally vul-
nerable Clover Glycine Glycine latrobeana
has also been recorded from the site.
In addition to the ecological values, the
purchase of the Bessiebelle property also
protects the significant Indigenous cultural
heritage values, including stone huts.
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
135
Contributions
3. Yambuk Wetlands
This 79 ha of Shallow Freshwater Marsh
and Swamp Scrub at Yambuk represents
one of the highest quality examples of pro-
tected estuarine wetlands in Victoria.
These nationally significant wetlands and
Swamp Scrub provide important breeding
habitat for numerous bird and fish species,
a number of which are nationally threat-
ened. Such wetlands have been substantial-
ly drained and modified throughout south-
ern Victoria and are priority ecosystems
for addition to the protected area system.
The purchased land adjoins the 453 ha
Deen Maar Indigenous Protected Area,
which contains contiguous wetland vegeta-
tion linked by the Eumeralla River,
enhancing the long-term ecological integri-
ty of the site.
Both Shallow Freshwater Marshes and
Swamp Scrub have been substantially
reduced in the Warmambool Plain and are
poorly-reserved. The Shallow Freshwater
Marshes represented on the Yambuk
Wetlands contrast with the semi-perma-
nent saline wetlands of Deen Maar and
saline wetlands of Lake Yambuk. Swamp
Scrub is considered endangered in the
bioregion and is almost unreserved.
Remnants of the Damp Sands Herb-rich
Woodland EVC occur on the higher
ground.
The property provides drought refuge for
waterbirds, while 24 fish species have been
recorded in Yambuk Lake and wetlands.
The wetlands provide known habitat for a
number of significant species, including
Dwarf Galaxias Galaxiella pusiila, Yarra
Pigmy Perch Nannopcrca obscurer
Orange-bellied Parrot Neophema chryso-
gaster , Blue-billed Duck Oxyura australis ,
Little Egret Egretta garzetta , Freckled
Duck Stic to net la naevosa , Great Egret
Ardea alba , Lewin’s Rail Rail us
pectoralis , Australasian Shoveller Anas
rhynchotis , Australasian Bittern Botaurus
poiciloptilus , Musk Duck Biziura lobata ,
Hardhead Aythya australis , Magpie Goose
Anseranas semipalmata , Royal Spoonbill
Platalea regia. Whiskered Tern Chlic/onias
hybridus , Nankeen Night Heron
Nycdcorax caledonicus and Pacific Golden
Plover Pluvial is fulva. The wetlands are a
breeding site for a number of these species.
The Yambuk Wetlands are listed under the
Directory of Important Wetlands in
Australia (Environment Australia 2001),
and the owners of Deen Maar are currently
Fig. 2. Dreeite Stony Knoll Shrublands and wetlands. Photograph by J Fitzsimons
136
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
investigating the possibility of listing them
under the Ramsar convention (DEH 2004).
The new reserve is known as the
Yambuk Wetlands Nature Conservation
Reserve.
4. Laharum Lateritic Woodlands
This 173 ha woodland property on the
northern boundary of the Grampians
National Park protects significant vegeta-
tion types, habitat for threatened species
and important landscape linkages. Some
60% of the property is covered by Lateritic
Woodland EVC, a vegetation type almost
unrepresented in the protected area estate
in the Wimmera bioregion. Lateritic
Woodland is a low grassy woodland domi-
nated by Grey Box Eucalyptus
microcar pa. Yellow Box E. melliodora
and Yellow Gum E. leu coxy Ion with a
herb-rich and grassy understorey. The
community is considered vulnerable and
this is the second largest remnant of this
vegetation type remaining in the bioregion.
The property also contains areas of
Shallow Sands Woodland, Seasonally
Inundated Shrubland and Heathy
Woodland EVCs.
The Laharum Woodlands provide known
habitat for threatened species such as the
Bush Stone-curlew Burhinus grallarius ,
Squirrel Glider Petaurus norfolcensis and
Tree Goanna Varamis varius. A number of
threatened flora species are known to
occur in Grampians National Park adjoin-
ing these woodlands and it is likely that
many of these will also be present on the
purchased land.
This property occurs between two areas
of recognised flora and fauna significance
in the Grampians National Park (Parks
Victoria 2003), adjoins a Trust for Nature
covenanted property to the north and vege-
tated private land to the west. Its addition
to the Grampians National Park will ensure
the long-term integrity of the ecosystems.
5. Ledcourt Woodlands
This 19 ha addition to the Grampians
National Park complements land previous-
ly purchased to the north (see Fitzsimons
et al . 2004). It contains areas of endan-
gered Plains Grassy Woodland dominated
by River Red Gum Eucalyptus camaldu-
lensis and Yellow Gums along Mount
William Creek, as well as Heathy
Woodland, Shrubby Woodland and Sand
Heathland. The block contains excellent
assemblages of heathland providing poten-
tial habitat for Long-nosed Potoroo
Potorous tridactylus. Heath Mouse
Pseudomys shor fridge i, and Southern
Brown Bandicoot.
Fig. 3. Melbourne Yellow Gum and Grey Box Woodland, Melton. Gilgai Woodlands Nature
Conservation Reserve. Photograph by J Fitzsimons
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
137
Contributions
6. Winlaton Chenopod Shrubland
This 80 ha of chenopod shrubland at
Winlaton near the Kerang Lakes protects
not only significant vegetation communi-
ties but also a range of threatened species.
The newly-protected woodland/shrubland,
together with an adjoining 130 ha
covenanted property to the south, repre-
sents one of the largest and the highest
quality examples of this vegetation known
from the Riverina. Such woodlands have
been substantially cleared and modified
throughout northern Victoria and are prior-
ity ecosystems for addition to the protected
area system. The presence of a number of
rare, threatened and unreserved species
highlights the significance of the property.
The area around Winlaton is a zone of gra-
dation between the true semi-arid Mallee
and the Riverine Plains (Frood 2000).
Whilst derived from the Riverine
Chenopod Woodland EVC, the vegetation
today would best be described as a Low
Chenopod Shrubland dominated by a range
of Atriplex species (mainly Small Saltbush
A. eardleyae and Slender- fruit Saltbush A.
leptocarpa) with a range of spring and
summer tussock grasses and scattered
annual and perennial herbs. Small areas of
Lignum Swampy Woodland EVC occur
along the depressions.
Combined with the covenanted habitat to
the south, the site is considered of national
significance for its botanical values (Ogle
and Foreman 1999; Frood 2000) and high-
ly significant at the state level for reptiles
and mammals (Robertson 2000).
The purchased land contains the first
record of the saltbush Atriplex turbinata
for Victoria, which is a significant souther-
ly range extension from the nearest known
locality at Broken Hill (N Walsh pers.
comm. 2004; P Foreman pers. comm.
2004). Other significant flora species
recorded on the purchased land include
Winged Newr Holland Daisy Vittadinia
pterochaeta , Leafless Bluebush Maireana
aphylla , Yakka Grass Sporobolus cctroli ,
Mealy Saltbush A triplex pseudocampanu-
lata , Bladder Saltbush Atriplex vesicaria
macrocystidio and Spiny Lignum
Muehlenbeckia horrida horrida.
Additional significant species recorded
from the covenanted property to the south,
which may also occur on the purchased
property, include a large population of the
endangered Samphire Skink Morethia ade-
laidensis , Grey-crowned Babbler
Pomatostomus temporalis, Eastern
Bearded Dragon Pogona barbatus , Fat-
tailed Dunnart Sminthopsis crass icaudata.
Chariot Wheels Maireana cheelii ,
Umbrella Wattle Acacia Oswald ii, Dwarl
Amaranth Amaranthus macrocarpus var.
macrocarpus , Desert Sneezeweed
Centipeda thespidioides s.l. and Mallee
Cucumber Mukia micran/ha. The initial
discovery of the endangered Common
White Sunray R hodanthe ftori b unda on the
covenanted property was the first record of
this species in Victoria (Ogle and Foreman
1999). The covenanted property is consid-
ered likely to provide suitable habitat for
Hooded Scaly-foot Pygopus schraderi ,
Plains- wanderer Pedionomus torquatus
and Tessellated Gecko Diplodactylus tes-
sellatus.
The new reserve is known as the
Winlaton Nature Conservation Reserve.
7. Toniara Grasslands and Gilgais,
Patho Plains
This large 332 ha Northern Plains
Grassland at Terrick Terrick East forms
part of a network of new native grassland
reserves on the Patho Plains (see
Fitzsimons and Ashe 2003; Fitzsimons et
al 2004).
The property consists of mostly Northern
Plains Grassland, a Flora and Fauna
Guarantee rtc/-listed community, with two
identified finer scale sub-communities. An
Annual Grassland occurring on the hard red
loams is dominated by Common Wallaby-
grass Austrodanthonia cciespitosa with
varying amounts of Rough Spear-grass
Austrostipa scabra. Plump Spear-grass
Austrostipa aristiglumis and Rigid Panic
Whalleya proluta dominate small areas
containing gilgais in this sub-community.
A Wet Grassland sub-community is found
on the grey soils in the drainage lines and
depressions and is dominated by Windmill
Grass Chloris truncata and Enteropogon
spp. Both sub-communities are significant
in that they are largely intact and contain
only small areas where introduced species
are present (Webster 2000).
Almost 60 species of indigenous plants
have been recorded on the site, including
138
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
the vulnerable Long Eryngium Eryngium
paludosum , Pin Sida Sida fibulifera,
Umbrella Wattle and the rare Spiny
Lignum and Yakka Grass.
Previous studies on the property have indi-
cated that the grasslands are of conserv ation
significance for the Plains-wanderer (Maher
and Baker-Gabb 1993) which is nationally
vulnerable and endangered in Victoria.
Brolgas have been recorded using the wet-
land area. While little further detail is known
of the fauna values of the site, the size, con-
dition and proximity to nearby reserves sug-
gests there is considerable potential to sup-
port other important grassland fauna values
(e.g. see Michael et at. 2003).
The purchase complements efforts to
protect native grasslands across public and
private land on the Patho Plains via the
Northern Plains Conservation Management
Network (see Bain 2005).
The new reserve is known as the Tomara
Gilgais Nature Conservation Reserve.
8. Dreeite Stony Knoll Shrublands and
wetlands
This 48 ha acquisition protects Stony
Knoll Shrublands and permanent and
ephemeral wetland communities at
Dreeite, to the east of Lake Corangamite
(Fig. 2). Stony Knoll Shrublands have
been severely depleted throughout the
Victorian Volcanic Plain bioregion and
were previously unrepresented in protected
areas. The shrublands are dominated by
Tree Violet Melicytus dentatus, with scat-
tered Blackwood Acacia melanoxylon and
Black Wattle A. mearnsii. The new reserve
forms part of a much larger area of Stony
Rises in the Dreeite region.
The site provides critical habitat for the
nationally endangered Corangamite Water
Skink Eulamprus tympanum marnieae ,
which is endemic to the Victorian
Volcanic Plain and which occurs mostly
outside existing protected areas (Robertson
1998, Peterson 1999). The property sup-
ports large and stable populations of this
and another significant species, the nation-
ally vulnerable Growling Grass Frog
Litoria ran if or mis, possibly due to the
spring fed permanent wetland (G. Peterson
pers. comm. 2003). These populations
could act as an important source for
recolonisation of adjacent sites following
recent population declines and extinctions.
The wetlands on the property are also
utilised by a number of bird species that are
threatened in Victoria (e.g. Brolga, Lewin’s
Rail, Freckled Duck, Australasian Shoveler
Anas rhynchotis , Latham's Snipe Gallinago
hardwickii and Whiskered Tern).
The property contains a number of signif-
icant Indigenous cultural heritage values.
The new reserve is known as the Dreeite
Nature Conservation Reserve.
9. Melton Gilgai Woodlands
Almost 34 ha of endangered Plains
Woodland at Harkness Road, Melton, was
purchased in 2005 for nature conservation
(Fig. 3). Although the site is located in the
Victorian Volcanic Plains bioregion, it lies
close to the southern slopes of uplands to
its north. As a result the basalt of the plains
is overlain with Quaternary colluvial out-
wash of the eroding uplands forming a
swale/gilgai landform with gravels and
soils derived from a mixture of basaltic,
calcareous and siliceous sources (Webster
2001 ; Walters and Frood 2004).
The property is a site of botanical signifi-
cance in western Melbourne (McDougall
1987). Grey Box Melbourne Yellow Gum
Eucalyptus leucoxylon subsp. connata
grassy woodlands (part of the Plains
Woodland EVC) are considered endan-
gered and are almost unrepresented in the
reserve system in the bioregion. The new
reserve represents a distinct fioristic com-
munity of Plains Woodland EVC (Walters
and Frood 2004). The diverse groundlayer
is open, grassy and herbaceous, with low
saltbush and a component of succulents. A
soil crust of lichens and bryophytes is con-
spicuous over much of the site.
Over 80 indigenous plant species have
been recorded from the property. A num-
ber of significant flora species occur on the
site, including the rare Cane Spear-grass
Austrostipa breviglumis. Heath Spear-
grass Austrostipa ex it is. Fragrant Saltbush
Rhagodia parabolica and the vulnerable
Melbourne Yellow Gum. A significant
understorey population of the regionally
depleted Turkey Bush Eremophila deserti
also occurs in the understorey.
The purchased land represents one of the
last remnants of once more extensive
woodlands that covered the Melton/
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
139
Contributions
Fig. 4. Grey Box and Buloke grassy woodland, Goomalibee. Photograph by J Fitzsimons
140
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Toolern Vale area (Robinson 1993). The
property contains a predominance of key
foraging trees for the nationally endan-
gered Swift Parrot Lathamus discolor , a
species recently recorded from similar
roadside habitat in the area. A number of
declining woodland birds can still be found
on the site, including Diamond Firetail
Stagonopleura guttata and Brown
Treecreeper Climacteris picumnus. It is
also anticipated that a range of amphibian
species would occur in the swale/gilgai
depressions that become inundated after
prolonged and/or heavy rain episodes.
The new reserve is known as the Melton
Gilgai Woodlands Nature Conservation
Reserve.
10. Goomalibee Gilgai Plain Woodlands,
Benalla
This 179 ha remnant of Gilgai Plain
Woodland/Wetland Mosaic falls within the
eastern Victorian Riverina bioregion,
which is considered a high priority for fur-
ther reservation. Such woodlands have
been substantially cleared and modified
throughout their range and blocks of this
size are very rare.
The property comprises an open wood-
land with an overstorey of River Red Gum,
Grey Box and Buloke Allocasuarina
luehmanmi and a groundlayer of wallaby-
grass, tussock-grass, sedges and herbs
(representing a component of the FFG-list-
ed Grey Box-Buloke Grassy Woodland
community) (Fig. 4). The significance of
the property is highlighted by the presence
of numerous gilgais, which are surrounded
by a variety of herbs such as Swamp Billy-
buttons Craspedia paludicola and Slender
Goodenia Goodenia gracilis.
The Goomalibee Woodlands provide
known habitat for two threatened bird
species - the Bush Stone-curlew and Grey-
crowned Babbler. This part of north-east
Victoria is recognised as the stronghold for
these species in the State. The nationally
endangered Swift Parrot is known to use
the adjoining roadsides. The significant
roadside vegetation links the property to
other patches of vegetation, providing cor-
ridors for the movement of other threatened
species such as the Tree Goanna.
The new reserve is known as the
Goomalibee Nature Conservation Reserve.
11. Dave’s Hill, Chesney Vale Hills
The 99 ha addition of Dave’s Hill to the
Mount Meg Nature Conservation Reserve
(NCR) enhances the protection of endan-
gered vegetation communities and species
habitat in the Chesney Vale Hills. The
property is characterised by Granitic Hills
Woodland EVC and nationally endangered
Grassy White Box Eucalyptus albens
Woodlands on the lower slopes. Grassy
White Box Woodlands have been substan-
tially cleared and modified throughout
northern Victoria and the wheat-sheep belt
of NSW (Prober and Thiele 1993) and are
priority ecosystems for addition to the pro-
tected area system.
The Granitic Hills Woodland is dominat-
ed by Blakely’s Red Gum Eucalyptus
blakelyi , with a mix of Drooping Sheoak
Allocasuarina verticil lata and Lightwood
Acacia implexa amongst complex granitic
outcrops. Small areas of endangered
Springsoak Herblands also occur on
adjoining public land which will be added
to the reserve.
The Chesney Vale Hills are considered
one of the most important habitats in
Victoria for the endangered Inland Carpet
Python Morelia spilota metcalfei (Allen et
ah 2003; Heard and Black 2003; Heard et
al. 2004). The pythons move between
Dave's Hill and Mount Meg (see Fig. 5).
Dave’s Hill provides important habitat for
a range of other reptile species (Heard and
Black 2003), including Tree Goanna and
Eastern Bearded Dragon.
The Chesney Vale Hills are considered
an important site for the nationally vulner-
able Narrow Goodenia Goodenia macbar-
ronii (Berwick 1996), and is one of only
seven Northern Sandalwood Santalum
lanceolatum populations known in the
State (Johnson 1996).
The Dave’s Hill purchase is linked to
other components of the Mount Meg NCR
through the acquisition of adjoining land
by the Trust for Nature for covenanting
and onsale through its "Revolving Fund’
(see Fitzsimons and Davies 2005). This
land contains a number of additional sig-
nificant species including the Turquoise
Parrot Neophema pulchella , Bush Stone-
curlew and Flat-leaf Bush-pea Pultenaea
platyphylla.
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
141
Contributions
12. River Point East, French Island
This small (1 ha) addition to French
Island National Park forms part of a larger
block of vegetation which was ‘Rated A'
for botanical significance in the Western
Port district (i.e. Site of Significance No.
25 ‘River Point East* in Opie et at. 1984).
The Coast Road block contains endangered
Swamp Scrub as well as Heathy Wood-
land, and protects significant orchid popu-
lations such as the White Caladenia
Caladenia catenata and the nationally vul-
nerable French Island Spider-orchid
Caladenia insit laris.
13. Kangaroo Swamp, Mullungdung
Forest
This 1 05 ha purchase in the heart of
Mullungdung Forest includes Kangaroo
Swamp and surrounding Lowland Forest.
Kangaroo Swamp represents the largest
freshwater sedge wetland in central
Gippsland, and has been identified as a site
of zoological (Mansergh and Norris 1982),
botanical (Gillian et al. 1984) and geomor-
phological (Rosengren et al. 1981) signifi-
cance in that region.
The swamp’s position within the
Mullungdung forest (the largest remnant
on the GippsTand Plain at -25,000 ha) will
ensure its long-term ecological integrity,
and it is adjoined by Special Protection
Zones within the Mullungdung State
Forest (see DSE 2004).
The size and position of the swamp with-
in Mullungdung makes it an important
focus of the forest. Kangaroo Swamp is
likely to be an important refuge for frogs
and waterbirds during drought (Gilmore
1977). As there are few other perennial
watercourses or waterbodies in the forest,
the Swamp is a significant drinking loca-
tion for forest fauna and an important nest-
ing site for w aterbirds and raptors. The
large, hollow-bearing trees at the site pro-
vide important nesting opportunities for
species reliant on such conditions. A num-
ber of significant species has been record-
ed on the property, including Barking Owl
Ninox conrtivens , Powerful Owl N.
strenua , Great Egret, Hardhead, Latham's
Snipe, Spotted Quail -thrush Cinclosoma
punctatum. Tree Goanna and Martin’s
Toadlet Uperoleia martini.
The new reserve is known as the
Kangaroo Swamp Nature Conservation
Reserve.
Other purchases
Other purchases include a small area of
Gilgai Plain Woodland at Drumanure for
addition to the Broken-Boosey State Park
and land at Kalinina Park for addition to
the Castlemaine Diggings National
Heritage Park.
Future directions for land purchase and
the protected area system
Such strategic acquisitions, combined
with other instruments to protect ecosys-
tems on private land, ultimately aim to
improve the comprehensiveness, adequacy
and representativeness of Victoria’s pro-
tected area system. Negotiations for the
purchase of other poorly represented
ecosystems are currently in progress.
Particular emphasis is on native grasslands
and grassy woodlands. The Department’s
efforts are complemented by those of the
Trust for Nature ( Victoria) which has and
continues to purchase properties contain-
ing grassy and other threatened ecosystems
throughout the State as part of the National
Reserve System program. Increasingly,
creative solutions are being sought
between DSE and the Trust to secure
important conservation lands (see
Fitzsimons and Davies 2005).
Further details, including Management
Statements for a number of these pur-
chased properties, can be accessed via the
Conservation Land Purchase Program
website: www.dse.vic.gov.au >parks and
reserves>aboul parks and reserves>conser-
vation land purchase program.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to the following people who originally
provided descriptions of the sites in this paper
and/or assisted in their purchase, in particular:
Paul Barber, Geoff Barrow, Alan Brennan,
Debbie Colbourne. Mick Douglas, Philip
DuGuesclin, Paul Foreman, Andy Govanstone,
Deanna Marshall, Andrew McDougall, Garry
Peterson, Rob Price, Hugh Robertson, Doug
Robinson, William Smith, Mike Stevens. Geoll
U'Ren, Neville Walsh, Alan Webster, Rick
Webster and Anne Westwood. Thanks to all
other individuals and organizations that have
contributed to the land purchase process in gen-
eral. The sympathetic management practices
employed by previous owners of these proper-
142
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
ties have ensured the maintenance of these rem-
nants. Many of the past owners still have a
strong connection to the new protected areas.
The Commonwealth Government, through the
National Reserve System Program of the
Natural Heritage Trust, provided funding for the
purchase of a number of these properties.
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Received l December 2005; accepted 16 February 2006
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
143
Contributions
Appendix 1. Some species occurring (or likely to occur) on recently purchased land (and their con-
servation status). Abbreviations: (Victorian Status) ce, critically endangered; e, endangered; v, vul-
nerable; r, rare; n, near threatened; k, poorly known/data deficient; (FFG) L. listed under the Flora
and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 ; (Commonwealth Status); E, endangered; V, vulnerable. Derived
from DSE (2003, 2005), Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 and Environment Protection and
Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. Note: This table docs not represent all species occurring in the
above-mentioned reserves.
Scientific Name
Common Name
Vic
FFG
Cwlth
Status
Status
Mammals
Antechinus minimus maritimus
Swamp Antechinus
n
L
Dasyurus maculatus
Spot-tailed Quoll
e
L
V
Isoodon obesulus obesulus
Southern Brown Bandicoot
n
E
Petuarus austral is
Yellow-bellied Glider
Petaurus norfolcensis
Squirrel Glider
e
L
Potorous tridactylus tridactylus
Long-nosed Potoroo
e
L
V
Pseudomvs shortridgei
Heath Mouse
n
L
V
Sminthopsis crassicaudata
Fat-tailed Dunnart
n
Birds
Anas rhynchotis
Australasian Shoveller
V
A nseranas semipalmata
Magpie Goose
V
Ardea at ha
Great Egret
V
L
Ay thy a australis
Hardhead
V
Biziura lohata
Musk Duck
V
Botaurus po i ci lop til us
Australasian Bittern
e
L
Burhinus grallarius
Bush Stone-curlew
e
L
Calyptorhynchus banksii
Red-tailed Black-Cockatoo
e
L
E
grapfogyne
C lilidonias hybridus
Whiskered Tem
n
Cinciosoma punctatum
Spotted Quail-thrush
n
Cfimacteris picumnus victoriae
Brown Treecreepcr
n
Egretta garzetta
Little Egret
e
L
Gallinago Hardwick i i
Latham’s Snipe
n
Grus rubicunda
Brolga
V
L
Lathamus discolor
Swift Parrot
e
L
E
Neophema chrysogaster
Orange-bellied Parrot
ce
L
E
Neophema pulchella
T urquoise Parrot
n
L
Ninox comiivens
Barking Owl
e
L
Ninox strenua
Powerful Owl
V
L
Nyct'i co rax ca ledon icus
Nankeen Night Heron
n
Oxvura australis
Blue-billed Duck
e
L
Pedionomus torquatus
Plains-wandcrer
ce
L
V
Plata/ea regia
Royal Spoonbill
V
Pluvialis fidva
Pacific Golden Plover
n
Pomatoslomus temporal is
Grey-crowned Babbler
e
L
Rail us pec/oralis
Lew in's Rail
V
L
Stagonnpleura guttata
Diamond Firetail
V
L
Stictonetta naevosa
Freckled Duck
e
L
Reptiles
Diplodactyhts tessellatus
Tessellated Gecko
n
Egernia Coventry i
Swamp Skink
V
L
Eutamprus tympanum marnieae
Corangamite Water Skink
ce
L
E
Morelia spilota metcalfei
Inland Carpet Python
e
L
Mo reth ia adelaidensis
Samphire Skink
e
L
Pogotut barhatus
Eastern Bearded Dragon
k
Pygopus schraderi
Hooded Scaly- foot
ce
L
Varanus varius
Tree Goanna
V
Amphibians
I A tori a raniformis
Growling Grass Frog
e
L
V
Uperoleia martini
Martin's Toadlet
k
Fishes
Galaxiella pusilla
Dwarf Galaxias
V
L
V
Nannoperca obscura
Yarra Pigmy Perch
n
L
V
Plants
Acacia imp lex a
Lightwood
Acacia mearnsii
Black Wattle
144
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Appendix 1 cont'd.
Scientific Name
Common Name
Vic
FFG
Cwlth
Status
Status
Acacia melanoxylon
Blackwood
Acacia oswaldii
Umbrella Wattle
V
Allocasuarina luehmannii
Buloke
L
Allocasuarina paludosa
Scrub Sheoak
Allocasuarina verticil lata
Drooping Sheoak
A maranthus macrocarpus
Dwarf Amaranth
V
var. macrocatpus
A triplex eardlevae
Small Saltbush
A triplex leptocarpa
Slender-fruit Saltbush
A triplex pseudocampanulata
Mealy Saltbush
r
A triplex turhinata
A triplex vesicaria macrocyst idia Bladder Saltbush
k
A ustrodanthonia caespitosa
Common Wallaby-grass
A ustrostipa aristiglumis
Plump Spear-grass
A itst ms tipa hre vigl um is
Cane Spear-grass
r
A ustrostipa exilis
Heath Spear-grass
r
Austrostipa scar bra
Rough Spear-grass
Caladenia calenata
White Fingers
( 'a laden ia insular is
French Island Spider-orchid
V
L
V
Centipeda thespidioides s.l.
Desert Sneezeweed
r
Chloris truncata
Windmill Grass
Craspedia paludicola
Swamp Billy-buttons
F remop hi la desert i
Turkey Bush
Eryngium paludosum
Long Eryngium
V
Eucalyptus a l bens
White Box
Eucalyptus baxteri
Brown Stringybark
Eucalyptus blakelyi
Blakely’s Red Gum
Eucalyptus eamaldulensis
River Red Gum
Eucalyptus leucoxvlon
Yellow Gum
Eucalyptus leucoxvlon connata
Melbourne Yellow Gum
V
Eucal yptus meUiodora
Yellow Box
Eucalyptus microcarpa
Grey Box
Glycine lafrobeana
Clover Glycine
V
L
V
Goodenia gracilis
Slender Goodenia
Gooden ia macbarroni i
Narrow Goodenia
V
L
V
Leptospermum continenta/e
Prickly Tea-tree
Maircana aphylla
Leafless Bluebush
V
Mai rear a c ‘heel ii
Chariot Wheels
V
V
Melicytus dentalus
Tree Violet
Mueh/enbeckia horrida
Spiny Lignum
r
Mukia micrantha
Mai lee Cucumber
r
Pultenaea platyphylla
Flat-leaf Bush-pea
r
Rhagodia parabolica
Fragrant Saltbush
r
Rhodanthe floribunda
Common White Sunray
e
Santalum lanceolatum
Northern Sandalwood
e
L
Sida fibulifera
Pin Sida
V
Sporobolus caroli
Y akka Grass
r
Thelymitra aff. ixioides
Small Spotted Sun-orchid
k
(Western Victoria)
Vittadinia pterochaeta
Winged New Flolland Daisy
V
Whalleya pro tut a
Rigid Panic
Appendix 2. Some listed Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 communities occurring on recently
purchased land.
Northern Plains Grassland Community Victorian Temperate-woodland Bird Community
Grey Box - Buloke Grassy Woodland Community
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
145
Contributions
Terrestrial mammals of Phillip and French Islands,
Western Port, Victoria
Roger Kirkwood' and Michael Johnston-'
1 Phillip Island Nature Park, P.O. Box 97, Cowes, Vic. 3922
: Department of Primary Industries, PO Box 48, Frankston, Vie, 3199
! Current address: Department of Sustainability and Environment, Arthur Rylah Institute
for Environmental Research. 123 Brown St, Heidleberg 3084
Abstract
Standard survey techniques were used to assess the mammalian fauna of Phillip and French Islands
in Western Port, Victoria between 1997 and 2005. In total, 16 native and 7 exotic species were
recorded on Phillip Island and 1 3 native and 8 exotic species on French Island. The most diverse fau-
nal group was the microbats (7 species in total). Species present w ere compared w ith those previous-
ly recorded on the two islands and the adjacent mainland. Deliberate and accidental introductions
since European settlement of both Australian native and non-native species have substantially
changed the species present on both islands. The greatest threats to current mammalian fauna on the
islands include foxes (currently not resident on French Island), land-clearance, road traffic, and irre-
sponsible human-induced introductions. (The Victorian Naturalist 123 (3), 2006, 146-156)
Introduction
Phillip and French Islands, located in
Western Port, central coastal Victoria (Fig.
1) were separated from mainland Australia
during sea-level rises approximately
10,000 years ago (Garden 2002). A study
of past and present mammalian species on
these islands can provide an insight into
the local history and influence of humans
on island biodiversity. Information on
native species prior to European settlement
may be inferred from bones in archaeolog-
ical digs at Aboriginal middens (Gaughwin
1981) and mammal sightings mentioned in
accounts of early settlers (Blandowski
1857; Wheelright 1862; Gliddon 1968). As
in most Australian environments,
European settlement greatly altered the
species present. Current terrestrial fauna
on the islands are the result of populations
that survived the geographic isolation or
migrated over water to the islands and by
bridge to Phillip Island, and those that
have survived human influences, including
introductions of exotic and non-endemic,
native species.
In 1980, a survey of vertebrate species
within the Western Port catchment was the
first to fully document the mammals pre-
sent on the islands (Andrew et al. 1984).
This paper utilises previous records and
more recent surveys to document the status
and dynamics of mammalian fauna on the
islands. The history of human-induced
changes on these adjacent islands differs
considerably, and a comparison of their
histories provides information on the
impacts of anthropogenic manipulations,
which arc omnipresent in the Australian
environment.
Methods
Phillip Island and Churchhill Island
together comprise 100 km- of low lying
mainly cleared farmland while French
Island comprises 200 km of heathland,
eucalypt forest and cleared farmland.
Between 1997 and 2004. standard survey
techniques were used to record the pres-
ence and distribution of mammals on these
islands. Techniques included Elliott and
cage trapping and hair-tubing for small
ground mammals (baited with peanut but-
ter and oats or fish), spot-light searches for
arboreal and macropod species, strip-tran-
sccts to record macropod densities in some
reserves, harp-trapping for bats, and day-
time searches for animal signs. Traps
(Elliott, cage and harp) were set at a loca-
tion for one to three nights and were
checked each morning. Surveys were con-
ducted across all seasons. Exotic pest ani-
mals were trapped using cage and leghold
traps or were shot; their stomach contents
were checked for the presence of mammal
remains (see methods in Kirkwood et al.
2000, 2005).
To broaden the scale of this study, trap-
ping results from several contemporaneous
146
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Fig.l. The location of Western Port, Phillip and French Islands, and sites referred to in the text. 1.
Rhyll Inlet; 2. Silverleaves; 3. Rowell Swamp, 4. Conservation Hill; 5. Oswin-Roberts Reserve, 6.
Koala Conservation Centre; 7. Ventnor Koala Reserve; 8. Stinker Bay; 9. Point Grant; 10. Seal
Rocks; 11. Forest Caves; 12. Churchill Island; 13. San Remo Bridge; 14. Deuschers Swamp; 15.
French Island National Park; 16. Spit Point.
research projects were incorporated
(Campbell 2000; Harken 2000; Lanyon
2000; Johnston 2002; Scott 2003; Marks et
at. in press; ). Long-term residents were
interviewed for their recollections of
species present and records held in the
Atlas of Victorian Wildlife Database were
reviewed.
Results
Phillip Island
Between 1997 and 2004, 135 House
Mice Mus muse ulus and 17 Black Rats
Rattus rattus were caught from a total of
2132 Elliott trap nights in nine areas of
Phillip Island (Table 1). The only indica-
tion of the presence of small, native,
ground mammals was an area of 'Swamp
Rat Rattus lulreolus like’ runways through
dense grass adjacent to Conservation Hill
(Fig. 1). In the mid 1980s, a single Swamp
Rat was trapped there, photographed and
released in situ (R Baird 1998 pers.
comm.). Trapping and hair-tubing in this
area on three occasions in this study failed
to record a swamp rat and over the course
of the study, the runway systems deterio-
rated.
During a total of 737 cage trap nights in
coastal areas at the western end of Phillip
Contributions
Tabic 1. Small mammals caught during Elliott trapping on Phillip Island.
Location
Nights
Trap
nights
House
mice
Black
rats
Summerland Peninsula
4-6 Feb 1998
141
2
Ventnor Reserve (a)
6-8 Jan 1998
1 17
Ventnor Reserve (b)
8- 10 Oct 1998
150
Ventnor Reserve (c)
15-17 Oct 1998
150
Ventnor Reserve (d)
22-24 Oct 1998
150
Silverleaves
12-14 Feb 1998
111
22
Oswin-Rob. Reserve (a)
14-16 May 1999
130
1
Oswin-Rob. Reserve (b)
17-19 May 1999
150
5
Oswin-Rob. Reserve (c)
28-30 Jun 2004
60
Rhyll Swamp
26-28 Jan 1998
137
3
1
Rowell Swamp (a
1 1-13 Nov 1997
120
1
Rowell Swamp (b)
27-29 Apr 1998
30
Conservation Hill (a)
14-16 Dec 1997
145
27
3
Conservation Hill (b)
29-31 Jan 1998
121
Conservation Hill (c)
1-3 Apr 1999
90
20
2
Churchill Island (a)
25-27 Jan 1999
90
25
6
Churchill Island (b)
15-17 Mar 1999
90
19
1
Cape Woolamai (a)
in Feb 1999
90
4
Cape Woolamai (b)
18-20 May 2000
60
10
Totals
48
2132
135
17
Island, Harkin (2000) caught four Water
Rats ( Hydromys chrysogaster). Diggings
suspected to have been made by a Long-
nosed Potoroo Potorous tridactylus were
observed at Rowell Swamp but no
potoroos were caught there during 48
cage-trap nights, nor recorded using hair-
tubes. Following the use of a remotely trig-
gered camera, this activity was attributed
to a Bassian Thrush Zoothera lunulata.
Two records of Long-nosed Potoroo were
made during the study period. A dead,
adult male was collected from a beach
along the north coast in May 2003 and a
dying, adult male was found beside a road
at the eastern end of the island in May
2004. Likewise, there were several records
of Tasmanian Bettongs Bettongia gaimardi
which had escaped from a wildlife park on
Phillip Island just prior to this study (P
Dann pers. comm.).
Five microbat species were trapped dur-
ing a single-night exercise in November
1997 using three harp-traps in Rhyll
Swamp; the Little Forest Bat Vespadelus
vulturous , Large Forest Bat V. darlingtoni ,
Chocolate Wattled Bat Chalinolobus
morio , Gould's Wattled Bat C. gouldi and
Lesser Long-eared Bat Nyctophylus geof-
froyi (Table 2). Also, the distinctive audi-
ble call of White-striped Freetail-bats
Tadarida australis was noted frequently,
particularly in coastal areas around the
island. During a study over 102 harp-trap-
nights at the Koala Conservation Centre,
central Phillip Island, in 1999, Campbell et
al. (2005) recorded the Eastern False
Pipistrelle Falsistrellus tasmaniensis , in
addition to the above species (Table 2).
Swamp Wallabies Wallabia bicolor ,
Common Brushtail Possums Trichosurus
vu Ip ecu la , Common Ringtail Possums
Pseudocheirus peregrinus , Koalas
Phascol arctos cine reus , Rabbits
Oryc/olagus cimiculus , Hares Lepus
ca pen sis. Red Foxes Vulpes vulpes , cats
Fells cants and Black Rats were recorded
during spot-light surveys. All these species
were found across the entire island. Day-
time strip-transect sampling in the 100
hectare Osw in-Roberts Reserve yielded
estimates of about 192 Swamp Wallabies
in August 1998, 280 in June 2004, and 200
in September 2005. In the 60 hectare
Ventnor Koala Reserve, estimates were 60
Swamp Wallabies in July 2002, 80 in June
2004, and 40 in September 2005. Of the
three arboreal species recorded on the
island. Common Ringtail Possums were
the most commonly seen. For example, in
a 1 km circuit in Oswin-Roberts Reserve,
Common Ringtail Possums were observed
148
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Table 2.. Forest bats caught during harp-trapping on Phillip Island. Data for the Koala Centre come
from Campbell (2000).
Species
Common name
Rhyll Swamp
Koala Centre
1997
1999
No. %
No. %
Vespadelus vulturnus
Little Forest Bat
95
86
284
26
V. darlingtoni
Large Forest Bat
6
5
330
32
Chalmolobus morio
Chocolate Wattled Bat
5
5
19
2
C. gouldii
Gould's Wattled Bat
1
1
41
4
Nyctophylus geoffroyi
Lesser Long-eared Bat
3
3
373
36
Falsistrellus tasmaniensis
Eastern false Pipistrelle
2
>1
on all 12 spot-light occasions (range 2 to
1 1 possums, mean = 6); Koalas were noted
twice and Common Brushtail Possums
once. Island-wide monitoring of the Koala
has recorded a decline in recent years,
from 847 in 1973 to <20 in 2004 (Fig. 2).
Two sightings, 15 km apart, of adult
Eastern Grey Kangaroos Macropus gigan-
teus were reported during the 2004/5 sum-
mer and in June 2005 one adult was sight-
ed crossing the San Remo Bridge onto
Phillip Island and through the town-ship of
Newhaven.
Rabbits are abundant and Hares were
common across the island. Each year over
the study period 37 to 91 Foxes and 58 to
93 Cats were killed. Lanyon (2000) caught
seven cats in 791 trap nights in shearwater
colonies at the western end of the island.
The only mammalian hair identified in a
predator’s stomach was of a Brown Rat
Rattus norvegicus in one fox.
Finally, Echidnas Tachyglossus aculeatus
were common across Phillip Island and
were occasionally caught in cage-traps.
French Island
During 2001, from 2700 Elliott trap
nights in six one-hectare sites in French
Island National Park, Marks et a/, (in
press) recorded Bush Rats R. fuscipes and
Swamp Rats densities of 15-34 and 2-12
individuals per hectare, respectively. In a
study involving 5133 Elliott and cage trap
Y ear
Fig 2. Numbers of Koalas counted on Phillip Island during censuses conducted in September in
years between 1973 and 2004. The line represents an exponential regression through the data: y =
2E+147e-0.17x (r2 = 0.92).
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
149
Contributions
nights at 59 sites, Scott (2003) caught 742
individual Bush Rats (present in 98% of
sites), 393 Swamp Rats (in 83% of sites)
and 14 House Mice (which were generally
associated with modified habitats). No
Long-nosed Potoroo were trapped but
there was evidence of digging activity at
32% of the sites (Scott 2003). A popula-
tion was known to exist on French Island
(Seebeck 1981) and individuals were occa-
sionally reported during this study (M.
Douglas, pers. comm.). Also, in a trapping
study near the centre of the island during
2005/06. at least nine individuals were
caught (K Handasyde 2006 pers. comm.).
Water Rats have been reported around the
island but their abundance and distribution
were not assessed during this study.
Other native species recorded on French
Island during this study, although not
specifically surveyed, include Koala (com-
mon), Echidna (common) and a suite of
microbat species (Little Forest Bat, Large
Forest Bat, Chocolate Wattled Bat.
Gould’s Wattled Bat, White-striped
Freetai 1-bats and Lesser Long-eared Bat;
Johnston 2002). A single Eastern Grey
Kangaroo was allegedly shot on the island
in the early 1990s but little detail exists to
describe how it came to be on the island
(M Douglas 2004 pers. comm.). Also, a
dead Platypus Ornithorhynchus anatinus
that probably originated from off the island
was found washed up at Spit Point during
2003 and a dead Common Wombat
Vombatus ursinus washed ashore on the
island in June 2005 (M Douglas 2004 pers.
comm.).
Other extant exotic species include Black
Rats, Rabbits, Cats, Sambar Deer Cervus
unicolor. Goats Capra hi reus and Pigs Sus
scrofa ; the latter having been recently
released (A Ledden 2004 pers. comm.).
During 2001, McTier (2002) monitored
feral Cats across cleared grazing land and
adjoining National Park and estimated the
population of feral cats on French Island to
be approximately 300. Johnston (unpub-
lished data) caught 71 Cats in French
Island National Park during two five-week
trapping sessions. Sambar Deer were seen
regularly when spotlighting in wetland
areas such as Deuschers Swamp and Goats
were widespread across the island, with
large mobs (>20 individuals) occasionally
seen (Johnston 2002). Conspicuously
absent from French Island was the Fox,
although a dumped, dead cub was found
beside a road during 1999; three other
reported sightings are thought to have been
misidentified Cats (Johnston 2002; Parks
Victoria 2004 unpublished data).
Discussion
In total, 16 native and seven exotic
species were recorded on Phillip Island
and 13 native and eight exotic species on
French Island (Table 3). These data are
representative only, as species monitoring
was not exhaustive. For example, there are
several bat species that may visit or reside
in low numbers but were not recorded in
this study. French Island in particular has
not been fully surveyed for bat fauna. It is
unlikely, however, that large populations
of mammals remain undiscovered on the
islands. Conversely, several records, name-
ly Long-nosed Potoroos on Phillip Island
and Eastern Grey Kangaroos on both
Phillip and French Islands, arc likely to
represent individual arrivals and wildlife
park escapes, rather than resident popula-
tions. These large bodied species probably
would have been recorded more frequently
had viable populations been extant on the
respective islands.
This study represents a unique point in
time for mammalian occupation of the
islands in Western Port. Species composi-
tions have changed in the past and are like-
ly to change in the future. A review of pre-
vious records of mammals on these islands
places this study in a temporal perspective.
Pre-European
Prior to separation from the mainland
10 000 years ago, the areas now' occupied
by Phillip and French Islands could have
contained most of the mammalian species
that were resident in south-eastern
Australia. However, the now-islands are
thought to have been either surrounded by
open plains or swamp, which could have
limited the sizes of resident populations
(Rosengren 1988; Garden 2002). Once
separated, low genetic diversity within the
populations and Aboriginal hunting pres-
sure or catastrophic events, such as fire or
prolonged drought, may have caused local
extinctions.
150
The Victorian Naturalist
Table 3. Terrestrial mammals of Phillip and French Islands, Western Port, Victoria. Data for 1970-80 combines Andrews et a/. 1984 and records from the Atlas of
Victorian Wildlife Database. + indicates presence recorded. * indicates temporary visitors, either escapees from a local wildlife park, or individuals that crossed to
Phillip Island via the San Remo Bridge, f indicates dead individuals dumped or washed ashore.
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Vol. 123 (3) 2006
151
Vespadelns regains Southern Forest Bat + visitor visitor
Vespadetus vulhtmus Little Forest Bat + + breeding + + breeding
Hydromys ehiysogaster Water Rat + + + breeding + + + breeding
Rattus fuscipes Bush Rat absent + + + breeding
Rattus lutreolus Swamp Rat + absent + + + breeding
Table 3 (cont.)
Species Common name Phillip I French I
Estab- Early 1970 1997 Status Estab- Early 1970 1997 Status
lished 1900s -80 -05 lished 1900s -80 05
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5-3
Analysis of mammalian bones in
Aboriginal middens provides little evi-
dence of species present during the several
thousand years prior to European arrival.
A midden at Point Grant, Phillip Island,
dated at 2000 to 1 500 years ago had bones
of ‘a wallaby, a possum and some seal’ (D
Gaughwin 1987 pers. comm., in a letter to
the Phillip Island Nature Park). At Forrest
Caves on Phillip Island, excavations recov-
ered bones of a *rufo us-bellied wallaby’
(possibly a Red-necked Wallaby.
Macropus rufogriseus ), a ‘yellow- footed
phascogale or marsupial mouse’ (possibly
an Antechinus species) and ‘a rat* (possi-
bly a Bush Rat) (Gill 1968). Likewise, a
midden at Stinker Bay, Phillip Island
(dated to 250 years ago) contained bones
of one Red-necked Wallaby and Bush Rat
teeth (Gaughwin and Brennan 1986).
Given the possible transience of
Aborigines in the area (Gaughwin 1981,
1983; Cole 1984; Belcher and Hastings
1983) it is possible that the wallaby and
possum bones and cultural items in the
middens came from carcases brought to,
rather than killed on, the islands
(Gaughwin 1981). Therefore, the middens
do not uambiguously record the status of
any mammalian species on the islands
prior to European settlement.
1800s
European discovery of the islands was by
George Bass in 1798, although French
Island was considered to be part of the
mainland until 1801 (Scott 1917). Bass
noted a colony of Australian Fur Seals
Arctocephalus pus Ulus dor if crus at Seal
Rocks off the western tip of Phillip Island,
which drew some interest from early seal-
ers. Sealers had operated on Seal Rocks
between March and December 1801 (jour-
nals of Murray, reported in Cole 1984),
and in 1 809. the brigantine Active collected
1300 skins from Western Port (Cumpston
1973). Sealers occasionally camped on the
rocks or on Phillip Island. A semi-perma-
nent sealers' camp was present at Rhyll in
1826. when the island was visited by
Dumont d’Urville (Cole 1984). There are
no records from the early explorers or seal-
ers of other mammals on the islands.
Soon after 1842 the first European fann-
ers, the McHaffie family, arrived on
152
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Phillip Island and started to clear the land
(Gliddon 1968). AD Hardy, the elder
daughter of J McHaffie, recorded in a
diary that native mammals present at the
time of settlement included Bush Rats,
Bandicoots (probably the Southern Brown
Bandicoot Isoodon obesulus) and Water
Rats (quoted in Gliddon 1968). Wallabies
‘appeared later, but it was not known how
they gained access’, Kangaroos were ‘shot
at times’, there were ‘no koalas or dingos’,
and ‘seals were plentiful at Seal Rocks’
(Hardy, in Gliddon 1968). The McHaffies
became active members of the
Acclimatisation Society and introduced
Fallow Deer Cervus darner Red Deer C
elaphus , Hares, Belgian Rabbits
Oryctolagus sp., Pigs and Cats (Gliddon
1968). Red Deer did not establish. Pigs
established a feral population for a brief
period (Seddon 1975) and Belgian Rabbits
probably were absorbed into the later
introduction of European Rabbit.
In 1855, Blandowski (1857) noted that
‘the wallaby is found scattered over the
whole of Phillip Island, but is especially
numerous on the eastern portion’, but was
absent from French Island. Around the
same time, Wheelwright (1862) comment-
ed that the Dark-brown Swamp Wallaby
W. bicolor ‘abound in the scrub on Phillip
Island’. The apparent abundance of
Swamp Wallabies in the mid 1850s con-
trasts with their apparent absence ten years
earlier (suggested by Hardy). Either
Swamp Wallabies were present on Phillip
Island prior to settlement and were not
recognised until land clearance made them
more obvious, or they colonised around the
same time as the early settlers and the pop-
ulation quickly expanded.
Blandowski (1857) also mentioned that
Water Rats were abundant around lagoons
and waterways on both Phillip and French
Island. Wheelright (1862) believed a small,
yellow-bellied kangaroo, called a pademel-
on, was present on Phillip Island. This
could have been the Tasmanian Pademelon
Thylogale billardierii which occurred else-
where along the Victorian coast
(Menkhorst 1995). Brushtail and Ringtail
Possums were common in the Western
Port area, although not specifically men-
tioned to be on Phillip or French Island
(Wheelright 1862).
In 1868, Phillip Island was surveyed and
partly opened to free-settlement. At the
time, there were about 2000 cattle, 10,000
sheep and over 200 deer resident (Glidden
1968). Vegetated areas continued to be
cleared and burned to provide pasture, and
logged to provide fuel for chicory kilns.
Rabbits were released on the island, to pro-
vide targets for shooting parties (H
Cleeland 2004 pers. comm.) and Koalas
were introduced as a novelty (Gliddon
1968).
In summary, based on the notes of early
explorers and residents, mammalian popu-
lations on Phillip Island prior to European
settlement included Water Rats, Bush Rats,
Southern Brown Bandicoots and possibly
Swamp Wallabies and Tasmanian
Pademelons. If Tasmanian Pademelon
were present, their numbers are likely to
have been low and they quickly became
locally extinct, as there were no further
records of them. There also may have been
a small population of Eastern Grey
Kangaroos that likewise became locally
extinct, although those reported to Hardy (in
Gliddon 1968) could have arrived with the
settlers or have been misidentified walla-
bies. Without further evidence, it is
assumed they were not present in a viable
population prior to European settlement. By
the end of the century there had been suc-
cessful introductions to Phillip Island of
Cats, Rabbits, Brown Hares, Fallow Deer
and Koalas, and probably House Mice and
Black Rats.
On French Island, European settlement
proceeded at a slower rate than on Phillip
Island, and there is less information on
species present. Given later observations, it
is likely that these included Water Rats
(which Blandowski (1857) did report as
being present). Bush Rats, Swamp Rats,
and Long-nosed Potoroos. Koalas were
reportedly released on the island in the
1890s and, in the absence of predators and
diseases such as chlamydiosis, quickly
became widespread (Parks Victoria 1998).
Other successful introductions to French
Island by the end of the 1800s perhaps
included Rabbits, Goats. House Mice,
Black Rats and Sambar Deer, for which
periods of introduction are not known.
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
153
Contributions
1900s
Red Foxes were reported on Phillip Island
for the first time in about 1905. Although
their mode of arrival is not known, several
accounts suggest individuals may have
swum to the island (Gliddon 1968). Within
1 5 years it was recognised that Red Foxes
were having a devastating impact on
seabird colonies in the island (Gabriel
1919). Curiously, Foxes have never estab-
lished populations on French Island.
During the early 1900s, there was an
increased settlement and development of
townships on both islands, particularly
Phillip Island, along with community inter-
est in nature conservation (Seddon 1975).
Reserves were established and, in addition
to continued clearing, some revegetation
projects commenced. On French Island,
Koalas had become so numerous by 1923
that translocations off the island, including
to Phillip Island, were initiated (Menkhorst
1995). Shortly thereafter, overbrowsing on
Phillip Island vegetation was noticed;
translocations of Koalas from that island
commenced in the 1940s (Gliddon 1968).
Further species were introduced to the
islands by local residents, many by the
Grayden family who were clearing land
near Stony Point on the Mornington
Peninsula and bringing marsupials they
found back to their home at Newhaven,
Phillip Island (K Grayden 2004 pers.
comm.). Anecdotal reports for the estab-
lishment of non-endemic, native mammal
populations on Phillip Island include
Common Brushtail Possums by the 1920s
and Short-beaked Echidnas by the 1930s
(K Grayden and FI Cleeland 2004 pers.
comm.). Common Ringtail Possums and
Eastern Grey Kangaroo individuals were
introduced around the same time but did
not establish wild populations (K Grayden
2004 pers. comm.). On French Island
between 1900-05, a pair of Common
Ringtail Possums was released by J
Ratford (C Chandler 2004 pers. comm.). A
breeding population of this species had
established by the 1920s but became
extinct by the 1940s (C Chandler 2004
pers. comm.). A feral Cat population was
recognised on French Island by the 1930s
(Lewis 1934) and Short-beaked Echidnas
apparently had established by the 1950s (C
Chandler 2004 pers. comm.).
In the 1930s and 40s, sport shooting
became a popular pastime on Phillip
Island. This resulted in the eradication of
Fallow Deer, the near elimination of
Swamp Wallabies and the further introduc-
tion of Rabbits to provide an alternative
target (K Grayden 2004 pers. comm.).
A bridge connecting Phillip Island to the
mainland was opened in 1945, providing a
land route for animals like possums and
Foxes (Gliddon 1968). Perhaps aided by
this. Common Ringtail Possums had estab-
lished populations on the island by the
1960s (K Grayden 2004 pers. comm.). The
bridge stimulated further human settle-
ments which exacerbated pressures on the
native fauna, such as land clearing and
roaming dogs. Southern Brown Bandicoots
and Bush Rats, which were plentiful until
about the 1960s, became locally extinct (K
Grayden 2004 pers. comm.). A wildlife
park opened on the island in the 1960s.
Mammalian escapees from the park have
included Long-nosed Potoroo, Tasmanian
Pademelons and Eastern Grey Kangaroos,
but none of these established breeding
populations.
During the late 1900s, an increased
awareness of conservation stimulated fur-
ther revegetation activities, pest species
control, native species protection and data
recording. Much of this interest on Phillip
Island was stimulated by concern over
declining numbers of Koala on the island
(see Every 1986). Summarising records
from 1970 to 1980, Andrew et at. (1984)
reported 10 native and 6 exotic terrestrial
species on Phillip Island and 1 I native and
7 exotic species on French Island (Table
3). About half of the native species were
bats and flying foxes, which probably had
existed on or visited the islands since prior
to European settlement but had not been
recorded previously. On a species list for
French Island, Belcher and blastings
(1983) included the Grey-headed Flying-
fox Pteropus poliocephalus , which proba-
bly referred to visiting individuals. Of the
remaining species listed by Andrew et at.
(1984), the only endemic natives were
Water Rats and possibly Swamp Wallabies
on Phillip Island, and Water Rats, Bush
Rats, Swamp Rats, and Long-nosed
Potoroos on French Island. Amongst the
exotics, Foxes were found only on Phillip
154
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Island, while Sambar Deer, Goats and wild
Dogs Canus lupus were found only on
French Island.
Between the 1980s (Andrew et al. 1984)
and 2005 (this study), the only new species
recorded for the islands were microbats
(White-stripped Freetail-bat and Eastern
False Pipistrelle on Phillip Island, and
White-striped Freetail-bat and Chocolate
Wattled Bats on French Island) and the
single record of Swamp Rat for Phillip
Island (R Baird 1998 pers. comm.). The
bats probably were unrecorded residents or
visitors, rather than new colonists. Swamp
Rat may have existed on Phillip Island
even prior to European settlement and
been unreported up to the single capture at
Conservation Hill in the 1980s. The subse-
quent local extinction of this population
could have occurred as late as the 1990s,
when we noted deterioration of the distinc-
tive 'runways’ al this location. Also
between the 1980s and 2005, wild dogs
were removed from French Island (Parks
Victoria, unpublished data) and Rabbits
were removed from 10 hectare Churchill
Island, adjacent to Phillip Island (Phillip
Island Nature Parks, unpublished data).
Conclusions
On Phillip Island, it appears that
European settlement resulted in the local
extinction of Southern Brown Bandicoots
and Bush Rats and possibly Tasmanian
Pademelons and Swamp Rats, while the
survivors were a suite of microbats. Water
Rats and Swamp Wallabies. On French
Island, all species present prior to
European settlement were extant in 2004,
including a suite of microbats, Water Rats,
Bush Rats and Swamp Rats and Long-
nosed Potoroos. Long-nosed Potoroos are
classified as 'threatened' (DNRE 2002),
and the population on French Island repre-
sents a valuable component of the species.
Of the non-endemic, native species intro-
duced to the islands, the Koala has had the
greatest impact. Translocations of Koala
from Phillip Island continued until 1978,
when it was recognised that the population
on the island was declining (Every 1986,
Menkhorst 1995). From French Island,
over 7000 individuals had been relocated
off the island up to 1999 (Parks Victoria
2000) and translocations are continuing.
Although detrimental to vegetation on both
islands, the isolated Koala populations pro-
vided a source to restock areas of the
mainland where Koalas were eliminated by
deforestation, hunting and disease
(Menkhorst 1995). Koalas also represented
a flag-species for conservation groups aim-
ing to protect native habitat, particularly on
Phillip Island. Koalas now appear to be
approaching local extinction on Phillip
Island, perhaps due to limited habitat and
increased mortalities on roads and from
dog attacks.
Considerable effort now goes into the
control of feral species, particularly Foxes,
on Phillip Island. A principal factor in the
demise of the small, native, ground mam-
mals on Phillip Island, but the survival of
comparable species on French Island could
be the introduction of Red Foxes to only
Phillip Island. In addition, on Phillip Island
Foxes are considered to be the greatest
land-based threat to Little Penguins
Eudyptula minor (Dann 1992) and Short-
tailed Shearwaters Puffinus tenuirostrus
are a major component of their diet
(Kirkwood et al. 2002; 2004). French
Island is the only significant Victorian land
mass where Foxes are absent and as such
is a site of state significance for wildlife
conservation (Andrew et al. 1984). The
eradication of Red Fox from Phillip Island
is a priority for the conservation of the
fauna remaining on that island.
Postscript
On 24 April 2006, a dead Yellow-bellied
Sheathtail-bat Sacco /aim us flaviventris
was found at Churchill Island, the first
record of this species on the islands of
Western Port.
Acknowledgements
We wish to dedicate this paper to Keith
Grayden, a lover of Victoria's native fauna. We
thank Parks Victoria Rangers Mick Douglas,
Terry Easy and Aaron Ledden, local residents
Chris Chandler, Faisal Iqbal, Keith Grayden and
Harry C’leeland, and biologist Kath Handasyde,
for sharing their knowledge of island fauna. We
also thank Robert Baird for informing us of the
Swamp Rat he caught at Conservation Hill,
Ashley Reed and others for collecting the Koala
census data on Phillip Island, the Victorian
Wildlife Database for supplying wildlife records
for the islands, and Catherine Ainsworth, Peter
Dann, and two anonymous referees for review-
ing the manuscript.
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
155
Contributions
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Received 20 October 2005; accepted 16 March 2006
156
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Annotated records of the Feathertail Glider
Acrobates pygmaeus from The Victorian Naturalist
Jamie M Harris' and K Shane Maloney2
1 School of Environmental Science and Management, Southern Cross University,
LismoreNSW 2480 Email: jharril l@scu.edu.au;
department of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, NSW 2522
Email: ksm99@uow.edu.au)
Abstract
The Victorian Naturalist was surveyed for past records of the Feathertail Glider Acrobates
pygmaeus. We document many important records of their occurrence, as well as accounts on their
feeding and behaviour. This report should be useful to researchers seeking primary source observa-
tions of this species. ( The Victorian Naturalist 123 (3), 2006, 157-165)
Introduction
The Feathertail Glider Acrobates pyg-
maeus (family Acrobatidae) is a small (10-
14 g) cryptic marsupial, which has a wide
distribution in eastern Australia from far
northern Queensland (QLD), through New
South Wales (NSW) and Victoria (VIC) to
the south-east of South Australia (SA)
(Strahan 1995; Lindenmayer 2002;
Goldingay and Jackson 2004). In Victoria
the species is currently considered
"Secure’ (Henry 1995) and/or ‘Common’
(van der Ree at at. 2004). However, docu-
menting historical and more recent records
of their occurrence in Victoria and else-
where will be important for assessment of
their ecology and conservation. To this
end, this paper presents an annotated
chronology of Feathertail Glider records in
The Victorian Naturalist ( 1 884-2005).
Feathertail Glider records from The
Victorian Naturalist
In Volume 1 of The Victorian Naturalist ,
the ‘Opossum Mouse’ Petaurus pygmeus
(=A. pygmaeus) was noted as part of the
Victorian mammalian fauna (Forbes Leith
and Lucas 1884). Feathertail Glider speci-
mens were subsequently exhibited at
numerous early meetings of the Club,
including ‘a case with opossum mice’ [=A.
pygmaeus] by TA Forbes Leith on 29
April 1885 (see Cresswell 1885); a ‘flying
mouse from Langi Kal Kal, Victoria’ by
Mary Simson on 10 June 1885 (Anon
1885); a "pair of Hying mice’ by FGA
Barnard of Kew, Victoria on 28 April
1887, 28-29 May 1896, 22-23 September
1908, 8 September 1913 and 10 June 1918
(Anon 1887; Anon 1896a; Anon 1908;
Anon 1913; Anon 1918); and ‘specimens
of the Hying opossum mouse’ by Mr C
French on 9 July 1888 (Anon 1888). On 13
July 1896. JA Kershaw exhibited a
Feathertail Glider ‘with three young, taken
from nest composed of gum leaves under
the bark of large eucalypt. South
Gippsland’ (Anon 1896b). On 16 January
1905, EB Nicholis exhibited a specimen of
the "Pigmy Flying-Mouse’ captured at
‘Olinda Creek, South Wandin’ (Anon
1905). On 11 August 1930, JA Kershaw,
then Director of the National Museum of
Victoria, exhibited a ‘Pigmy Flying
Phalanger’ (Anon 1930) and this was pos-
sibly the same specimen earlier exhibited
by him in 1896 (see above).
At Mount Disappointment, Barnard
(191 1) noted that a ‘Hying mouse’ was
captured at Jack’s Creek aqueduct. This
animal was caught as it ran into a ‘grass
tussock' and forwarded to the National
Museum of Victoria (now Museum
Victoria). The collection time was noted as
5 o’clock in the afternoon, and this was
thought unusual on account of its nocturnal
habits. When the report was read to a
meeting of the Club on 13 March 1911,
EB Nicholis said that it was 3 o’clock in
the afternoon when he captured his speci-
men (Anon 1911).
Mathews and Iredale (1912) reviewed a
rare book written by George Perry (1811)
and mention was made that this work
included information on the Feathertail
Glider. A copy of this book we examined,
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
157
Contributions
revealed an interesting illustration of this
species (Fig. 1), drawn from a specimen
reportedly belonging to a Mr Bullock. It
was stated that this species lives ‘in the
trees and forests of Botany Bay and its
neighbourhood' (Perry 1811).
Dr Edmund Robson (1814 to 1848) took
field notes in the forests between
Melbourne and Arthurs Seat, and in 1837
he noted that ‘The Petaurus pigmaeus [=4.
pygmaeus ] lives upon the gum of the two
kinds of mimosa, mim. decurrens and
viridis’ (Kenyon 1930). The first plant is
synonymous with the Green Wattle
( Acacia decurrens ), the second plant
species is unknown. Hobson also noted
that ‘The movements of this little creature
are so rapid that they give the impression
of a mere spectre. By means of the skin
stretched betwixt the hind and fore legs,
they are enabled to reach the lower branch-
es of trees some 18 or 20 feet distant' (see
Kenyon 1930).
In 1926. David Orchard of Kinglake East
reported that his domestic cat brought
home alive a ‘pigmy flying squirrel or pha-
langer', that died soon afterwards (Orchard
1926). He stated that they can be ‘found in
central Victoria along mountain creeks'
but are ‘very rare'. I le also stated that:
Tree fellers for saw mills are the people
who mostly find them in bringing down
some giant tree having a dry hollow some-
where on its side. Domestic cats also bring
them to the country home occasionally;
just as they bring in the ordinary mouse in
the cities. 1 have received several speci-
mens in that way. When the cats have kit-
tens to feed they usually bring these flying
mice home alive for the kittens to play
with before killing and eating them.
David Fleay (1932) provided an article
and photographs pertaining to the ‘Pigmy
Flying Possum*. A number of distribution
records were detailed as well as some
observations on the captive diet, behaviour
and vocalisations of this species. A friend
of Fleay's ‘had seen large numbers’ of
Feathertail Gliders in an area of scrub in
the Bendoc district (Fleay 1932).
According to his (unnamed) friend ‘there
were hundreds' within a single area of
bush, which led Fleay and a fellow-enthu-
siast to search the locality sometime after-
wards. Clearing of the site was reportedly
well advanced when Fleay arrived. Several
trees were felled in an effort to capture
Feathertail Gliders, but none was found.
Only some ‘empty nests' were discovered.
However, at this site a week later, a large
rotten tree came down, three Featherlails
were seen, one of which was captured
(Fleay 1933). Another was seen while
spotlighting at a locality ‘some miles dis-
tant' and also after felling some nearby
trees the next day. Flere, one was captured
(a female with two pouch young) and was
possibly the same animal that was spotlit
the previous night. Unfortunately, the ani-
mals captured by Fleay at Bendoc did not
survive long in captivity.
Feathertail Gliders seem ‘to inhabit a vari-
ety of forest country, though it is most at
home in the thick timber typified by
Gippsland' (Fleay 1932). Also referred to
were two juvenile male animals sent to
Fleay from the 'red gum country near
Mathoura', NSW. Only one of these sur-
vived, and was named ‘Erastus’ and lived
for ‘nearly three years', despite some lucky
escapes from the jaws of Fleay’s dog and the
taloned-feet of a captive Boobook Owl. A
female adult Feathertail Glider (with three
young) captured near Warburton was also
sent to Fleay and all were reported to be:
perfectly healthy, with the exception of one
of the immature females, which had a
wound on the head, due to the bite of a dog
which discovered the [Feathertail Glider]
when the home tree fell. However, the
mother refused to settle down. She
declined food, and within a week had
passed away. ..The [Feathertail Glider]
with the tooth-marked head became very
sickly two months after its
arrival... Finally, after a week of continued
torpidity, without touching a morsel of
food, it died.
Other records provided by Fleay (1932)
included the finding of breeding animals in
the ‘Ballarat district' and a family of ‘sev-
eral immature specimens discovered at a
spot near Arthur’s Creek’, in 1931. Fleay
(1933) noted the 'Pigmy Phalanger
( Acrobates pygmaeus y as resident in the
Otway region and described its vocalisa-
tions as a slow hissing cry. Fleay (1935)
reported that the 'Pigmy Flying Phalanger’
is represented in the native fauna section of
the Melbourne Zoological Gardens.
158
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Fig. 1 . Feathertail Glider from Perry’s Arcana (1811)
Miss CC Currie reported that the ‘Pigmy
Flying Mouse’ has been found at Lardner
(Anon 1933); and JM Booking from the
Blue Mountains, NSW, reported that her
neighbour’s cat brought in a ‘Pigmy
Feather-tail, which unfortunately, did not
live long in captivity’ (Booking 1939).
Six specimens of the Feathertail Glider
from the 1930s and 40s are in the Donald
Thomson Collection (DTC) in Museum
Victoria (Dixon and Huxley 1989). They
include a male collected at Femtree Gully
on 25 July 1930 (DTC 14 204; skin).
Thomson noted that this species is ‘appar-
ently rare or little known in [this] district,
inquiries failed to bring any others and it
was the first the finder, a local resident,
had ever seen there. Head 25 mm, Tongue
23 mm, Wt. 13.0 g\ A spirit specimen
(DTC 36 413: male) collected by F.
Collins is recorded for 20 August 1943
from Romsey, Monument Creek, via
Woodend. Three live specimens (one male
and two females) from Erica, Gippsland
were sent to Thomson by ‘Dyer, a Forest
Officer’ after a forest fire. The male (DTC
35 409; spirit) was captured on 9 May
1945, died 24 May 1946. One female
(DTC 33 398: spirit) died soon after
arrival; the second female (DTC 34 399)
thrived for some months and then died. A
sixth specimen in the Thomson Collection
at Museum Victoria (DTC 37 416; spirit;
female with 4 young), also from Erica, was
collected on 16 September 1947 by ‘Mr
Ryan’. Thomson’s detailed notes on three
captive Feathertail Gliders (later to become
DTC 35 409, 33 398, and 34 399) were
published by Dixon and Huxley (1989).
These contain a wealth of behavioural and
feeding observations on captive specimens
recorded between 12 May and 30
September 1945.
At a meeting of the Club, on 8 April 1946
a ‘Pigmy Possum-Glider’ was exhibited by
Mrs EE Hill (Anon 1946). It was noted that
this species is found in ‘timbered country’
in eastern Australia and was ‘becoming
rarer through the ravages of cats’.
In a note on the Feathertail Glider, Child
(1948) wrote:
"When walking down a bush track at
Kalorama one night in August [1948], I
heard a rustle in the scrub and shone my
torch light among the bushes. There was a
little Pygmy Phalanger or “feathertail”
gliding from branch to branch (on a
Pultcnaea bush) [Bacon and Eggs plant]. In
order to examine its feather-like tail, I was
able to approach within a few feet of the
tiny creature. 1 then stepped back as it glid-
ed from the bush to a gum tree about a
yard away and so disappeared. After
watching that beautiful little sprite for the
first time, 1 felt happy to have seen one of
Nature’s most charming pictures'.
Another record from the 1940s is that of
a Feathertail Glider from the north of
Paddy’s Ranges State Park (R. Bishop
pers. comm, cited by Trainor 1992).
Norman Wakefield recorded Feathertail
Gliders as sub-fossils from a number of
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
159
Contributions
cave deposits in far eastern Victoria
including Pyramids Cave, Mabel Cave, M-
27 and M-28 (Wakefield 1960a; 1960b;
1967a). These fossils were attributed to
Quolls Dasyurus spp. and Owls which
deposited remains of Feathertail Gliders and
other species as prey remains in these caves.
Sub-fossil Feathertail Gliders have also
been reported from localities in western
Victoria i.e. "Natural Bridge', south-west of
Mount Eccles (Wakefield 1964), Fern Cave,
north-west of Portland (Wakefield 1963a),
Victoria Range deposit in the Grampians
(Wakefield 1963b) and McEachenfs Cave,
north of Nelson (Wakefield 1967b). The
antiquity of the fossil deposits is Holocene
to Late-Pleistocene (also sec Harris and
Goldingay 2005).
Wakefield (1960a) stated that the
Feathertail Glider favours open forest and
was plentiful in East Gippsland. In early
December 1960, a Feathertail Glider was
seen while spotlighting near Mount Tara at
Buchan, and another was reportedly seen
in a gully along the Gellibrand River
(Anon 1961a, b). Wakefield (1962) stated
that one of the special projects in hand at
the National Museum of Victoria, under
Mr J McNally, was ‘the maintenance of a
study colony of Feathertail Gliders’.
The front cover for March 1962 ( Volume
78, Number 1 1) had a photograph, cour-
tesy of the Victorian Fisheries and Wildlife
Department, of two Feathertail Gliders dis-
played on the branches and inflorescence
of a Heath Banksia Banks ict ericifolia (Fig.
2). An accompanying caption explained
that ‘Feathertails are quite plentiful in most
of the forested parts of Victoria but,
because they hide away and sleep all day,
they are rarely observed' (Anon 1962).
The inside front covers of The Victorian
Naturalist for May 1965 (Volume 82,
Number 1) and April 1970 ( Volume 87,
Number 4) also featured photographs of a
‘Pygmy Glider’ by WH King. The caption,
written by the Assistant Editor RHJ
McQueen (1965), stated:
This animal is the smallest gliding possum
and is immediately distinguished by its dis-
tinct gliding membranes and feather-like
tail. The gliding habit really consists of a
series of agile leaps which are prolonged
by a parachute effect of the gliding mem-
branes. Feathertails are usually found in
small colonies and their ‘"nests” of shred-
ded bark and gum leaves are built in knot-
holes or small hollows up to sixty feet [=1 8
m] above the ground. There is only one
mainland species of Aerobates and this is
widely distributed through the eucalypt
forests of Eastern Australia, and although
apparently quite common, the animal is
rarely observed because of its smallness
and nocturnal habit.
Another record of a Feathertail Glider
from the 1960s is that of a female collected
from a felled tree on 2 June 1965 at
Trawalla Forest Reserve by the Fauna
Survey Group (FSG) (Anon 1965). The
specimen was reported to have been
lodged with Fisheries and Wildlife
Department by Mr Hodge, Forest Officer
at Beaufort. At Tanjil Bren on 15 January
1966, a Feathertail Glider was seen on the
ground by Mr W King (Anon 1966). There
is also an FSG record for around this time
for Powelltown/Labertouche State Forest
(Anon 1967).
In March 1967, a Feathertail Glider was
collected at Fyans Creek (14 km north of
Pomonal) and a photograph shown to John
Seebeck (Seebeck 1976). Another speci-
men found in a house at the junction of
Redmans Road and the Pomonal South
Road was also reported to Seebeck in 1968
(Seebeck 1976).
In May 1967, three ‘Feather-tail Gliders’
were seen during a trip to Stockman's
Reward, north-east of Marysville, ‘all in
one tree in the middle of the valley’ (Fryer
and Temby 1969). Another was seen in
June 1968 ‘on a hill beside the Big River
Valley Road’ in a Narrow-leaved
Fig. 2. A pair of Feathertail gliders Aerobates
pygmaeus as pictured on the cover of the March
1 962 issue of The Victorian Naturalist.
160
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Peppermint Eucalyptus radiata. It was stat-
ed that compared with other possums and
gliders, the Feathertail Glider was more dif-
ficult to find. ‘Because [they] are so
small... considerable patience and intense
listening were necessary to locate them1.
In October 1967, Clyde O'Donnell and
fellow naturalist Raymond Carlson, spotlit
‘many’ Feathertail Gliders on a single old
eucalypt in the Porepunkah district
(O’Donnell 1970). The gliders were
observed leaping to another tree, a distance
of ‘about fifteen feet’ [= 4.5 m]. When the
location was visited a year later no living
Feathertail Gliders were found, but ‘six-
teen lifeless bodies were discovered in
their ancestral chamber’.
Seebeck et al. (1968) reported that in
June 1966 and June 1967, the Mammal
Survey Group examined a forest area south
of Darlimurla:
Three specimens only were seen, but this
species was probably much more common
than results indicate. Sightings are general-
ly fortuitous due to the very small size of
the animals. Two individuals were seen on
the first night of the survey, one on the
trunk of an old Messmate ( Eucalyptus obli-
qua), the other in the branches of a young
Narrow-leaved Peppermint ( Eucalyptus
radiata). Both were approximately 20 feet
[= 6 m] from the ground when first sight-
ed. The third specimen was captured when
it ran along the top suspending rope of a
mist net. Specimen: Skin and skull: P. 630
[male], 25.vi.1966.
On 25 May 1972, the Feathertail Glider
was selected as one of 10 native mammal
species to be studied by members of the
Field Survey Group/Mammal Survey
Group (Anon 1972). Mr A Heislers
(Forests Commission of Victoria) advised
that in recent years Feathertail Gliders had
been found during timber cutting in the
Upper Lerderderg Valley, although none
was found during the spotlighting trips in
that area organised by the Mammal Survey
Group in 1968-1970 (Deerson et at. 1975 ).
Between September 1974 and November
1978, two Feathertail Gliders were record-
ed during tree felling operations just out-
side the Wallaby Creek catchment
(Callanan 1981). Zirkler (1974) stated that
Pigmy Gliders are known to occur at
Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve, NSW.
Brunner et al. (1977) recorded the ‘Pigmy
Glider’ as present in one of 359 predator
(mainly fox) scats collected from an area
around Sumner Spur, near Powelltown.
Gilmore (1977) reported that ‘Mr R Austin
of the Fisheries and Wildlife Division,
Yarram, has a record of six animals
obtained by FA Palmer from a dead
stringybark tree that was felled on 30 July
1963, 6 km west of Giffard West’.
Ambrose (1979) records Feathertail Glider
as an uncommon resident in the Wallaby
Creek Catchment, and as an obligate tree
hollow user. Callanan and Menkhorst
(1979) stated that the Feathertail Glider
was not found during a mammal survey of
the Werribee Gorge area, but thought that
it was ‘possibly present'. It was also noted
that Feathertail Glider ‘occurs in the
Brisbane Ranges (F. Lobb, National Parks
Service pers. comm.) and [as already men-
tioned] Lerderderg Valley (Deerson et al.
1975) and may well occur in the [Werribee
Gorge] area’. Dixon (1979) listed the
Feathertail Glider as present in the Alpine
Area of Victoria and New South Wales.
In October 1980. the possible presence of
the Feathertail Glider at the Mount Napier
State Park was indicated ‘when a large
quantity of dried gum leaves were found
coiled in 2 nest boxes’ (Bird 1997). Boyce
et al. (1981) stated that the Mammal
Survey Group had recorded Feathertail
Glider in the Cobaw State Forest.
Bennett (1982) cited Emison et al. (1975)
in reporting that Feathertail Gliders have
been 'described as occurring throughout all
native woodland and forest communities in
[the Woolsthorpe area] of western
Victoria’. Bennett (1982) also reported that
‘Mr H. Quinley, an amateur naturalist from
Mortlake wrote, in a letter (November
1910) to the Director of the National
Museum of Victoria regarding collection
of marsupials’ that he ‘might by a fluke get
some of the pygmy squirrels’. From litera-
ture reports, museum records and informa-
tion gathered from local residents, Bennett
(1982) was also able to state that
Feathertail Gliders did occur in the
Woolsthorpe area in 1840, but he believed
they became locally ‘extinct’ in the early
1900s as a result of ‘habitat destruction’.
Conoie and Baverstock (1983) stated that
one Feathertail Glider had been recorded
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
161
Contributions
in tall open-forest in the Mount Cawley
area of the Otway Ranges in 1979 (see also
Conole 1980). They also indicated that this
species was widespread in the Angahook-
Lome Forest Park, but its status in this area
was unknown. Nicholls and Meredith
(1984) reported four sightings from Broad-
leaved Peppermint E. dives open forest and
Narrow-leaved Peppermint open forest
made in the Mt. Timbertop region between
1971 and 1976. Loyn et at. (1986) record-
ed Feathertail Cilider in one out of 14 pel-
lets of the Sooty Owl Tyto tenebricoso
examined from Thurra River, East
Gippsland.
Conole (1987) reported on traditional
Aboriginal names for a number of small
marsupials from reading of the Victorian
ethnographic literature. To the
Krauatungalung tribe (Lake Tyers area),
the Feathertail Glider is ‘Toan' as recorded
by Smyth (1878) or ‘Tuan1 as recorded by
Howitt (1880). To the Bunurong and
Woiworung tribes (Melbourne area) the
Feathertail Glider is ‘Tu-an-tu-aiT (Smyth
1878). Conole (1987) also believed that
‘Tirhatuan’ from the Woiworung
(Danendong area) was probably Feathertail
Glider. Subsequently. Hercus (1988) and
Scarlett (1988) discussed whether early
English translations for this and other
species were correct. Flercus (1988)
thought that the name ‘tuan-tuan' was not
positively Feathertail Glider, and Scarlett
(1988) stated that in Woiwurru, there could
have been at least three names for
Feathertail Glider, including ‘Turnung’,
4Tarrn-nin\ and ‘Teed'thung’. Scarlett
(1988) also presented a mythical story of
the Kulin tribes of central Victoria, in
which the Feathertail Glider was featured.
Bennett (1988) did not record Feathertail
Glider whilst trapping, spotlighting and
hairtubing within roadside vegetation in
the Naringal area during the period 1979-
1982, and concluded that it was a rare
species in this area. Dixon and Huxley
(1989) commented that 'although this
species is widely distributed in eastern
Australia, few specimens are collected in
surveys or seen by the public’. They also
cited Russell (1980) and Fleming and Frey
(1984) in stating that only limited behav-
ioural studies have been undertaken on the
Feathertail Glider.
Bennett (1992) noted that Feathertail
Gliders were found by Suckling (1984) to
be present in roadside vegetation in
Gippsland. Conole and Baverstock (1992)
reported the Feathertail Glider from the
Bamgaine State Forest, about 45 km north-
west of Geelong, and it was ‘only observed
in Swamp Gum [E. ovata ] open-forest,
where 5-6 individuals were seen in one
flowering Swamp Gum on 29 January
1989’. The apparent absence of the species
from the Messmate Stringybark E. obfiqua
open-forest, which was dominant at
Bamgaine, was suggested to be ‘more like-
ly due to the larger leaves and denser
canopy obscuring the diminutive mammal.
Swamp Gums with their small leaves and
open crown permit better visibility’.
Lindenmayer (1992) recorded Feathertail
Glider in the Mountain Ash forests in the
Central Highlands. Trainor (1992) reported
that Feathertail Gliders ‘readily use nest
boxes in the wetter forests of central
Victoria (citing Calder el at. 1983; Orchard
1987), but have not been recorded in the
drier forests of the [Paddy's Ranges] study
area using this technique in a total of
approximately 1800 nest box inspections'.
On 18 March 1995, a Feathertail Glider
was observed on a clear full moon night
while stagwatching in a Mountain Ash
Forest in the Macedon-Woodend region of
the Western Highlands (Larwill 2004).
During the same survey, but at a different
site, a Feathertail Glider was also captured
during Elliott trapping. In this survey, the
species was not detected by use of nest-
boxes, spotlighting or predator scat analy-
sis. Kutt and Yugovic (1996) mentioned
that the Atlas of Victorian Wildlife
Database has ‘a historical record (pre-
1900) of the Feathertail Glider’, for the
Grantville Gravel Reserve area, south-east
of Melbourne. Although it was not found
during their mammal survey (conducted in
March 1994), they predicted that with
more intensive survey, this species may be
recorded here. Sometime between April
1985 and March 1995, a nocturnal obser-
vation of the Feathertail Glider was made
in Tall Open Forest adjacent to the Parker
River Inlet, Otway National Park
(Westbrooke and Prevett 2002).
Menkhorst and Seebeck (1999) stated
that the Feathertail Glider was ‘uncom-
162
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
mon’ at Wilsons Promontory National
Park, and the most recent record known to
them at that time was from 1986. During
25 h spotlighting in Rushworth State
Forest, Myers and Dashper (1999) recorded
only one Feathertail Glider (0.04 per hour).
This animal was seen while foraging in a
large flowering Yellow Gum E.
leucoxylon. Myers and Dashper (1999)
also noted that the Atlas of Victorian
Wildlife Database had one record for this
species from Rushworth State Forest in
1990.
In 1999, the Feathertail Glider was
recorded in the River Red Gum E. camald-
u lens is vegetation in Barmah Forest by
Lawrie Conole (Lovn el al. 2002), but "it is
likely to occur more widely in the forest
than this one record would suggest’.
Taggart and Shimmin (1999) did not pro-
vide any records of occurrence of the
Feathertail Glider, but did comment as part
of a review on marsupial sperm competi-
tion that this species has ‘large testes rela-
tive to body mass’ which supported a high
likelihood of sperm competition occurring
in this species.
Between April 2000 and March 2002, the
Fauna Survey Group (FSG) carried out a
study of the vertebrates in and adjacent to
the Black Range, south of the township of
Stawell in western Victoria (Homan 2005).
One Feathertail Glider was captured
opportunistically on the ground in an area
of Granite Hills Woodland, which was a
vegetation community dominated by
Scent-bark Eucalyptus aromaphloia. The
Feathertail Glider was not detected in 1487
Elliott trap-nights, 687 pitfall trap-nights,
60 h spotlighting, stagwatching at 12 stags
or through use of Five artificial nest-boxes.
Homan (2005) noted that Feathertail
Glider is ‘rare’ in this part of western
Victoria, and that spotlighting in similar
woodland areas by the FSG have recorded
only very small numbers (ie. Myers and
Dashper 1 999).
Pierson (2004) contributed some obser-
vations of antagonistic behaviour between
Little Ravens Corvus mellori and Common
Ring-tailed Possums Pseudocheims pere-
grinus. In an accompanying note and refer-
ence supplied by the Editors of The
Victorian Naturalist , it was noted that the
Forest Raven C. tasmanicus has been
recorded taking the Feathertail Glider
(McCulloch and Thompson 1987). The
most recent mention of Feathertail Glider
in The Victorian Naturalist was made by
Gibson and Thompson (2005) in reference
to the late Robert Taylor showing begin-
ners how to spotlight for the species in
flowering banksia at Gembrook.
Conclusion
The Victorian Naturalist contains about 61
distribution records of the Feathertail
Glider, excluding multiple records from
the same locality and fossil records. These
extend from before 1811 to about 2002,
and document aspects of the life history,
behaviour, and habitat requirements of this
species. The large number of common
names synonymous with the Feathertail
Glider and survey methods applicable to
this species have also been revealed.
Despite the diminutive size, nocturnal
habits, and generally secretive behaviour
of the Feathertail Glider, knowledge of its
natural history has been greatly augmented
by naturalists’ observations published in
this journal.
Acknowledgements
Wc thank the Australian Museum Library for
permission to reproduce the figure originally
published by George Perry, and Leone Lemmer
for her assistance.
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Received 10 November 2005; accepted 9 March 2006
Seventy-four years ago
THE PIGMY FLYING POSSUM
BY DAVID FLEAY, B.Sc.
It is very doubtful whether any animal, small or large, furred, feathered, or scaled, is more aptly
fitted w ith generic and specific names than Acrobates pygmaeus - the "pigmy acrobat" - one of our
smallest marsupials and the midget of the Possum family. Yet this little silver-brown creature is
very difficult to domicile for observation, and is of such delicate structure that one must exercise
every care to avoid causing injury wTen handling it. ...
One generally thinks of the Pigmy Flying Possums as an animal entirely lacking in powers of
vocal accomplishment; and though it is mainly a silent species, soft little sounds are occasionally
uttered, usually in daylight, when the "pigmies" are rolled up together in the nest. It is difficult to
describe these low sobbing calls, but probably as good a description as any is to compare them
with the quavering whistling notes of Dottrels [sic] flying over in the night skies. . . .
From The Victorian Naturalist , XLIX, November 7, 1932
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
165
Contributions
Studies on Victorian bryophytes 3:
The genus Leptodon D Mohr
David Meagher
School of Botany, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010
Abstract
Leptodon smithii (Hedw.) F Weber and D Mohr is the only species of the moss genus Leptodon in
Victoria. This species is described and illustrated, its distribution in Australia is delineated, and its
conservation status is discussed. ( The Victorian Naturalist 123 (3) 2006,166-169)
Introduction
Leptodon is a genus of mosses in the
family Leptodontaceae. More than 30
species of Leptodon have been described,
but only four are generally accepted as
good species (Stark 2000). However, the
genus has been poorly studied and needs a
comprehensive world-wide revision.
Leptodon smithii (Hedw.) F Weber and D
Mohr is the only member of the genus
known to occur in Australia. It is an almost
cosmopolitan species, being found in nat-
ural habitats on all continents except
Antarctica. Its stronghold is southern and
western Europe, especially the
Mediterranean countries (Dixon 1954;
Jahns 1983), but it is also recorded from
northern and southern Africa, North
America, South America and New Zealand
(Beever et at. 1992, Stark 2000). In
Australia it is known from Victoria, New
South Wales, the Australian Capital
Territory and southern Queensland.
Leptodon smithii has several common
names, including the simple but descrip-
tive Curly Moss, the imaginative Princc-
of-Wales Feather-moss, and the dreary
Smith’s Leptodon.
Description
Leptodon smithii (Hedw.) F Weber & D
Mohr
Ind Mus. PL Crypt . 2 (1803)
Known distribution in Australia: Vic,
NSW, ACT, Qld
Habitat: on well-shaded limestone or
granite, or epiphytic on trees, shrubs or
vines, in dry to wet sclerophyll forest or
rainforest.
Plants with a creeping primary stem from
which flattened, bipinnate, pale to dark
green fronds arise; fronds strongly coiled
when dry (Fig. 1); dioicous, sporophytes
maturing over two years so that two gener-
ations of sporophytes may be present on
one plant. Rhizoids arising from the pri-
mary stem and branches, reddish brown.
Branches with many small ± linear para-
phyllia and pseudoparaphyllia, the
pseudoparaphyllia often shortly branched.
Leaves ovate to tongue-shaped, rather
variable in size but generally 1.0- 1.3 x
0.6-0. 9 mm on the stems, slightly smaller
on branches, flat to slightly concave,
rugose to plicate, weakly spreading from
the stem when moist but appressed and
flattened when dry, slightly decurrent.
Costa strong, gradually weakening and
ending well above mid-leaf, often forked.
Cells in the leaves thick-walled, mostly
isodiametric to diamond-shaped, typically
8-15 x 7-10 pm; a patch of longer, more
rectangular cells usually present in the leaf
base. Capsules ovate-cylindrical when
mature; 2-2.5 mm long in Australian
material, very shortly exserted, smooth to
slightly pocked and ridged, yellow-brown
when young, becoming reddish-brown
when mature; outer peristome of 16 nar-
row, pale teeth, strongly curved into the
capsule mouth when dry but ± erect when
moist; inner peristome poorly developed or
absent; operculum with a long, curved
beak, acutely pointed. Spores yellow-
brown, very finely papillose. 15-25 pm in
diameter. Calyptra long, conical and
pointed, somewhat hairy to naked.
Vagin ula hairy; hairs (paraphyses) pale
yellow, often extending beyond the
perichaetial leaves, (1-) 2 cells wide, the
cells mostly long-rectangular, thick-
walled. Perichaetial leaves much longer
and narrower than normal leaves, straight
166
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
G
Fig. 1. Leptodon smithii. A Dry secondary stem. B Sporophyte and perichaetial leaves. C
Perichaetial leaf. D Spore. E Paraphyllia and pseudoparaphyllia. F Leaves from stem. G Cells in
mid-leaf. H Cells in leaf base. Scale bars: A - 5
pm. All drawn from MELU 7375.
to rather squarrose, with distinct shoulders,
apex blunt; costa narrow, reaching well
beyond 1/2 of the leaf length; cells thick-
walled, mostly long and very narrow, to
about 50 x 7 pm, sinuous, often porose,
shorter at the margins and at the apex, ±
rectangular in the base. Male reproductive
organs not seen.
mm, B, C, F = 1 mm, D = 10 pm, E, G, H = 100
Notes: The range of variability in
Leptodon smithii is yet to be satisfactorily
delineated, and awaits a comprehensive re-
evaluation of material from around the
world. Descriptions of plants from Europe
and North America usually state that the
costa is weak and single or short and dou-
ble, reaching to 1/2 the leaf length, and it is
never described as forked. Spore size for
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
167
Contributions
northern hemisphere material is given as
about 16 pm (Smith 1978) and 12-15 pm
(Stark 2000). However, a sterile specimen
from France (MEL 1031884) agrees well
with Australian material although the fork-
ing of the costa is barely apparent.
Representative specimens seen: (1) VIC:
Mt Alexander, near Castlemaine. On gran-
ite boulder. Stone s.n. 1969. MELU 7375.
(2) VIC: East Gippsland, Jones Creek
Reference Area. On rock in Nothofagus
forest. Chesterfield s.n. 1987. MEL
1055056. (3) NSW: Mt Exmouth,
Warrumbungle National Park. Southern
side of mountain just below summit. Eurell
(no. 79/7) 1979. MO (dupl. CANB
7910181). (4) NSW: Bungonia Creek
Gorge. Acmena smithii and Casuarina-
dominated creek bank through limestone
gorge. On trunk of Ficus , in shade.
Streimann (no. 6181) 1978. MO (dupl.
CBG 7902598). (5) ACT: Orroral Valley
Lookout, Namadgi National Park. Dry
sclerophyll forest on moderate slope with
large granite boulders. On shaded vertical
boulder. Forming large colonies.
Streimann (no. 53681) 1994. MO (dupl.
CBG 9403868).
Similar taxa
Several other mosses might be confused
with Leptodon smithii in the field, espe-
cially if the plant is moist and capsules are
absent. Cyptodon muelleri has distinctly
papillose leaf margins, distinct alar cells,
and does not grow on rock, and its cap-
sules are immersed. Fallaciella gracilis is
not pinnately branched and has concave
and slightly pointed leaves, and the costa is
usually very weak and double.
Thamnobryum pandum has coarsely
toothed leaf margins, and the costa is
strong and reaches almost to the leaf apex.
Camptochaete species have a very weak
costa or none at all. and the leaves are dis-
tinctly concave. Other similar mosses, such
as Forsstroenua and Cryphaea , have
pointed leaves. All of the above can be dis-
tinguished from L. smithii by the lack of
coiling of the fronds when dry (although
the branches of F. gracilis may be slightly
curved), and capsules borne on medium to
long setae (except in Cyptodon muelleri).
Discussion
Leptodon smithii is known in Victoria
from only two localities: in dry sclerophyll
forest on Mount Alexander (near
Castlemaine) and warm temperate rainfor-
est in East Gippsland (Fig. 2). In New
South Wales and the ACT it has been
found in lowland to upland sclerophyll for-
est and rainforest in several localities. In
Queensland it has been found only in rain-
forest in the Bunya Mountains, south-west
of Kingaroy. It is not known from
Tasmania (Dalton et al. 1991, Streimann
and Klazenga 2002).
In Victoria Leptodon smithii is exceed-
ingly rare and endangered. It is a plant of
deep shade, so habitat modification such as
the destruction of the canopy or distur-
bance of boulders is a threat to the survival
of populations. Mount Alexander and the
Jones Creek Reference Area are prone to
wildfire, and in fact Jones Creek was
Fig. 2 Known distribution of Leptodon smithii
in Australia.
168
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
severely burnt in 1983 (D Cameron,
Department of Sustainability and
Environment, pers. comm. Sept. 2005). At
the time of writing, Leptodon smilhii had
been recommended for listing as a threat-
ened taxon under the Victorian Flora and
Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 (M. O'Brien,
Department of Sustainability &
Environment, pers. comm. April 2006).
From a national perspective the species
appears to be secure because it has been
collected in recent times from many locali-
ties in New South Wales.
The Mount Alexander material (MELU
7375, dupl. MEL) was collected from a
granite boulder by lima Stone in 1969, but
there is no record of the specific locality or
habitat. Several searches by the author
have been made for the species at Mount
Alexander in recent years, without success.
If it still occurs there it must be extremely
rare. The East Gippsland specimen (MEL
1055056) was collected by Evan
Chesterfield in 1987 in the Jones Creek
Reference Area, now part of Coopracamba
National Park. This locality has not been
searched for the species since then. The
early collections of L. smithii in Australia
(dating from 1 884) and its far-flung distrib-
ution in natural habitats demonstrate that it
is not introduced here. Outside Victoria the
species is known from numerous sites along
and adjacent to the Great Divide, and
appears to be secure nationally. But because
it is known only from a single site in
Queensland, its conservation status in that
state should be carefully assessed. Scott
(1997) did not consider the species to be
rare or threatened in Australia, which seems
reasonable on the available evidence.
World-wide it seems to be a common
species and is unlikely to be endangered.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to the curators of bryophytes at the
Australian National Botanic Gardens, Canberra
(CANB, CBG), the Missouri Botanical Gardens,
Illinois USA (MO), National Herbarium of
Victoria, Melbourne (MEL) and the State
I lerbarium of New South Wales, Sydney (NSW)
for providing specimens and data. Thanks also to
Dr Pina Milne for organising material at MEL,
and Nic Middleton and Kathy Vohs at Melbourne
University Herbarium (MELU) for organising
loans and providing laboratory facilities, and to
the anonymous referee for suggestingt several
important corrections and improvements to the
manuscript.
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Glossary
alar cells group of enlarged or otherwise distinctly different cells at the corners of the leaf base
calyptra thin protective covering over the developing capsule; falls off when capsule is mature
costa thickening of the leaf forming a midrib or nerve
paraphyllia, pseudoparaphyllia minute leaf-like appendages arising from the stems or branches
perichaetial leaves modified leaves surrounding the female reproductive organs
vagin u la cup-shaped structure at the base of the seta, formed from the lower half of the archegonium
(female reproductive organ)
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
169
Contributions
The Yellingbo population of Leadbeater’s Possum
- remnant or introduced?
Dan Harley
Wildlife Ecology Research Group, School of Biological Sciences,
PO Box 18, Monash University, Clayton, Vic. 3800, Australia.
Current address: Department for Environment and Heritage, PO Box 1046,
Mt Gambier. South Australia 5290. Email: dkpharley@hotmail.com
Abstract
In 1986 a small, outlying population of Leadbeater's Possum was discovered inhabiting lowland
swamp forest at Yellingbo Nature Conservation Reserve. Given the pronounced differences between
the vegetation community at this site and that throughout the possum's stronghold in the Victorian
Central Highlands, some people have speculated that the species may have been introduced to
Yellingbo. 1 list several reasons why this is unlikely to be the case. (The Victorian Naturalist 123 (3)
2006, 170-173)
In 1961, after 51 years without a con-
firmed sighting, Leadbeater’s Possum
Gymnobelideus leadbeateri was rediscov-
ered in the montane ash forests of the
Victorian Central Highlands (Wilkinson
1961). The discovery prompted a substan-
tial amount of survey and ecological
research during subsequent decades (e.g.
Smith 1984 a, 1984/6; Smith et ai 1985;
Lindenmayer et al. 1989, 1990, 1991^,
1991/?; Smith and Lindenmayer 1992)
which has ultimately resulted in a widely
held belief that the species is something of
a montane ash forest specialist (e.g. Loyn
and McNabb 1982). Thus, in 1986, when a
small, isolated population of Leadbeater’s
Possum was discovered in lowland swamp
forest at Yellingbo Nature Conservation
Reserve (Smales 1994), some people ques-
tioned the origin of the species at this site.
It is a question that has been asked of me
on numerous occasions during the decade
over which Lve been investigating the pos-
sum’s ecology. Could Leadbeater's
Possums originating from captivity or the
Central Highlands have been released at
Yellingbo? Below 1 list several reasons
why this is unlikely to be the case.
• Very few people would have had access
to Leadbeater’s Possums for the pur-
poses of release, as the species is noto-
riously difficult to trap in montane ash
forest (Smith 1978, 1980). Whilst
acquiring possums presents a major
obstacle, it should be noted that the
species is not particularly difficult to
keep and breed in captivity, and one
person, Des Hackett, did so successful-
ly at his private residence in Blackburn
during the late 1970s and early 1980s
(Myroniuk and Seebeck 1992).
According to Myroniuk and Seebeck
(1992), all of the Leadbeater’s
Possums held in captivity by Des
Hackett were handed over to the
Melbourne Zoo, Healesville Sanctuary
and Taronga Zoo between January
1 98 1 and September 1 986.
• Given that Leadbeater's Possum was pre-
sumed extinct between 1920 and 1960,
it is reasonable to assume that any
release of possums at Yellingbo, if
indeed such an event took place, prob-
ably occurred after 1961. However, the
considerable focus on montane ash for-
est that followed the species’ rediscov-
ery in 1961 makes it unlikely that the
lowland swamp forest at Yellingbo
would have been regarded as a suitable
release site for the species,
• For an individual or group of people to
undertake such an initiative in com-
plete secrecy and to show no subse-
quent interest in the population would
seem highly unlikely.
• The size and distribution of the
Yellingbo population, approximately
100 individuals distributed along a nar-
row, 6 km length of floodplain forest
(Harley et ai 2005), is more indicative
of a naturally occurring population
than one that has been introduced. For
a translocation to produce this distribu-
170
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
tion pattern it would probably require
the release of substantial numbers of
possums at multiple release sites. Most
successful translocation projects
require multiple release events con-
ducted over several years.
• The success rate of mammal transloca-
tions and re-introductions is generally
quite low (Griffith et al. 1989; Short et
al. 1992; Beck et al. 1994; Pietsch
1994; Wolf et al. 1996; Fischer and
Lindenmayer 2000). There have been
just two attempts to translocate
Leadbeatef s Possums to date, one of
which involved captive-bred individu-
als, and both were unsuccessful
(Macfarlane and Seebeck 1991; Harley
unpubl. data). However, the related
Sugar Glider Petcmrus breviceps ,
which is of a similar size to the possum
and has similar dietary and denning
requirements, has been successfully
established at a number of new locali-
ties (Suckling and Macfarlane 1983;
Suckling and Goldstraw 1989; Irvine
and Bender 1997).
• The occurrence of Leadbeater’s Possum in
lowland swamp forest at Yellingbo is
anomalous with all but one of the other
records of the species collected since
rediscovery of the species in 1961.
However, Smales (1994) proposed that
the possum’s occurrence at Yellingbo is
consistent with the historic records of
the species (1867-1910) from the Bass
River near the town of Woodleigh and
Koo-Wee-Rup Swamp near Tynong
(McCoy 1867; Brazenor 1946). Prior to
the clearance of native vegetation at
these sites, they are likely to have sup-
ported habitat similar to that present at
Yellingbo today (Smales 1994). Indeed,
during the late 1800s and early 1900s,
the possum was thought to be restricted
to these types of habitats (e.g. Spencer
1921; Anon 1939) and there had been
no suggestion that it might also occur in
montane forest.
• Leadbeater’s Possum is extremely cryptic
and its presence at a site can be easily
overlooked. Thus, it is not altogether
surprising that it was not detected at
Yellingbo prior to 1986, and its dis-
covery there at that time was entirely
serendipitous (Smales 1994).
• In addition to Yellingbo, Leadbeater’s
Possum recently has been detected at
one other site dominated by Mountain
Swamp Gum Eucalyptus camphora ,
the Silver Gum Reserve near Buxton
(K Garth, pers. comm.; pers. obs.).
This small, 17 ha reserve is situated
approximately 55 km north of
Yellingbo, and sections of it bear con-
siderable resemblance to the latter.
Speculation concerning the origin of the
Yellingbo population of Leadbeater’s
Possums seems to have arisen because of
the notable differences between the floris-
tics and structure of montane ash forest in
the Victorian Central Highlands and low-
land swamp forest at Yellingbo (see
Harley et al. 2005). For instance, the latter
vegetation community lacks Acacia spp.,
which are one of the possum’s major
sources of food in montane ash forest
(Smith 1984/?). The likelihood of the pos-
sum’s presence at a site is positively corre-
lated with the basal area of Acacia spp. in
montane ash forest (Lindenmayer et al.
1991a). Lindenmayer et al. (1993) detect-
ed the possum at only one of 49 linear cor-
ridors of montane ash forest that they sur-
veyed. In contrast, the lowland swamp for-
est inhabited by Leadbeater’s Possums at
Yellingbo is a naturally occurring corridor,
stretching along a narrow floodplain that
rarely exceeds 120 m in width (Harley et
al. 2005). Despite these notable differ-
ences, the two vegetation communities
share several attributes likely to be of sig-
nificance to the possum. These include: the
predominance of smooth-barked eucalypts
(given that one of the species’ main feed-
ing behaviours involves licking surface
exudates from their trunks), hollow-bear-
ing trees (that provide den sites) and high-
ly-connected vegetation in either the mid-
dlestorey or canopy (that facilitates the
possums’ mode of locomotion through the
forest). In addition, both forest types are
characterised by a cold, wet climate.
The nearest records of extant
Leadbeater’s Possum populations to
Yellingbo are approximately 17 km to the
east and north-east in montane ash forest at
Mt Beenak and Ben Cairn (Owen 1963;
Loyn and McNabb 1982; Lindenmayer et
al. 1989). This distance is considerably
greater than the species’ dispersal capabili-
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
171
Contributions
ty (the longest movement recorded for the
species is approximately 1500 m; see
Harley 2005), and this, coupled with habi-
tat fragmentation during the last century,
indicates that the Yellingbo population is
isolated from those in the Victorian
Central Highlands.
A molecular investigation into population
differentiation in Leadbeater’s Possum
currently underway in the School of
Biological Sciences at Monash University
may be able to resolve the question sur-
rounding the origin of the Yellingbo pos-
sums - remnant or introduced? Indeed, it
offers the most likely source of hard evi-
dence on the subject. If there has not been
genetic interchange between lowland and
montane populations for a significant peri-
od of time (e.g. centuries), then one would
predict certain genetic differences to be
apparent, leading to the conclusion that
Yellingbo supports a remnant population.
Conversely, the origin of the Yellingbo
possums may be more difficult to establish
using molecular techniques if there has
been regular genetic interchange across the
17 km gap in the species' distribution
within the last 100 years, as the genetic
makeup of populations in the two areas
may be similar.
While there is no doubt that the majority
of extant Leadbeater’s Possum populations
inhabit montane ash forest, a recent survey
of the species' distribution and abundance
in sub-alpine woodland dominated by
Snow Gum Eucalyptus pauciflora at Lake
Mountain has revealed another significant
population occurring outside montane ash
forest (Jelinek el at. 1995; Harley, unpubl.
data). It is likely that the extensive Snow
Gum woodlands of the Mt Baw Baw/Mt
Erica plateau also support a substantial
Leadbeater’s Possum population (Atlas of
Victorian Wildlife Database). Such results
are not entirely surprising, as the other-
three species of petaurid that occur in tem-
perate south-eastern Australia (the Sugar
Glider, Squ irrel Glider Pet aunts norfolcen-
sis and Yellow-bellied Glider Petaurus
australis ), which occupy the same feeding
niche as Leadbeater's Possum, are each
found in a range of forest types.
In conclusion, there appear to be several
reasons why the theory that Leadbeater’s
Possums were introduced to Yellingbo is
unlikely, and no reasons in support of it
other than that the forest at Yellingbo dif-
fers from montane ash forest. I suggest that
the likelihood that the species was intro-
duced to Yellingbo is extremely low, and
that the site almost certainly supports a
remnant Leadbeater’s Possum population.
Moreover, the speculation concerning the
origin of the Yellingbo population appears
to have arisen without recognition of the
similarities that lowland swamp forest has
with the vegetation communities present at
the historic collection localities for the
species.
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2006
One hundred years ago
WALLABY AT SEA - Mr. F. Wisewould stated that when coming from San Remo
recently he noticed an object in Western Port Bay, about 100 yards from the beach,
which proved to be a wallaby swimming towards Phillip Island. It seemed very
exhausted, and fell down upon reaching the shore, taking several minutes to reach the
scrub, only a short distance off. It is alleged there are no wallabies on either French or
Phillip Island. Should this be correct, the animal must have been caught by the tide on
one of the mud banks or sand spits at the head of the bay, and carried by the ebb,
which was running very fast, a distance of eight or ten miles.
From The Victorian Naturalist XXII ( 12) p. 224
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
173
Tribute
David Hungerford Ashton, OAM
6 July 1927 - 22 November 2005
Dr David Ashton, was the authority on
Australia’s majestic Mountain Ash, aptly
named by Mueller, Eucalyptus regnans ,
and devoted his professional life to the elu-
cidation of ecological details of plant com-
munities. An artist, poet, pianist and com-
poser, as well as ecologist, David Ashton
valued the beauty as well as the science of
the living landscape.
David’s school and university studies
shaped his decision to become a botanist.
Having studied agricultural botany and
geology at Melbourne High School, he
began an agricultural science course at the
University of Melbourne in 1946. During
our conversations not long before he died,
he still remembered his first-year botany
excursions to Frankston heath and forests
in the Dandenong Ranges and his pleasure
at being in the group led by the ecological-
ly-enthusiastic professor of botany, John
Turner. David was so impressed that plants
had names and ecological reasons for
growing where they did, that he switched
to science and majored in botany and geol-
ogy. He also remembered his introduction
to more distant forests during his third-
year ecology excursion to east Gippsland
in 1948.
The following year. Professor Turner
handed David Ashton, new ly BSc, an eco-
logical puzzle for his postgraduate
research project, thereby seeding, and per-
haps sealing, his fate as an ecologist.
Mosaics of fire-generated, even-aged
stands of Mountain Ash did not seem to fit
the model of forest regeneration, which
originated in the northern hemisphere
where uneven-aged forests were perpetuat-
ed by continuous regeneration in forest
gaps. It was well-known that Mountain
Ash regenerated vigorously after fire; but
could it regenerate in forest gaps? Or was
the dramatic episodic disturber, fire, essen-
tial for its regeneration?
Venerable stands of E. regnans (over two
centuries old) in Melbourne’s water catch-
ment on the Great Dividing Range north of
the thirsty city had escaped the ferocious
1939 fires. In 1949 David began the diffi-
cult and arduous task of mapping the vege-
tation and soils of the Big Ash forest in the
Wallaby Creek catchment and initiated a
study of regeneration in these long-unbumt
stands - a tall order indeed. Little did
young David realise that this was the
beginning of his fifty-year solo investiga-
tion of E. regnans and its forests. In the
1950s, despite weather-, wombat- and
leech-induced tribulations, and the lack of
an ecologist-supervisor, David managed to
reveal many details of the Mountain Ash’s
life-story, including its apparent ability to
regenerate in a forest gap. In 1957 he was
awarded a PhD for his thesis, ‘Studies on
the autecology of Eucalyptus regnans
F.v.M.'.
Meanwhile, David thrice joined
Professor Turner's summer team to assess
the vegetation in plots which Maisie
Fawcett (later Mrs Carr) had established in
grazed (unfenced) and un-grazed (fenced)
areas on the Bogong High Plains in the
mid- 1 940s.
Dr Ashton interested generations of
Melbourne University students in ecologi-
cal processes in Victorian plant communi-
ties. From 1960 he taught ecology to sci-
ence and forestry undergraduates, intro-
ducing them to various plant communities
during excursions. An annual week-long
excursion to such distant destinations as
Wilson's Promontory, Lake Mountain, a
patch of W'arm temperate rainforest near
Mario in east Gippsland, the Snowy River
valley near Suggan Buggan, the Bennison
High Plains, Mt Eccles and Mt Cobbler,
allowed final-year undergraduates to
undertake a detailed ecological study.
From the early 1960s David Ashton also
supervised postgraduate research projects
on a wide range of plant communities,
including messmate forests near Wallaby
Creek and on Wilson’s Promontory, Lilly
Pilly Acmena smithii on Wilson’s
Promontory, Myrtle Beech Nothofagus
cunninghamii , on Mt Donna Buang, the
intriguing outlier of Bull Mallee
Eucalyptus behriana near Melton,
Brisbane Ranges plant communities.
174
The Victorian Naturalist
Tribute
Westernport Bay mangroves Avicennia
marina , Cypress Pine Callitris glaucophyl-
la, in the Snowy Valley, Kanooka
Tristan iops is laurina in east Gippsland
warm temperate rainforests, Lake
Mountain Snow Gum Eucalyptus pauciflo-
rq , and Bogong High Plains grasslands.
He helped with the tabulation of plant
community information for Victoria’s first
conservation survey, which was undertak-
en by his postgraduate student, Judy
Frankenberg, after submitting her MSc
thesis on Wilson’s Promontory Lilly Pilly
in 1965. Frankenberg’s Nature
Conservation in Victoria (VNPA, 1971)
reveals the sometimes urgent need for the
conservation of many of the plant commu-
nities which Ashton had the ecological
foresight to have his postgraduate students
investigate.
David Ashton joined the FNCV in
October 1 965 - two months after his first
paper appeared in The Victorian
Naturalist. It presents the results of his
final-year ecology students' investigation
of seed germination in the soils of nine
Victorian plant communities in 1964. He
continued to use The Victorian Naturalist
to report work undertaken by his ecology
class. The November 1967 issue carries the
report of another soil seed study - of ger-
minable seed in soils from long-unburnt
and 1939-regeneratcd snow gum woodland
at Lake Mountain. Subsequent issues of
The Victorian Naturalist carry reports of
students’ investigations during the annual
week-long ecology excursion in the late
1960s - ‘Ecological Studies of Tunnel
Cave, Mt. Eccles’ in volume 85 in 1968,
and ‘Ecological Studies on the Bennison
High Plains’ in volume 90 in 1973. Other
papers discuss epiphytes on Myrtle Beech
trees at Mt Donna Buang, gum-topped
stringybarks in the Trentham district, a
possible tri-hybrid eucalypt and root fusion
between E. regnans and E obliqua in the
Cathedral Range area, and artificial
hybrids of E regnans. Dr Ashton also con-
tributed a paper on the history of the
McCoy Society to a special McCoy issue
of The Victorian Naturalist in 2001 .
Ashton’s Wallaby Creek and High Plains
investigations reveal the crucial impor-
tance of long-term studies, with decades,
not years, being required for the elucida-
tion of adequate ecological explanations.
Had he transferred his ecological attention
away from the Big Ash forest in the 1950s,
he would not have noticed the subsequent
demise of the few saplings that had man-
aged to grow from seedlings in a forest
gap, and would not have been provoked to
examine in more detail the biology and
ecology of E. regnans in order to explain
properly the intimate intricacies of its life.
In the 1990s he prepared three substantial
papers on his half-century’s scientific
scrutiny of E. regnans , which were pub-
lished in 1999 and 2000.
In the 1980s, after several re-surveys of
Maisie Carr’s plots. Dr Ashton supervised
Dick (RJ) Williams’ doctoral investigation
of vegetation dynamics on the Bogong
High Plains. Over four decades after their
1939 (post-fire) regeneration, shrubs were
scnescing above carpets of grass rather
than shrub-seedlings, allowing Dick
Williams to confirm the cattlemen-con-
fronting irony Maisie Carr had earlier
reported - that heath land shrubs are even-
tually replaced by grasses.
Awards and honours followed University
retirement, beginning with the prestigious
Medal of the Ecological Society of
Australia in 1990. Dr Ashton became a
Foundation Fellow of the Royal Society of
Victoria in 1995. In 1999 he was doubly
honoured. Victoria’s Department of
Natural Resources and Environment estab-
lished the ‘David Ashton Biodiversity
Award’ for departmental staff for scientific
achievements which enhance the under-
standing, conservation or management of
Victoria’s biodiversity. Rangers at the
Kinglake National Park, which then
included the Big Ash forest, organised a
celebration for his research jubilee, and a
beautiful bronze commemorative plaque
was unveiled at Wallaby Creek. Since this
is still part of Melbourne’s water catchment
and therefore inaccessible to the public, the
plaque was erected near the Toorourrong
Reservoir carpark, in sight of the tall forests
David Ashton knew so well. In 2000 he
received a Parks Victoria Kookaburra
Award for his contributions to Victoria’s
parks, in 2001 a medal of the Order of
Australia for services to plant science, and
in 2002 a University of Melbourne DSc
degree for his published work.
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
175
Naturalist Notes
Thanks largely to the establishment of
national parks. Dr David Ashton is out-
lived by plant communities which he and
his students investigated. He is also sur-
vived by his published papers, which pro-
vide foundations for wise conservation and
management decisions; by the ideas and
practices of his postgraduate students in
CSIRO, national parks and forestry, uni-
versities and schools; and by the ‘David
Ashton Biodiversity Award’ to encourage
the conservation of Victoria’s biodiversity.
Linden Gillbank
History and Philosophy of Science Department
The University of Melbourne
The Victorian Twitchathon: racing for
ornithological conservation
On a warm weekend in November 2005
the Seven Year Twitchers raced and won
Birds Australia’s Victorian Twitchathon.
The following article is a diary of this
remarkable two-day event.
So what is the Twitchathon? The
Twitchathon is a 24-hour race that
involves dozens of birdwatchers madly
rushing around the Australian bush
attempting to see or hear (read twitch) as
many bird species as possible. The aim of
the Twitchathon is to raise money, through
team sponsorship, for ornithological
research and conservation.
The name of the race is based on the term
6twitcher\ hard-core birdwatchers who
chase rare birds. The rules state that each
team must have at least two participants,
with four being the norm. Our team had
four members: Tim Dolby, Greg Oakley,
John Harris and Fiona
Parkin.
An important aspect of
winning the Twitch-
athon is that teams must
cover enormous dis-
tances in a 24-hour peri-
od. If you include the
pre-race reconnaissance,
by the end of the race
we had travelled well
over 1400 kilometres.
The main reason for this
is that in order to see a
wide variety of bird
species you must also
cover as many different
habitat types as possible.
During the race we visit-
ed Mallee, Box-Ironbark,
grassy woodlands, wet and dry sclerophyll
forests, freshwater wetland, coastal heath,
saltmarsh, mudflat and the open ocean.
The diversity of birds we saw reflected
these diverse habitats.
Day One
Over the years the Seven Year Twitchers
have used a number of different routes
around Victoria. This year we chose to
start our race at Goschen Bushland
Reserve, a small isolated mallee reserve
west of Lake Boga in northern Victoria.
Goschen usually contains spring-flowering
Long-leaf Emu-bush Eremophila longifo-
lia , a small rough-barked tree that acts as a
vital food source for some of our rare and
nomadic honeyeaters. One bird in particu-
lar, the elusive, almost mythical. Black
Honeyeater loves the stuff. A member of
Spotted Pardalote Parda lotus punctatus.
Photograph by Jonathon Thornton
176
The Victorian Naturalist
Naturalist Notes
Black-chinned Honeyeater. Melithreptus gularis. Photograph by Jonathon Thornton
our team had not seen (or heard)
Black Honeyeater before, so dur-
ing our pre-race reconnaissance I
demonstrated my somewhat
dubious impersonation skills of a
Black Honeyeater call. To every-
one’s suiprise someone immedi-
ately exclaimed, ‘There’s one,
right behind you!’ Of course this
was the only Black Honeyeater
we saw at Goschen, a good two
hours before the race had begun.
Still on our pre-race reconnais-
sance, 30 minutes before the
start of the race, we came across
a pair of Variegated Fairy-wren.
This can be a notoriously tricky
bird to get on to, especially when
you are in a hurry. We were not
going to make the same mistake
twice, so we surrounded the
wrens in a bush, stood around
for half an hour, and then ticked
it as our first bird for the
Twitchathon at 4:00 pm sharp.
The race was on!
After a mad dash around
Goschen we also ticked White-
Tim Dolby seaching for albatross. Photograph by Tanya
Bramley
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
177
Naturalist Notes
browed Woodswallow, Hooded Robin,
Rufous Songlark, White-winged Triller,
Yellow-throated Miner, White-browed
Babbler, Spiny-cheeked Honeyeater.
Chestnut-rumped Thornhill, Brown
Treecreeper, Striated Pardalote, Black-
faced Cuckoo-shrike and Rufous Whistler.
However we had dipped (a birding term
meaning "missed seeing’) on a tew birds
we had hoped to see at Goschen, including
Black Honeyeater, Budgerigar and
Cockatiel. It was still a good start to the
race. The call went out, 'We’ve been here
twenty minutes. Let’s go!’
Next stop was Lake Boga. On the way
out of Goschen we were fortunate to pick
up Blue Bonnet and Pied Butcherbird, and
we stopped at a nearby dam, ticking
Greenshank, Whiskered Tern. Pink-eared
Duck, Australian Shoveler, Australian
Reed- Warbler and Little Grassbird.
Lake Boga is known as the "Home of the
Catalina’ because it was a Flying Boat
Repair Depot during the Second World
War. For the moment we were not interest-
ed in seeing this magnificent flying
machine. We were planning to catch up
with a smaller flying machine. Gull-billed
Tern, which can sometimes be seen hawk-
ing around the lakes. Lake Boga is one of
the only sites in Victoria where you can
reliably expect to see this bird, and this year
several tern were seen on the lake's fringe.
We also added Great Crested Grebe, Black-
fronted Dotterel, White-breasted
Woodswallow and Blue-faced Honeyeater.
Lake Boga is part of a larger freshwater
lake system, which takes in the Kerang
Lakes. The nearby Lake Tutchewop, on the
other hand, is saltwater and as a conse-
quence is a major inland site for migratory
waders. At this stage of the race, however,
we weren’t particularly interested in seeing
the waders. (We’d catch up with them later
at the Western Treatment Plant near
Werribee.) What we were after was the glo-
rious White-winged Fairy-wren, a bird that
inhabits the saltbush around the edge of the
lake. In full plumage this must surely be
one of Australia’s most attractive birds. We
quickly heard, then saw, some of these
beautiful wrens and wc also got on to
Australian Pipit, Brown Songlark and Fairy
Martin. Sadly we dipped on both Zebra
Finch and Great Egret, two birds we had
seen at Lake Tutchewop before the race.
178
Another bird we had seen earlier in the
day was a pair of Brolga along the roadside
between Kerang and Bendigo. Of course
they had also moved on. On the road, how-
ever, we did catch up with some good rap-
tors, Black Kite. Nankeen Kestrel, Brown
Falcon, Whistling Kite and Swamp Hairier.
I had a site for White-backed Swallow at a
quarry just north of Terrick Terrick
National Park; however, we somehow man-
aged to take a wrong turn. I'm sure the map
is wrong! Fortunately this mistake pro-
duced a couple of bonus birds, Masked
Woodswallow and Long-billed Corella.
Declared a national park in 1998, Terrick
Terrick contains one of the most significant
remaining areas of native grasslands in
Victoria. It is also home to a number of rare
and threatened bird species such as Plains-
wanderer and Grey-crowned Babbler. One
of the best areas for birding is around the
picnic ground at the base oi Mt Terrick,
which is nestled in woodlands dominated by
White Cypress-pine. Bird-wise, Terrick
Terrick can run hot or cold. Luckily today it
was a hot! On the drive into the picnic area
we immediately picked up Diamond
Firetail, Mistletoebird, Jacky Winter,
Peaceful Dove and White-winged Chough.
Then, at the base of the rock, we also ticked
Gilbert’s Whistler, Red-capped Robin,
Mallee Ringneck (a bird that had been
noticeably absent just a few weeks earlier)
and then our "best bird’ for the
Twitchathon, a nesting pair of Painted
Honeyeater. After forcing ourselves to
move on (and not grab a camera) we added
Southern Whiteface, Ycllow-rumped
Thornhill, Restless Flycatcher, Common
Bronzewing and Little Eagle. Great birding!
At this stage we calculated our total to be
around 1 10 bird species. It was getting late
and we had to hurry to make sure that we
could add some Box-Ironbark and
Whipstick birds to our list. At Kamarooka,
part of the newly formed Greater Bendigo
National Park, we quickly got on to Black-
chinned, Fuscous and Yellow-tufted
Honeyeater and then heard a distant
Crested Bellbird. At the nearby Whipstick,
a fantastic area of broombush mallee, we
ticked our target species Shy Hylacola, but
also recorded both White-eared and
Tawny-crowned Honeyeater.
The sun was setting and we had two
options: either go straight to our next desti-
The Victorian Naturalist
Naturalist Notes
nation, the Otway Ranges (over four hours
drive away), giving us time to try for some
night birds and hopefully to get some
sleep, or hang around for an hour or so and
try to pick up a Spotted Nightjar. Of course
we hung around, thankfully spotlighting
the nightjar just after dusk. We also ticked
a night-calling Pallid Cuckoo.
We then drove to the Otways and to a
bush campsite near Lome, arriving around
2:00 am. We immediately heard Boobook
Owl, Owlet Nightjar and, surprisingly, a
Fantailed Cuckoo. This was the second
cuckoo we had ticked during the night;
since when had cuckoos become nocturnal?
Day Two
After approximately three hours’ sleep
(deep sleep in my case and yes, 1 dreamt
about birds), dawn broke in the coastal
sclerophyll forests of the Otway Ranges.
The area we birded was in a deep valley
bordered by towering Blue Gum and
Mountain Ash. This is a great spot to bird-
watch. At times the sound of the dawn
chorus is almost deafening, precisely why
it is such a good place to race a
Twitchathon. Listening to that dawn cho-
rus, not only can you tick a dozen new
species by just standing in one place, you
can tick half a dozen before you’ve even
got out of your sleeping bag! We added
Crescent Honeyeater. Satin Bowerbird,
Rose Robin, Gang-gang Cockatoo, Golden
Whistler, White-throated Treecreeper,
Australian King-Parrot, Pied Currawong,
Eastern Spinebil 1, White-browed
Scrubwren, Brown Thornbill and Eastern
Yellow Robin.
After packing up our tents, we drove
down to the coast, and then east along the
Great Ocean Road, first to Aireys Inlet for
Latham’s Snipe and Rufous Bristlebird,
and then the Anglesea heath for Southern
Emu-wren. At Point Addis, Blue-winged
Parrot and Yellow-tailed Black Cockatoo
flew above our heads as we scoped Shy
Albatross and Short-tailed Shearwater. We
were also particularly interested in catch-
ing up with Painted Button-quail at Point
Addis Ironbark Reserve. Their platelets,
small circular clearings the size of cow
paddies created when they feed, were
everywhere. A few weeks earlier a mem-
ber of our team had been kicking Painted
Button-quail out of the way; of course,
today there were none. We did however
tick Satin Flycatcher and Red-browed
Finch, but dipped on Buff-rumped
Thornbill, a bird that can usually be found
around the Ironbark Reserve car park.
Breamlea is a place that always seems to
throw up major surprises. Last year we
saw a Greater Sand Plover. This year we
ticked both Common Sandpiper and
Whimbrel, two bonus birds that we had not
previously considered for our final tally.
There were however, no Hooded Plover,
our target species for Breamlea.
After Breamlea we drove around the
Bellarine Peninsula, stopping at Barwon
Heads for Eastern Curlew, more
Whimbrel, Pied Oystercatcher, Royal
Spoonbill, Black-tailed Godwit, Bar-tailed
Godwit, Caspian Tern - and then to Lake
Lome (at Drysdale) for Freckled Duck and
Blue-billed Duck. On the way through
Geelong we picked with Nankeen Night
Heron and Crested Shrike-tit on the
Barwon River.
Our next stop was a Mecca for Victorian
birders, the Western Treatment Plant -
known to birders as ‘Werribee’. Werribee
is a truly magnificent site for birds, with
nearly 300 species being recorded. It is
home to thousands of wildfowl, and in
summer thousands of waders arrive from
their breeding grounds in the northern
hemisphere. A week earlier 1 had done
some reconnaissance of Werribee and the
place was teeming with good birds. Today,
however, it was quiet! (Or maybe we were
just in a rush?) We didn’t see any Curlew
Sandpiper (possibly our biggest dip), a bird
I had seen easily the previous week, and
also there were no egrets (our other big
dip). We did see Red-kneed Dotterel,
Black-tailed Native-hen, Australasian
Gannet, Striated Calamanthus, Yellow-
billed Spoonbill, Musk Duck, and large
numbers of Cape Barren Geese (the most I
have ever seen at Werribee). We also came
across an albino Australian Shelduck,
which, take away the colour, looks surpris-
ingly like a white domestic duck.
At this stage we did a quick analysis of
our race total. Somehow, somewhere, we
had miscalculated! We had initially
thought we were around 190, and well on
the way to 200 plus. After a quick recount
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
179
Naturalist Notes
Tawny-crowned Honeyeater Glyciphila
melanops. Photograph by Jonathon Thornton.
we found our total was 10 birds down, just
over 180! I was stumped. We couldn’t
retrace our steps and pick up the birds we
had missed, and we were going to have to
rush just to get to 1 90. We had better hurry!
The You Yangs always surprise me. One
of the best birding spots is a dry erosive
creek bed appropriately called Hovels
Creek. To get there you have to walk a
kilometre down a track bordered by planta-
tion eucalypts, climb over a tricky barbed-
wire fence, hopefully avoiding tetanus and
injury to the nether regions. Fortunately,
what is most surprising is that you tend to
pick up the woodland birds that you've
missed previously, including Sacred
Kingfisher, Rainbow Bee-eater, Purple-
crowned Lorikeet, Musk Lorikeet and
Olive-backed Oriole. We also saw Black-
chinned Honeyeater, a bird we’d ticked
earlier, but nonetheless a good sighting lor
the You Yangs.
It was 3:15 pm, the race was scheduled
to finish at 4:00 pm, and we had mistimed
our run home. What do we do for the next
three quarters of an hour? We had recorded
all the birds that we were likely to see in
the You Yangs, and we were committed to
being at the post-twitchathon BBQ at the
Big Rock Picnic Area. Basically we had to
hang around and wait. There was, however,
one target bird we had not seen at the You
Yangs, a Wedge-tailed Eagle. If you are
lucky you can see Wedgies circling one of
the hilltops, so we quickly drove to the
highest point that we could reach and with
10 minutes to spare we ticked a single
Wedge-tailed Eagle disappearing over a
distant hillside ridge.
For me, one of the great puzzles of par-
ticipating in a Twitchathon is what do you
do in the last 10 minutes of racing? You
usually have no time to go anywhere, you
are unlikely to add any new birds to your
list, and you are also totally zonked. So
what do you do? Of course we sat down
and pished! ‘Pishing’ is a birding term
which means making strange squeaking
noises with your mouth. It is somehow
meant to imitate the sound of an injured
animal, or something like that.
Surprisingly, birds in their curiosity are
attracted to this sound. Indeed, it is a tech-
nique that can be surprisingly effective,
working particularly well in enclosed areas
such as mangroves. By pishing we may
still stand a chance of adding Speckled
Warbler or perhaps Scarlet or Flame
Robin. (One of the ironies with our
Twitchathon route was that we were far
more likely to see Hooded, Red-capped
and Rose Robin than we were to see the
more common Scarlet or Flame Robin.)
Needless to say, our first bird for the
Twitchathon was Variegated Fairy-wren
and our last bird was Wedge-tailed Eagle.
Quite rightly so!
By the end of the race we had travelled
over 1400 kilometres, with our final total
at 192 species in 24 hours. We were all
very tired but ready to take on the chal-
lenge of another Twitchathon in 2006.
Tim Dolby
Birds Australia, 415 Riversdale Road
Hawthorn, Victoria 3123
For more information on the Birds Australia
Twitchathon please contact Tim Dolby c/o Birds
Australia, 415 Riversdale Road, Hawthorn,
Victoria, 3123. Phone: (03) 9882 2622.
180
The Victorian Naturalist
Naturalist Notes
An observation of a Southern Water Skink
Eulamprus tympanum giving birth
The Southern Water Skink Eulamprus
tympanum is a common and widespread
reptile throughout much of southern and
central Victoria (Atlas of Victorian
Wildlife Database).The species reproduces
by giving birth to live young and usually
inhabits moist or waterside habitats
(Wilson and Swan, 2003). It is, however,
also found in drier areas, provided suitable
habitat such as fallen logs or rocks are pre-
sent
At one such site in Blue Gum forest in
the Otway Ranges, about 2.5 kilometres
south-west of Lome, a dry, steep slope is
covered in numerous fallen logs of various
sizes. I regularly visit this location for
birdwatching and to observe reptiles, espe-
cially the arboreal Spencer’s Skink
Pseudemoia spenceri and the Southern
Water Skink. One particularly large log
has many cracks and exfoliating pieces of
timber, making ideal habitat for these
species of lizards.
On 12 January 2006, during one such
visit, an adult Southern Water Skink
emerged from a crack in this large log at
about 11.15 am daylight saving time. The
skink proceeded to move slowly over the
log, searching for prey amongst the cracks,
but soon partly disappeared between sec-
tions of timber, so I momentarily turned
my attention to a Spencer’s Skink that was
climbing a nearby daisy bush.
After a few minutes 1 returned my gaze
to the large log and found that the
Southern Water Skink had moved out into
an open sunny position, but appeared to be
convulsing and twisting its body with its
mouth partly open. By this time I was very
close to the skink, but it completely
ignored my presence.
Initially I thought the skink may have
been choking on some item of prey, but
then 1 noticed something wriggling under
the base of its tail. Looking closely I could
see what looked like a small tail, when
suddenly a tiny, wet juvenile skink
appeared from underneath the adult
between the base of the tail and one of the
hind legs. The juvenile skink, which had
been born tail-first, remained motionless
for a few' seconds and then suddenly disap-
peared down a crack in the log. Several
seconds later the adult also disappeared
down a different crack.
During the birth the female remained in
an upright position on the log. The only
evidence that the birth had taken place was
a yellowish, slimy patch on the log, which
soon dried up in the warm sun. I estimated
the adult to have an overall length of about
180-200 mm and the juvenile's overall
length to be about 35-40 mm. The temper-
ature at the site wras approximately 20-22
degrees Celsius.
References:
Atlas of Victorian Wildlife Database,
Department of Sustainability and
Environment, Victoria.
Wilson S and Swan G (2003) A Complete Guide
to Reptiles of Australia. (Reed New Holland:
Sydney)
Peter Homan
409 Cardigan Street, Carlton Victoria 3053.
Email: peter.homan@rmit.edu.au
Vol. 123 (3) 2006
181
Book Reviews
Fossil Invertebrates
by Paul D Taylor and David N Lewis
Publisher: Natural History Museum,
London , 2005 . 208 pp, ill us.
ISBN 0565091832. RRP $69.95
Inside the dust cover of this attractively
presented book are the words, ‘Ideal for
any undergraduate or amateur fossil enthu-
siast...’ However, the book is not really
directed at the person who has a passing
interest in invertebrate fossils; it requires a
certain amount of prior knowledge to
appreciate its content. Apart from an anno-
tated diagram of a trilobite species and one
of a Portuguese man-of-war, the volume
lacks labelled diagrams to which a reader
may refer in order to check the names of
the components comprising the fauna.
Inevitably the book uses complex morpho-
logical terminology. Persons with some
expertise in a particular tossil class would
readily understand this nomenclature, but
it could be overwhelming for some read-
ers. The provision of annotated diagrams
and a comprehensive glossary would go a
long way towards overcoming this problem.
The volume’s introductory chapter takes
the reader through the definition ot fossils,
how they are formed and preserved, and
how they may be used to date sediments
on a relative timescale. It then broadly
describes the phyla of invertebrate animals
covered in the book and charts their diver-
sity through time, from the Cambrian
Explosion to the present.
Fossils of colonial animals are the first
group discussed, beginning with the
Cnidaria, the most ancient of which were
species of the Ediacaran fauna. The
Bryozoans, Sponges and Graptolites are
covered next. As with each ol the subse-
quent chapters, an explanation ot the chap-
ter topic is provided first, followed by
descriptions, and in many cases photo-
graphic figures, of selected fauna. These
images give the reader an insight into the
complexity and variability exhibited by the
fauna under examination through time.
The authors regularly relate and compare
fossil species to living species.
Fossil
Invertebrates
PAUL D. TAYLOR AND DAVID N. LEWIS
l HISTORY M U S F O M
Shelled marine animals follow: Molluscs,
Bivalves, Gastropods, Cephalopods
(Nautiloids, Ammonoids, and Coleoids),
Monop lacophorans, Bellerophontids,
Polyplacophorans, Rostroconchs, and
Scaphopods are explained. The chapter
concludes with coverage of the
Brachiopods. A particularly stunning
image of the spiriferide brachiopod
Spiriferina with its delicate brachidium is
shown.
Worms and tubes: Annelids, Nemotoda,
Onchophora, Priapulida, Sipuncula, and
enigmatic tubular fossils provide a short
chapter.
A chapter on joint-limbed animals, the
Arthropods, follows, beginning with a rel-
atively detailed study ol the Trilobites.
Chelicerates (spiders, scorpions, mites),
Crustaceans (crabs, ostracods, barnacles)
dubbed ‘the insects of the sea’ because of
their marine diversity. Myriapods (milli-
pedes and centipedes), and Insects com-
plete the chapter.
Fossils of spiny-skinned animals are the
final group discussed. Echinoids, Crinoids,
Ophiuroids, Asteroids, Holothurians,
Cystoids, Blastoids, Eocrinoids,
Helicoplacoids, Ophiocistoids, Cyclo-
cystoids, and finally Carpoids are
described and figured.
Most of the images in the book are black
and white. Thirty-nine coloured figures are
provided to give added impact for selected
specimens.
182
The Victorian Naturalist
Book reviews
A list of sources of further information
on invertebrate fossils from both print lit-
erature and from websites is given at the
end of the volume. The bryozoan website
of FNCV Member, Phil Bock, at
http:/ www. ci vgeo. rmit. edu. au/btyozoa/def
ault.html is given as one such source. A
comprehensive index is provided.
The dedicated enthusiast will find that this
book covers the subject of invertebrate fos-
sils well.
Roger Pierson
School of Life and Environmental Sciences
Deakin University
221 Burwood Highway
Burwood, Victoria 3125
Ocean shores to desert dunes:
the native vegetation of New South Wales and the ACT
By David Keith
Publisher: Department of Environment and Conservation, Hnrstville NSW, 2004.
353 pages. ISBN 0731367804. RRP $84.00
Many Australians have no idea of the
diversity of vegetation types within their
country, their state or even within the
region where they live. This is a lamenta-
ble situation indeed. The vegetation of
Australia is unique; the diversity of the
vegetation is unique. It is wonderful, there-
fore, to see a book such as Ocean Shores
to Desert Dunes as it describes the kalei-
doscope of our natural vegetation, albeit
just for New South Wales and the
Australian Capital Territory.
The book is very well written and beauti-
fully presented. It is divided into three sec-
tions. Part I is an introduction to native
vegetation and explains how Australia’s
heritage is closely entwined with the vege-
tation. It describes the ecology of vegeta-
tion, the classification and mapping of
vegetation and how to use the book. The
key on pages 26-28 can be used to deter-
mine the vegetation formations anywhere
in NSW and the ACT. The simple instruc-
tions and glossary ensure that even the
uninitiated will have no problems using the
key.
Part II describes the vegetation forma-
tions and classes. The appropriate vegeta-
tion class is determined by simply reading
the descriptive profiles within the identi-
fied vegetation formation and the process
of elimination. There are 12 vegetation
formations: Rainforest, Wet Sclerophyll
Forest, Grassy Woodland, Grassland, Dry
Sclerophyll forest, Heathland, Alpine com-
plex, Freshwater Wetland, Forested
Wetland, Saline Wetland, Semi-arid
Woodland and Arid Shrubland. Dry
Sclerophyll Forest has the greatest number
of vegetation classes, 24. while each of the
wetlands has only four. Each vegetation
class is presented within a page opening.
The structure of the vegetation is described
as is its extent (along with a map) and a lit-
tle of the ecology of the area or pertinent
issues. In every instance, a list of indica-
tive species for each stratum is provided,
as are superb photographs.
The introduction to each vegetation for-
mation is specific to that formation. For
example, the introduction to Alpine
Complex explains why its four classes are
grouped into the same formation; it dis-
cusses why there are no trees above the
tree line and why Australia’s tree line is so
much lower than tree lines of many other
countries. Some of the unique fauna is
explored, including the often forgotten
invertebrates. Many species of inverte-
brates are found only in the Alps. One of
these is a grasshopper that can change its
colour to maximize or minimize heat-
absorption in the cooler or warmer parts of
the day respectively. The evolutionary
links of the Australian alpine flora is
described, with some being typically
Gondwanan while others have relatives in
temperate latitudes of the northern hemi-
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
183
Book reviews
sphere. The flora also is described as being
‘an evolutionary pump’. Human use of the
area is described and. importantly, so are
the effects of climate change.
Significantly, the area covered by snow is
predicted to shrink over the next thirty
years by 1 8-66 per cent!
Part 111 comprises compilation maps of
the native vegetation of NSW. These detail
existing vegetation and reconstructed veg-
etation. There are three appendices. One
provides estimates of present-day area of
vegetation classes in NSW and the ACT
and per cent cleared since settlement.
Another lists endangered ecological com-
munities and their inferred relationships to
the vegetation classes, and the third lists
the changes to vegetation class and forma-
tion names between version 1.1 of the veg-
etation classification of NSW and version
2.1 (this book).
Ocean Shores to Desert Dunes is ideal,
not only for the student of vegetation for-
mations but also for someone with no
knowledge of vegetation classification. In
fact, if this book was provided to a person
with no interest in vegetation, they would
become a convert.
OCEAN SHORES TO DESERT DUNES
The Native Vh, ration ok New South Wai es
anii nil ACT
Maria Gibson
Plant Ecology Research Unit
School of Life and Environmental Sciences
Dcakin University
221 Burwood Highway
Burwood, Victoria
Albatross: elusive mariners of the Southern Ocean
by Aleks Terauds and illustrated by Fiona Stewart
Publisher: CS1RO Publishing, 2006. 176 pages, paperback;
colour photographs. ISBN 1877069264. RRP $39.95
Albatross is a fine work that focuses on
five species of Albatross that breed at
Australian sites in the Southern Ocean.
The book is lavishly illustrated with stun-
ning photographs of some of the largest
flying birds on earth. Scattered throughout
one also finds images of the remote sites at
which they breed and the other mostly
marine species that share these islands.
The book consists of five easy-lo-read
chapters. The reader is first provided with
an overview of the four breeding sites,
three scattered around Tasmania and the
fourth, Macquarie Island, well to the south
and approximately halfway to the
Antarctic continent. A chapter document-
ing the catastrophic impact that humans
have had on the marine mammals and
birds in Bass Strait and the Southern
Ocean follows. Here we learn that 18"' and
1 9,h century industries, focused on the
recovery of oil. fur and feathers, decimated
marine vertebrate populations. In a climate
of economic greed and fierce competition
184
The Victorian Naturalist
Book reviews
accessible whale, seal, penguin and alba-
tross populations were taken to the brink of
extinction. Some, such as Elephant seals
and Australian Sea Lions in Bass Strait,
were pushed over the edge. Following the
collapse of these land-based industries,
feral animals impacted on returning fauna,
especially the smaller seabirds. With the
development of long-line fishing in the late
1950s a new threat for the larger seabirds,
including the albatross, appeared. Although
much has been done to mitigate the impact
of these fisheries we learn that it is these
activities that now pose the greatest threat
to our albatross. Reflecting Aleks Terauds’
passion for albatross, this conservation
message extends well beyond this chapter
and is the central theme of the book.
A third chapter provides an overview of
each of the five species treated here:
Wandering, Shy, Black-browed, Grey-
headed and Light-mantled Sooty
Albatross. From tips on identifying these
species at sea to detailed accounts of life
history, population trends and feeding
habitats, the reader is provided with a very
thorough understanding of their ecology.
The book concludes with two shorter chap-
ters; one providing a synopsis of the
Australian conservation efforts, the other
providing insights into the challenges and
joys of living and working on the island
breeding sites.
Although upfront in stating that this book
covers albatross that breed in Australia, a
brief foray into those species that occur in
Australian waters as non-breeding visitors
would have been welcome. At times sever-
al such species (e.g. Yellow-nosed
Albatross and Bullers Albatross) are a
major component of the albatross fauna in
near coastal waters of southern Australia
yet these receive no mention. Indeed, tak-
ing this a step further, a short chapter on
the albatross of the world would have
helped set the context for those species that
breed in Australia.
Reflecting the author's experiences
almost of all of the photographs were taken
on the nesting grounds. Given that alba-
tross spend most of their lives in the open
ocean, and it is here that they are truly
masters of their environment, a wider
selection of photographs showing birds at
sea would have also been welcomed.
These are, however, minor criticisms
reflecting personal taste and do not detract
from what is a beautifully illustrated and
well-researched book. Aleks Terauds and
Fiona Stewart are to be commended for
providing a window into the lives of alba-
tross, a glimpse at the wild places on
which they nest, and for bringing the plight
of these magnificent birds to the attention
of all. This work is recommended to any-
one with an interest in natural history, con-
servation or marine environments.
Rohan Clarke
Landscape Ecology Research Group
School of Life and Environmental Sciences
221 Burwood Highway
Burwood, Victoria
Deakin University
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
185
Book reviews
Yarra
A diverting history of
Melbourne’s murky river
by Kristin Otto
Publisher: Text Publishing, Melbourne, 2005.
245 pages, paperback. ISBN 1920885781
RRP $32.00
Recent articles in The Age attest to the
central place the Yarra River has, both for
Melbourne and Melburnians. That endur-
ing interest has given rise to a number of
books, the most recent of which is this
well-presented work.
The book is structured into six chapters,
each focusing on a particular aspect of the
river, such as ‘The source’. The flow’,
‘Working the river’. At the end of
Chapters 2 to 5 there are four sections that
literally cut across the main narrative and
focus on the Yarra’s bridges. The illustra-
tions (all black and white), sprinkled
throughout the book, are well chosen and
generally augment the informative text.
In style, at least, this book seems to owe
something to Robyn Annear's Bear brass.
This is not necessarily a fault, although
imitating a quirky style is difficult and, as
here, doesn’t always work. Otto signals the
manner in which her narrative is to pro-
ceed, with an epigrammatic statement at
the beginning: ‘There are meanders in the
telling, billabongs. islands, snags,
floods...’. This is an accurate metaphor for
the way in which the book is written, but
the meandering text also displays wide-
ranging research on the part of the author.
Perhaps the catchment area might have
been larger; I was diverted occasionally by
some unfortunate historical inaccuracies.
One example will suffice. Following men-
tion of the attempt at settlement at Sorrento
in 1803, we are told (p. 15) that ‘no white
man lived in the Port Phillip District until
1835’. Of course, this ignores the settle-
ment at Corinella in Westernport Bay,
which began in December 1826 and lasted
for about 1 7 months.
As with its subject, this book carries a lot
of material, and while a few pieces might
nonetheless interesting. But as a history, it
also has two noticeable deficiencies.
Firstly, very little of the information is
properly sourced or adequately referenced.
The ‘Sources’ section at the end of the
book does not provide publishing details of
the books used as sources. Moreover, all
the journal articles used are grouped, curi-
ously, in chronological order under head-
ings of the journal title, without volume or
page numbers. These features will make it
difficult to trace any source. Otto is quoted
{theagef Melbourne) magazine , No. 12, p.
66) as saying she couldn’t write a ‘proper’
history of the subject, meaning one with
footnotes, but that shouldn’t absolve her of
the responsibility of telling her readers pre-
cisely where the information came from.
The second major omission is a map that
illustrates the course of the Yarra’s entire
length. This would have been particularly
useful in the chapter dealing with the
source of the river.
These reservations notwithstanding, this
book is recommended to anybody who
wants a readable account of much that has
happened along and in the Yarra River, in
the history of that murky stream.
Gary Presland
Department of History and Philosphy of Science
The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010
186
The Victorian Naturalist
Legislation
Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988
The Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 enables members of the public to nominate species,
communities and potentially threatening processes for listing under the Act. Nominations under the
Act are considered by a Scientific Advisory Committee, which makes recommendations to the
Minister.
The Committee has made a number of final and preliminary recommendations. A brief
Recommendation Report has been prepared for each final or preliminary recommendation. Copies of
the reports can be obtained from the Head Office and major country offices of the Department of
Sustainability and Environment (DSE). The Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 and the Flora
and Fauna Guarantee Regulations 2001 can be viewed at these offices.
Recommendations of the Scientific Advisory Committee
The Scientific Advisory Committee has made final recommendations on the evidence available, in
accordance with Section 15 of the Act, t hat the nominations for listing of the following items be sup-
ported in accordance w ith Section 1 1 of the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988.
Items supported for listing
743 Nymphoides crenata
744 Leptodon smithii
745 Caladenici sp. aff. venusta (Stuart Mill)
746 Corunctstylis sp. aff. nudiscapa (Otway Ranges)
747 Caladenici ornata
748 Pterostylis sp. aff. bicolor (Woomdoo)
749 Pterostylis chlorogramma
750 Purostylis sp. aff. cycnocephala
75 1 Pterostylis sp. aff. dolichochila (Portland)
752 Pterostylis sp. aff. fur cat a (Woolly Tea-tree)
753 Pterostylis sp. aff. mutica (Basalt Plains)
755 Dianella amoena
Item for de-listing
758 Edelia obsenra
Wavy Marshwort
Prince-of-Wales Feather-moss
Stuart Mill Spider-orchid
Otway Midge-orchid
Ornate Pink-fingers
Dense Greenhood
Green-striped Greenhood
Cygnet Greenhood
Portland Shell-orchid
Small Sickle Greenhood
Leprechaun Greenhood
Matted Flax-lily
Yarra Pygmy Perch
Recommendations of the Scientific Advisory Committee
The Scientific Advisory Committee has made preliminary recommendations on the evidence avail-
able, in accordance with Section 14 of the Act, that the nominations for listing of the following items
be supported in accordance with Section 1 1 of the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988.
Items supported for listing
730 Breutelia elongata
739 Climacium dendroides
760 Lindsaea trichomanoides
Items supported for listing
737 Pultenaea williamsonicma Williamson’s Bush-pea rejected
754 Cercartetus nanus Eastern Pygmy Possum rejected
761 Degradation of listed communities by urban, semi-urban, industrial and
related development (e.g. infrastructure development) (potentially
threatening process) rejected
Tasman Breutelia
Marsh Tree-moss
Oval Wedge-fern
Vol. 123 (2) 2006
187
Naturalist
Volume 123 (4)
August 2006
From the Editors
From time to time it is felt necessary to concentrate, through the pages of The tctonan
Naturalist , on a particular group of species of plant or animal, or on the natural history of
a particular area. This happens for a variety of reasons, including the celebrating of his-
torical events (e.g. the life and work of Frederick McCoy, the reservation ot Wilsons
Promontory, the formation of the FNCV); the threat to particular ecosystems (Box-
lronbark forests); or to focus attention on a lesser-known part ot the plant or fungus
worlds (mistletoes, fungi). The present issue falls into the latter category, drawing alien-
tion to the subject of bryophytes.
The subject of bryophytes (mosses, liverworts and homworts) is certainly not well known
to a general readership. Because of that, the terminology used in their study may be
unfamiliar to our readers. For this reason, a glossary of relevant terms has been prepaied
for this issue, and is included at the end, following the tinal paper.
We trust readers will find some interest in the contents of this issue. The papers presented
here should at least serve both as an introduction to a subject area that is not common y
featured in the pages of this journal, and as another indication of the enormous diversity
that exists in the plant kingdom.
The Victorian Naturalist
is published six times per year by the
The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Inc.
Registered Office: FNCV, 1 Gardenia Street, Blackburn, Victoria 3130, Australia.
Postal Address: FNCV. Locked Bag 3, Blackburn, Victoria 3130, Australia.
Phone/Fax (03) 9877 9860; International Phone/Fax 61 3 9877 9860.
email: fncv@vicnet.net.au
w ww.v icnet.net.au/- fn cv
Editors ; Mrs Anne Morton, Dr Gary Presland and Dr Maria Gibson.
The Editors,
Address correspondence to:
The Victorian Naturalist , FNCV, Locked Bag 3, Blackburn, Victoria Australia 3130.
Phone: (03) 9877 9860. Email: vicnat@vicnet.nct.au
All subscription enquiries should be sent to FNCV, Locked Bag 3, Blackburn Victoria
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Victorian
Naturalist
August
Volume 123 (4) 2006
Editors: Anne Morton, Gary Presland, Maria Gibson
From the Editors 190
Contributions Introducing bryophytes, by Maria Gibson 192
A preliminary study of bryophytes and invertebrates of
soil crusts in the Little Desert National Park and surrounds, by
Josephine Milne , Megan Short and Karen Beckmann 195
A pictorial representation of peristomal architecture, by
Chris Tyshing and Maria Gibson 203
Studies on Victorian bryophytes 4. The genus Fabronia Raddi,
by David Meagher * 212
Melbourne's marvellous mosses, by Helen Jolley 215
Epiphytes on Nothofagus cnnnmghamii and Eucalyptus
regnans in a Victorian cool temperate rainforest, by
Claudette Kellcir, Megan Short and Josephine Milne 222
Epiphytic bryophytes of Dickson ia antarctica Labill. from
selected pockets of Cool Temperate Rainforest, Central
Highands, Victoria, by Aaron B Floyed and Maria Gibson 229
Studies on Victorian bryophytes 5. Key to leafy liverworts, by
David Meagher 236
Studies on Victorian bryophytes 6. Key to thallose liverworts
and horn worts* by David Meagher 247
Bryophyte distribution in Blackwood forests of the
Otway Ranges, Victoria, by Matthew Dell and John Jenkin 255
The sexual reproduction and phenology of A trichum
androgynum (Mull. Hal.) A Jaeger, by Louise Biggs and
Maria Gibson 270
Naturalist Note Stream bryophytes in Victorian rainforest streams, by
Chantal Corrigan 279
Glossary 282
ISSN 0042-5184
Front cover: Dawsonia longiseta. Photograph by Matthew Dell.
Back cover: .Soil crust at Wyperfeld National Park (see article on page 195). Photograph
by Chris Tyshing.
Bryophyte Special Issue
Introducing bryophytes
Maria Gibson
Plant Ecology Research Unit, School of Life and Environmental Sciences
Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, Victoria 3125
Bryophytes are small but beautiful plants.
They are frequently overlooked yet are
vital components of most ecosystems.
Bryophytes are early colonizers after dis-
turbance e.g. by tire (Fig. 1), protecting the
bare soil and nutrient-rich ash from wind
and water erosion, and providing a moist
bed for seed germination of vascular
plants. They contribute to nutrient cycling,
provide shelter and protection for inverte-
brates - and thus harbour a food source for
a wide variety of animals - and provide
nesting material for birds and cocoon-
forming insect larvae. They have been
used as bioindicators and biomonitors of
environmental pollution as well as phy-
toremediators, and a number of them have
antifungal and antibacterial properties. In
spite of all this, relatively little is known of
bryophyte ecology or, indeed, what occurs
where.
This special issue of The Victorian
Naturalist highlights some of the current
investigative work being done in Victoria.
Papers included in this issue consider the
soil crusts of the Little Desert National
Park and their associated invertebrates, a
comparison of the epiphytic bryophytes of
Myrtle Beech with those of Mountain Ash,
the bryophytes of Cool Temperate
Rainforest, and bryophytes of stream
rocks,
Bryophytes are divided into three groups,
the mosses, liverworts and hornworts.
None of them has roots; instead, they
attach to their substratum by rhizoids
which do not lake up nutrients as roots do.
Bryophytes take up nutrients dissolved in
water directly through the plant body.
Mosses have stems and leaves (Fig. 2),
while liverworts consist of stems and
leaves or a thallus consisting of flattened
Fig. 1. Funaria hygrometrica , a moss, forms thick carpets after fire, protecting the ash bed from ero-
sion and providing a moist habitat for regeneration of other plants. The photograph was taken at
Wilsons Promontory, approximately six months after the easter bushfire.
192
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte Special Issue
green strap-like or lobed structures (Figs. 3
and 4). Moss leaves often have a vein
(costa) running down the centre. Leafy liv-
erworts never have a costa. The leaves of
both mosses and liverworts usually are one
cell in thickness, although some mosses
have more cell layers, especially around
the costa. Liverwort leaves are often two-
lobed, with each lobe growing from two
distinct apical points. Most moss species
have leaves arranged around the stem in a
spiral. Leafy liverworts have leaves
arranged in rows; many have two rows of
lateral leaves and a row of smaller leaves
on the undersurface. Mosses have multi-
cellular rhizoids; liverworts have unicellu-
lar rhizoids.
Hornworts are thallose, so superficially
resemble thalloid liverworts, but many fea-
tures distinguish the two. Each hornwort
cell usually has only one large chloroplast,
but liverwort cells have many small dis-
coid chloroplasts. Hornworts have stomata
but liverworts do not. These features, how-
ever, are difficult to see in the field.
Hornworts are often rosette-like and one to
two centimetres across. Usually they have
many internal cavities filled with
mucilage, which can be seen with a han-
dlers by slicing through the hornwort and
looking at the cut edge. In liverworts such
cavities are air filled.
Many other features can be used to distin-
guish the three groups of bryophytes. Most
of these require microscopic analysis, but
with a little practice it is surprising how
quickly one intuitively recognizes whether
a bryophyte is a moss, liverwort or horn-
wort. Identifying a bryophyte to genus or
species level is more difficult. Over the last
ten years, the increased production of beau-
tifully illustrated field guides with many
accompanying photographs has helped
greatly, but photographs frequently are
insufficient to distinguish a bryophyte to
either genus or species level. The serious
student of bryophytes requires simple,
easy-to-use keys. This issue of The
Victorian Naturalist presents several keys,
one to the genera (and many species) of
leafy liverworts, one to the thallose liver-
worts and hornworts and one to the moss
genus Fabronia. The paper dealing with
Fabronta also includes a discussion on its
affinities and conservation status.
Fig. 2. Cyathophorum bulbosum , a moss with a
leaf arrangement common in leafy liverworts,
i.e. two lateral rows of leaves and a row of
smaller leaves on the undersurface (not shown).
Fig. 3 Marchantia bertoroana , a common thal-
loid liverwort.
Fig. 4. Hy menophy ton flab ellatum, a stalked
thallose liverwort common in wet forests.
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
193
Bryophyte Special Issue
Bryophytes can reproduce sexually and
asexually (without sex). Asexual reproduc-
tion is generally vegetative and includes
fragmentation with subsequent growth of
the fragment into a new plant, develop-
ment of specialized structures such as
gemmae, which grow into new individuals,
and new grow th of shoots that develop rhi-
zoids and become independent following
degeneration of older parts. Sexual repro-
duction involves an alternation of genera-
tions (Fig. 5). The green plant normally
recognized as the bryophytic plant is the
gametophyte generation, which produces
the gametes, that is, the eggs (ova) and
sperm (antherozoids). Fertilization of the
egg results in development of the second
generation, called a sporophyte, which pro-
duces the capsule that contains spores.
Sporophyte cells have twice the chromo-
some (genetic material) component of the
gametophyte. Within the capsule a process
called meiosis occurs, resulting in develop-
ment of spores that have half the chromo-
some complement of the sporophyte. Upon
release and dispersal to a suitable habitat,
the spores germinate and develop into
another gametophyte generation. This
basic cycle occurs in all three groups of
bryophytes but each group has its own
variations; for example, most mosses have
a filamentous stage of the gametophyte,
called the protonemal stage, which pro-
duces buds that grow into leafy plants with
rhizoids. In liverworts, the protonemal
stage is reduced and each protonema pro-
duces only a single plant. Protonema do
not occur in hornworts. Sporophytes easily
distinguish the bryophyte groups from
each other but, inconveniently, are not
always present. Some species never pro-
duce sexually so never produce a sporo-
phyte. Other species may reproduce sexu-
ally in one region but not another. Studies
on the sexual reproduction of bryophytes
are comparatively few worldwide but are
particularly rare in Australia. This issue
presents an investigation of the sexual
reproduction of A trie hum androgynum , a
common moss of wet forests in Australia.
Also included in this issue is a paper
dealing with the bryophyte collection of
the National Herbarium of Victoria. This
paper provides a historic timeline of the
collections and provides details on some of
the more significant collectors.
This landmark issue of The Victorian
Naturalist showcases some of the research
occurring throughout Victoria and should
encourage others to look at the many and
varied aspects of bryophyte taxonomy and
ecology. Hopefully, this will be reflected
in an increase in the publication rate of
bryological papers in The Victorian
Naturalist.
Gametophytcs produce
male and female
gametes, and may be
male, female or
bisexual
;
Fertilization
of egg by
sperm
\
Protonema devetop
buds each of which
grow into a
gametophyte
Spores are released +
and germinal e to jf
produce a filamentous
gam exophytic stage,
the protonema
Fig. 5. Basic alternation of generations in a moss.
Development of
sp oroph vt e whi ch
always remains
attached to the
gametophyte
i
Spores are
produced within
the capsule by
meiosis
194
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte Special Issue
A preliminary study of bryophytes and invertebrates of soil
crusts in the Little Desert National Park and surrounds
Josephine Milne1, Megan Short2 and Karen Beckmann'
'National Herbarium of Victoria,
Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra Victoria 3141
2 Life and Environmental Sciences, Dcakin University, 221 Burwood II wy, Burwood, Victoria 3125
Abstract
This study is preliminary to ongoing investigations of soil crusts and associated invertebrates in
north-west Victoria, locusing on the Little Desert National Park. Ninety quadrats from nine sites
were sampled. Eighteen bryophyte species (nine mosses, nine liverworts) were identified within the
quadrats. All invertebrates were from the Phylum Arthropoda. Overall abundance and diversity of
invertebrates was low. While sampling in the drier months is valuable for observing the dynamics of
soil crusts in this region, a more comprehensive assessment of species diversity is gained by sam-
pling during wetter periods. (The Victorian Naturalist 123 (4), 2006, 1 95-203)
Introduction
Soil generally is considered a precious
resource, but what is the value placed on
the organisms that comprise soil crusts?
Bryophytes, together with lichens, fungi
and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) make
up the biological or cryptogamic crusts
that play a very important role in protect-
ing soils of the arid and semi-arid zones of
Australia, including sensitive rangelands
(Eldridge and Tozer 1996; 1997a; 1997b;
Hodgins and Rogers 1997, Rosentreter and
Eldridge 2002). Biological crusts protect
soils from erosion, regulate infiltration of
rainfall, provide a suitable microhabitat for
germination of seed, photosynthesise when
moist, therefore acting as a carbon sink
(Moore 1998; Eldridge 2000), and provide
food and shelter for invertebrates. In turn,
invertebrates play an important role in the
regulation of decomposition and nutrient
cycling within the crust and soil beneath
(Belnap 2001). Recent research (Eldridge
2005) has highlighted the importance of
biological crusts as indicators of the effec-
tiveness of landscape management.
Conservation of soil crusts requires not
only an understanding of the organisms
that comprise them, but also of the interac-
tions that occur within them, and how
species composition varies geographically.
In Australia, a number of studies have
examined the composition of soil crusts in
arid and semi-arid areas and rangelands
(Eldridge and Tozer 1996; 1997a; Eldridge
1998a; 1998b; Eldridge 2001), the impact of
particular landuse (e.g. grazing, cultivation)
on the dynamics of soil crusts (Eldridge et
a!. 2000) and the effect of management
activities (e.g. burning oft) on these crusts
(Eldridge and Tozer 1997a; Hodgins and
Rogers 1 997). These studies concentrated on
areas of western New South Wales, south-
western South Australia and Queensland and
highlighted the diversity of cryptogamic
organisms in soil crusts and the abiotic con-
ditions conducive to development of these
crusts. In Victoria, short lists of bryophytes
have been included in vegetation studies of
Hattah Lakes (Willis 1970) and Wyperfeld
(Scott 1982) National Parks, but there are no
formal systematic studies of soil crust
bryophyte species, the invertebrates that
inhabit them, or studies focusing on the
dynamics of soil crusts.
The objectives of this preliminary study
were to record the composition and abun-
dance of soil crust bryophytes and docu-
ment the invertebrate fauna inhabiting
these crusts in the semi-arid zones of
north-western Victoria, in particular the
Little Desert National Park (LDNP), Little
Desert Lodge, North Goroke State Forest
and Jane Duff Reserve.
Methods
Study area
The Little Desert National Park is located
in the Wimmera 375 km north-west of
Melbourne. The area is described as semi-
arid with mean daily maximum summer
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
195
Bryophyte special issue
temperatures ranging from 28 to 30 °C and
mean maximum winter daily temperatures
ranging from 14 to 15 °C (Bureau of
Meteorology August 2004). Mean annual
rainfall is 415 mm with most of the rainfall
occurring from May to October (Bureau of
Meteorology August 2004). The Wimmera
plains were originally covered by wood-
lands of Yellow Gum, Buloke and Black
and Grey Box with large expanses of grass-
land between the woodlands (Land
Conservation Council 1085). Since
European settlement most of the natural
vegetation has been cleared for agriculture
and the LDNP is all that remains of the
original vegetation. The national park began
as a small reserve for the protection of the
Malleefowl (National Parks Service 1 996).
In the late 1960s there were plans to further
develop the area for agriculture. This pro-
posal met with strong public opposition and
in 1968 the area was proclaimed a national
park. The LDNP has expanded over the
years, and by 1988 comprised 132 000 ha
(National Parks Service 1996). The vegeta-
tion of the national park is predominantly
Brown Stringybark Eucalyptus baxteri, with
large patches of heath and Mai lee-broom-
bush Melaleuca uncinata , particularly in the
eastern and central blocks. The western
block is almost all brown stringybark with
small scattered patches of gum -box- Buloke
woodland (consisting of Yellow Gum
woodland and Slender Cypress Pine wood-
land) and Mallee-broombush (Land
Conservation Council 1985). The LDNP
occurs predominantly in what is now
referred to as the Wimmera Bioregion (DSE
2006). Part of the western block of the
LDNP is also within the Lowan Bioregion
(DSE 2006). Ecological Vegetation Classes
have been determined for the two biore-
gions within the LDNP (DSE 2006).
The first fieldtrip in November 2003 sur-
veyed sites in the ‘eastern block' of the
LDNP and sites within the Little Desert
Lodge (Fig. I ). The second fieldtrip con-
ducted in June 2004 surveyed sites in the
‘western and central blocks' of the LDNP
and in the North Goroke State Forest. In this
study, a total of nine sites was examined in
detail (Fig. 1). It was originally proposed to
Victoria • South
Australia border
Fig. 1. Location of study sites and predominant vegetation type at each site. I. Whimpy’s Little
Desert Lodge Nature Trail ‘claypan 1 ’ (Slender Cypress Pine Woodland); 2. Whimpy’s Little Desert
Lodge Nature Trail ‘claypan 2’ (Slender Cypress Pine Woodland): 3. Kiala camp ground (Yellow
Gum Woodland); 4. Salt Lake Road (Hcathland); 5. Stringybark Walk (Slender Cypress Pine
Woodland); 6. Mt Moffat Track (Yellow Gum Woodland); 7. Mt Moffat Track, just north of East-
West Road (Yellow Gum Woodland); 8. Southern end of Sambell’s Track (Yellow Gum Woodland);
9. North Goroke State Forest (Yellow Gum Woodland).
196
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
sample along transects in diverse vegetation
types within the national park, but once in
the field it became evident that sites which
soley consisted of sandy soils supported lit-
tle or no soil crusts. Any bryophytes present
were restricted to the base of shrubs.
Therefore, sampling took place in heathland
and in woodlands dominated by Slender
Cypress Pine Callitris gracilis R. Baker
(Fig. 2a) or Yellow Gum Eucalyptus leu-
coxylon F.Muell. subsp. leucoxylon (Fig.
2b). At each of these sites there was some
clay component in the soil. The Jane Duff
Reserve, 5 km west of Mitre, was visited en
route to the national park.
Data collection
A transect (100 m) was set out at each
site. Soil crust bryophyte and lichen
species were sampled from 30 x 30 cm
quadrats, at 10 m intervals along the tran-
Fig. 2 a. Slender Cypress Pine Callitris gracilis , b. Yellow Gum Woodland Eucalyptus leucoxylon
subsp. leucoxylon.
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
197
Bryophyte special issue
sect. Soil surface features are important as
they are indicative of the likelihood of soil
crust formation. Biotic and abiotic aspects
were recorded for each quadrat along a
transect, including characteristics of soil
surface morphology e.g. slope within a
quadrat, surface microtopography and
crust coherence (see Eldridge and Tozer
1997). Within each quadrat the vascular
plant cover and leaf litter cover were esti-
mated. The percentage total soil crust
cover within the quadrat was then estimat-
ed together with the proportion of the
algal, bryophyte and lichen components.
Small samples of mosses and liverworts
were taken to confirm identification. Some
collections of the liverwort Rice in were
fertile. Their spores were examined with a
scanning electron microscope (SEM)
because the microscopic structure of
spores assists in the identification of these
plants. The relationship between the suite
of soil crust species and vegetation type,
leaf litter cover, topography, soil type and
associated water retention will be reported
elsewhere.
Soil crust samples (10 x 10x2 cm deep)
were collected from quadrats along each
transect and the macro-invertebrate fauna
extracted in the laboratory using Tullgren
funnels (Gullan and Cranston 2000). In the
first fieldtrip, soil crust samples were taken
from four quadrats per transect, but as this
yielded a low number of invertebrates, five
quadrats were sampled along each transect
during the June 2004 sampling period. After
the invertebrates were extracted, any moss-
es and liverworts present were identified.
Soil from the November 2003 crust sam-
ples was potted out in small sterile pots
filled with sterile coarse sand to determine
whether spores or asexual propagules of
mosses and liverworts were resting in the
soil. The pots were placed in ambient light
and temperature, watered regularly with
distilled water and covered with a plastic
sheet to avoid contamination.
Taxonomic nomenclature follows
Streimann and Klazenga (2002) for moss-
es, and McCarthy (2003) for liverworts.
Results
Crust floristics
Eighteen bryophyte species (nine mosses
and nine liverworts) representing 1 1 families
Table 1. Bryophytes recorded within quadrats
in the Little Desert National Park, Little Desert
Lodge and North Goroke State Forest Victoria,
Australia.
Taxa
Mosses
Biyaceae
Rosulabryum billardierei (Schwagr.)
J.R. Spence*
Rosulabryum campy lothecium (Taylor)
J. R.Spence
Ditrichaceae
Eccremidium sp.
Gigaspermaceae
Gigaspermum repens (Hook.) Lindb.
Leucobryaceae
Campy topus intrqflexus (Hedw.) Brid.
Polytrichaeeac
Potytrichum juniper initm Hed w .
Pottiaceae
Barbula calycina Schwagr.
Barbula crinita Schultz
Didymodon torquatus (Taylor) Catches.
Tortula antarctica (Hampe) Wilson
Triquetrella papillata (Hook.f. and Wilson)
Broth.
Splachnaccae
Tayloria octoblepharum (Hook.) Mitt.*
Liverworts
Acrobolbaceae
Enigmella thallina G.A.M. Scott and
K. G.Beckm.
Lethocolea pansa (Taylor) G.A.M. Scott and
K.G. Beckm.
Amelliaceae
Gongylanthus scariosus (Lehm.) Steph.
Aytoniaceac
Asterella drummondii (Hook.f. and Taylor)
R.M.Schust. ex D.G.Long
Asterella sp.
Fossombroniaceae
Fossombronia intestinalis Taylor
Fossombronia sp.
Ricciaceae
Ricci a papulosa (Steph.) Steph.
Riccia sp.
* Recorded at study sites, but not in quadrats.
were identified (Table 1) from 90 quadrats
sampled from nine sites. A further two moss
species Rosulabryum billardierei and
Tayloria octoblepharum were recorded in
the vicinity of some of the quadrats. Of the
12 moss taxa, five were from the family
Pottiaceae and two from the family
Bryaceae. The predominant liverworts
recorded were the thallose genera Asterella
and Riccia and the leafy species, Lethocolea
pansa and Fossombronia (Table 1 ). The
Jane Duff Reserve proved rich in Riccia
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The V ictorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
with three species being recorded, R.
cavenosa, R. cristallina and R. multifida.
Two mosses, Fissidens sp. and Funaria
sp., that were not recorded in the quadrats
grew in the pots from soi! samples collect-
ed in November 2003.
The impact of season on the percentage
of soil crust cover and the contribution par-
ticular cryptogams made to crust cover is
depicted in Fig. 3. Sampling in June 2004,
after substantial rainfall, showed that algae
and liverworts, particularly Asterella sp.,
Fossombronia sp. and Lethocolea pansa
formed the predominant components of the
soil crusts (Figs. 4d and 5b). In contrast,
crusts sampled during the dry period of
November 2003 consisted mainly of
mosses (Fig. 3).
Invertebrates
All invertebrates collected in this study
were from the Phylum Arthropoda.
Increased abundance and activity of inverte-
brates was noted in the June 2004 sampling
period. They were observed crawling over
the soil crusts, whereas none was observed
in the drier conditions in June 2003. No dif-
ference in either abundance or diversity of
extracted macro-invertebrates was found
between the two sampling periods, with the
exception of the insect order Collembola
(springtails). The majority of arthropods
extracted were mites and springtails (Table
2). Only a small number of ants were
extracted from the soil crusts, but our field
observations suggest that ants are present at
most sites but appeared to be moving across
soil crusts, between patches of shrub and lit-
ter cover, rather than inhabiting the areas of
soil crusts. Eight ant species were recorded
moving across transects: Anonychomyrma
sp., Iridomyrmex sp. (meat ant),
Camponotus sp., Doleromyrma sp.,
Pheidole sp. I, Pheidole sp. 2,
Rhytidoponera sp., and Tapinoma sp. In the
June 2004 sampling period, there were
Diptera, Coleoptera and Lepidoptera larvae
in the crust samples.
Discussion
The majority of bryophytes recorded in
this study also have been documented in
other soil crust studies (Eldridge and Tozer
1996; 1997a; 1997b; Eldridge et a/. 2000;
Thompson and Eldridge 2005). The liver-
Table 2. Invertebrates recorded in soil crust
within the Little Desert National Park, Little
Desert Nature Lodge and North Goroke State
forest, Victoria, Australia.
Morphospecies collected
Nov Jun
2003 2004
Order
Arancae
_
1
Acari
6
9
Hymenoplera
1
2
Coleoptera (larvae)
-
2
Lepidoptera (larvae)
-
1
Diptera (larvae)
-
1
Hemiptera
1
-
Blattodea
1
_
Collembola
1
5
Total
10
21
worts Gongylcmthus scariosus, Lethocolea
pansa and Riccia multifida have not been
documented in previous soil crust studies.
Differences between the suite of species
recorded can be attributed to vegetation
communities, soil types, level of distur-
bance (Eldridge and Tozer 1996; 1997a;
Hodgins and Rogers 1997) and sampling
season. Also, because of the small size and
ephemeral nature of many soil crust
bryophytes, taxa can be overlooked. In this
study, the season in which surveys were
conducted influenced the taxa recorded
and, in particular, their relative abundance.
Substantial rainfall in early winter (June
2004) influenced the dynamics of the soil
crust cover at the study sites, and the
ephemeral nature of liverworts became
quite apparent. There had been heavy rain-
fall in the weeks prior to this trip and liver-
worts formed one of the predominant com-
ponents of the soil crusts. In the November
2003 fleldtrip, much of the liverwort bio-
mass wras not evident, being in a dormant
summer phase and nearly impossible to
detect, or resting in the soil as either spores
or asexual propagules, which produced
new plants with the onset of rain (Fig. 5b).
The growth of liverworts from soil collect-
ed in November 2003 is evidence that the
soil does acts as a diaspore bank. In June
2004, gemmae were detected amongst the
leaves of the liverwort Lethocolea pansa
indicating a strategy in this species of pro-
ducing many asexual propagules at the
beginning of the growing season, prior to
the production of gametangia (male and
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
199
Bryophyte special issue
Fig. 3. Mean percentage cover of moss, liverwort, lichen and algae in soil crusts at sites surveyed in
the Little Desert National Park, Little Desert Lodge and North Goroke State Forest, Victoria.
female sex organs) (Beckmann 1993). It
became apparent that once pots were
allowed to dry out, some liverwort species
e.g. Fossombronia sp. and Lethocolea
pans a, shrivelled and dried very quickly
and were difficult to detect on the soil sur-
face. The stems of these perennial species
often act as tubers that persist after the
extremities have dried and deteriorated and
new growth is initiated once favourable
conditions return (Beckmann 1993). In this
state, the presence of these plants is diffi-
cult to detect and would explain the lower
percentage of liverwort crust component in
the November 2003 sampling (Fig. 5a). In
contrast, the liverworts Riccia and
Asterella were recorded during the
November 2003 sampling. These species
Fig. 5 a. Patch of dry cryptogamie crust, November 2003, b. magnified section of soil crust after sig-
nificant rain, showing growth of ephemeral liverworts Fossombronia sp., Lethocolea pansa and the
moss Eccremidium sp., June 2004.
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The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Fig. 4 a. Dry moss cushion, partially inundated with sand, b. moss cushion after rain, c. mosses
between patches oi toliose lichen, d. algal crust in Callitris gracilis woodland.
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
201
Bryophyte special issue
demonstrated a strategy of desiccation tol-
erance where plants employed various
mechanisms, in this case scales, to facili-
tate survival of mature plants which rapid-
ly recover after rain. The inrolled thalli
(flattened plant body) of these species had
protective scales and were visible in some
quadrats during the November 2003 sam-
pling. Gongylantku$ scariosus, Lethocolea
pansa and Enigmella thallina all produce
spores in capsules that develop under the
soil in elaborated stem tissue (marsupia).
These marsupia persist in the soil after the
parent plant has shrivelled or decayed
(Beckmann and Scott 1980; 1992).
Mosses and lichens also took advantage
of the availability of moisture (Fig. 4c).
Moss cushions of Rosulabryum camylothe-
cium , Barbula calycina, B. crinita and
Campy/opus introflexus all showed evi-
dence of new growth. These species pos-
sess morphological characteristics (e.g.
hyaline (colourless) leaf tips, leaf cell
papillae (thickenings on cell wall), twisting
and rolling of leaves) (Scott 1982, Eldridge
and Tozer 1996) that enable them to toler-
ate arid and semi-arid environmental con-
ditions. During dry conditions, moss cush-
ions often are partially inundated by sand
and brown in colour (Fig. 4a). After signif-
icant rain, cushions rehydrate and growth
begins (Fig. 4b). Recruitment of new
plants was particularly evident in
Eccremidium sp., which had been recorded
in only four quadrats during the November
2003 fieldtrip (Fig. 5b).
The overall abundance and diversity of
invertebrates in the soil crusts of the Little
Desert was low. This tends to confirm the
observation that, as soil crusts are dry and
inhospitable for much of the year, there is
unlikely to be a suite of invertebrates
specifically inhabiting the soil crusts.
Rather, invertebrates are making use of the
soil crust as a temporary refuge and food
resource when the crusts are hydrated and
cryptogam coverage is greater. Larvae
appear to be from species that lay their
eggs and pupate in the soil, and then use
the soil crust as habitat. The results from
this preliminary study support the conclu-
sions of Whitford (1996) who reviewed
studies of soil invertebrates in arid and
semi arid regions and noted that total
diversity is lower in arid ecosystems.
From these observations it is recom-
mended that future work on the study of
soil crusts involve sampling during the
wetter months to attain a more accurate
picture of the contribution of the various
groups that make up soil crusts. However,
surveying overall crust cover in the drier
months is valuable in determining which
species are more tolerant to desiccation
and, to observe the dynamic nature of the
soil crusts.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by funding
received from the Norman Wettenhall
Foundation. We thank Alain Braithwaite,
Ranger, Little Desert National Park for his assis-
tance, Little Desert Lodge for allowing us to
work on their property and Anneke
Veenstra-Quah for her assistance with the map.
Invertebrates were collected under permit No.
1002658.
References
Beckmann K.G (1993) The biology and taxonomy of
some Australian marsupial liverworts. (Unpublished
PhD thesis. Monash University).
Beckmann KG and Scott GAM (1989) Gongylanthus
scariosus (Lehm.) Stephani - a liverwort new to
Australia. Lindbergia 15, 79-84.
Beckmann KG and Scott GAM (1992) A new thallose
genus of leafy liverwort from Australia. Journal of
Bryology 17. 297-305.
Belnap J (2001) Microbes and microfauna associated
with biological soil crusts. In Biological Soil Crusts:
Structure, Function, and Management, pp 167-174.
Eds .1 Belnap and O L Lange. (Springer-Verlag:
Berlin)
DSE (2006) Department of Sustainability and
Environment website, viewed 3 July 2006
Eldridge 1) (1998a) Lichens and mosses and liverworts.
Biological soil-crust protectors of the soil. Natural
Resource Management 1 9-24.
Eldridge D (1998b) Soil crust lichen and mosses on
calcrete-dominant .soils at Marahnga in arid South
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Eldridge D (2000) Ecology and management of biolog-
ical soil crusts: recent developments and future chal-
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Eldridge D (2001) Biological soil crusts of Australia.
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Management, pp 119-131. Eds J Belnap and O L
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Eldridge D (2005) Biological soil crusts: nature’s envi-
ronmental watchdog. Australasian Plant
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florisiics of bryophytes in soil crusts in semi-arid and
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bryophytes and lichens in semi-arid eastern Australia.
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Eldridge DJ and Tozer ME (1997b) A Practical Guide
to the Soil Lichens and Bryophytes of Australia 's dry
Country. (Department of Land and Water
Conservation: Sydney)
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Eldridge DJ, Semple WS and Koen TB (2000)
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Hodgins IW and Rogers RW (1997) Correlations of
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Wimmera Area. (Land Conservation Council
Victoria: Melbourne)
McCarthy P (2003) Catalogue of Australian Liverworts
and llornworts. (Australian Biological Resources
Study: Canberra)
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419-420.
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Park management plan. (Department of Natural
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Received 1 1 May 2006; accepted 13 July 2006
A pictorial representation of peristomal architecture
Chris Tyshing and Maria Gibson
Plant Ecology Research Unit, School of Life and Environmental Sciences
Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, Victoria 3125
Abstract
The terminology associated with the use of peristomes in the identification and classification of
mosses is cumbersome and difficult to understand. This paper provides a pictorial explanation of
peristomal architecture with its associated terminology, such as nematodontous and arthrodontous
peristomes, and the division of the latter into diplolepideous and haplolepideous peristomes. (The
Victorian Naturalist 123 (4), 2006, 203-21 1 )
The moss plant normally seen and recog-
nised is referred to as a gametophyte as it
produces the gametes, i.e. egg and sperm.
When the sperm fertilizes the egg a sporo-
phyte develops. The sporophyte is ephemer-
al and essentially remains dependent on its
gametophyte parent (Fig. 1), i.e. nutrients
are obtained from the gametophyte parent
through the basal foot of a stalk-like struc-
ture (the seta) that remains embedded with-
in the parental gametophyte tissue. A spore
capsule terminates this seta (Fig. 1 ).
Many mosses have one or more rings of
teeth around the mouth of the capsule (Fig.
2). The teeth collectively are referred to as
the peristome (Fig. 1) and are protected by
an operculum or lid (Fig. I), which falls
off when the spores are mature. However,
not all mosses have peristomes.
The outer ring of teeth (exostome) in
double peristomes (Fig. 2) may exhibit
hygroscopic movement in response to
changes in humidity by bending backwards
and forwards (Proctor 1984). The move-
ment provides a gentle catapulting action
for launching spores a short distance into
the air, where they may be caught by a
gentle breeze and dispersed to an environ-
ment suitable for germination. Subsequent
to germination, spores will develop into
another gametophyte generation.
Hygroscopic movement of the exostome
may be particularly relevant in closed for-
est situations where opportunities for air-
transport of spores needs to be maximized.
The inner ring of teeth (endostome) (Fig.
2) may regulate spore dispersal by gradual-
ly sifting the spores.
As spore dispersal mechanisms in moss-
es, peristomes are specialised, intricate and
architecturally elaborate. Adaptive trends
of morphological characters have resulted
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
203
Bryophyte special issue
Fig. 1. Colony of Tortilla antarctiea (Hampe) Wilson. Leafy gametophyte (g) with dependent
sporophyte (sp) bearing a mature capsule (c) terminating a seta (se). A peristome (p) of long teeth
occurs at the mouth of the capsule. This peristome initially is covered by an operculum (o) which is
shed when spores become mature. Scale bar is 3.5 mm.
Fia. 2.. Capsule (c) of Hypnum cupressiforme Hedw. with peristome (p) showing an outer row ot teeth,
the exostome (ex), and an inner row of teeth, the endostome (en). Spores (sp). Scale bai is 200 pm.
204
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Fig. 3.. Nematodontous teeth (nt) of Atrichum androgymim (Mull. Hal.) A. Jaeger. Teeth are made
up of layers (1) of whole cells. Tips of teeth attach to the disc-like epiphragm (e). Slight air move-
ment causes release of spores between the teeth. Capsule (c). Spores (sp). Scale bar is K)0 pm.
in different peristomal configurations that
have been used as important tools in higher
level classification of mosses for over 150
years (Vitt 1999). Three peristomal charac-
ters are vital to classification. These are
cell structure of the teeth, the arrangement
of the outer teeth relative to the inner teeth
(where present), i.e. whether the outer
teeth are alternate or opposite the inner
teeth, and the initial cell alignment
(Goffinet et al. 1 999).
In the first instance, peristomes are divided
into two types, nematodontous and
arthrodontous peristomes. In terms of peris-
tomal architecture, this division is as impor-
tant as the division between monocotyledons
and dicotyledons in flowering plants,
although the distinction is at a lower classifi-
catory level for the mosses than for the flow-
ering plants.
Nematodontous peristomes have teeth
composed of whole, dead and ‘mostly
elongate cells in one or more layers’
(Crum 2001) with walls thickened uni-
formly (Shaw et al. 1989). However,
arrangement of the cells can vary from
species to species. Figure 3 details layers
of whole cells which occur in nematodon-
tous teeth. In the species depicted,
Atrichum anclrogynum (Mull. Hal.) A.
Jaeger, the tips of the teeth are attached to
a disc-like epiphragm that releases spores
with the help of a little air movement. In
essence, spores are released via a pepper
shaker effect. Dawsonia superha Grev.
var. pulchra (Fig. 4) shows another
method of spore dispersal where the
nematodontous teeth take the form of mul-
ticellular filaments forming a twirled
'brush’. When the spores mature, the
'brush’ untwists, allowing gradual release
of the spores.
Arthrodontous peristomes have teeth
composed of thickened cell wall remnants
of squat cells occurring in two or three cell
layers (Crum 2001) involving the outer,
primary and inner peristome layers, i.e.
OPL, PPL, and IPL respectively. This
means that during development of the
teeth, cell wall plates located parallel to the
capsule rim (periclinal), become differen-
tially thickened, while much of the cross-
wall and radially vertical cell wall material
perpendicular to the capsule rim (anticli-
nal) becomes reabsorbed (Buck and
Goffinet 2000). Ninety percent of true
mosses are classified as arthrodontous
(Crum 200 1 ).
Arthrodontous peristomes are further
divided into diplolepideous and haplolepi-
deous peristomes. Diplolepideous peris-
tomes usually have a double layer of teeth,
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
205
Bryophyte special issue
Fig. 4. The brush-like nematodontous teeth (nt) of Dawsonici superba Grev. var. pulchrq Zanten
facilitates spore release as it untwists. Capsule (c). Spores (sp). Scale bar is 50 pm.
the exostome forming the outer teeth and
the endostome forming the inner teeth. It is
the outer row that is of vital importance to
classification, principally because the inner
row of teeth may be reduced to nothing
more than a fragile collar-like basal mem-
brane (Fig. 5). However, more typically the
endostome consists of this basal membrane
with 16 teeth (also referred to as segments)
which arc keeled, perforated and alternate
with cilia (in groups of one to four) in
many species (Fig. 6) (Magombo 2003).
The exostome generally consists of 16
teeth (Shaw and Renzaglia 2004), which
Fio. 5.. Diplolepideous peristome of Glypothecium sciuroides (Hook.) Hampe. showing 16 outer
teeth constitutina the exostome (ex). The exostome is vitally important to classification as the inner
teeth or endostome (en) may be reduced to a collar-like basal membrane, as depicted in this figure.
Capsule (c). Spores (sp). Scale bar is 50 pm.
206
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Fig. 6.. Elaborate diplolepideous peristome of Ptychomnion aciculare (Brid.) Mitt, showing exo-
stome (ex) oi 16 teeth, and endostome (en) of basal membrane with 16 keeled teeth (also known as
segments). Perforations occur along the upper section of each keel (k) and two cilia (ci) alternate
with each segment. An endostome showing a basal membrane with teeth is more typical of a
diplolepideous peristome than the reduction ot the endostome to just a collar-like basal membrane.
Spores (sp). Scale bar is 100 pm.
Fig. 7.. Diplolepideous exostome tooth of Hypnodendron vitiense Mitt, showing the outer face con-
sisting of two columns of periclinal (parallel' to the capsule rim) cell wall plates (pe) of former cells.
The trabeculae (tr) derived from cross-walls on the outer face of each exostome tooth and the zig-zag
median line (ml) reflect the two columns of cells that form each tooth, i.e. the trabeculae and medi-
an line represent anticlinal (perpendicular to the capsule rim) cell wall remnants and border the peri-
clinal cell wall material. The term ‘diplolepideous’ refers to this twin column formation. Snores (so)
Scale bar is 20 pm.
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
207
Bryophyte special issue
outer tooth
inner tooth
thickened cell wall remnants
of two cells from OPL
thickened cell wall remnant
of one cell from PPL
Fig. 8.. Diagram of a diplolepideous peristome (after Buck and Goffinet 2000) showing exostome
(outer teeth) and endostome (inner teeth) opposite each other. Much of the anticlinal cell wall
material perpendicular to the capsule (A) becomes reabsorbed. Periclinal walls (PE). Outer peris-
tomal layer (OPL). Primary peristomal layer (PPL). Inner peristomal layer (I PL).
OPL
IPL
outer
tooth
inner
tooth
thickened cell wall
remnants of two
cells from OPL
thickened cell wall
remnant of
one cell
PPL
Fig. 9.. Diagram of a diplolepideous peristome (after Buck and GoHinet 2000) showing alternate
exostome (outer teeth) and endostome (inner teeth). Much of the anticlinal cell wall material (A)
perpendicular to the capsule becomes reabsorbed. Periclinal walls (PE). Outer peristomal layer
(OPL). Primary peristomal layer (PPL). Inner peristomal layer (IPL).
have an outer face of two columns and an
inner face of a single column (OPL +
PPL), each column consisting of a stack of
periclinal cell wall plates of former cells.
The horizontal lines (trabeculae) derived
from cross-walls (Fig. 7) on the outer face
of each exostome tooth, and the zig-zag
median line, reflect the structure of the two
columns of cells occurring side by side
(Edwards 1984; Shaw et a/. 1989). The
term diplolepideous refers to this twin col-
umn formula (Fig. 7).
Diplolepideous peristomes may be config-
ured with an ‘opposite’ peristome cell pat-
tern (Fig. 8) or an ‘alternate* peristome cell
pattern (Fig. 9), i.e. with the exostome and
endostome teeth opposite or alternate to
each other respectively. Figure 1 0 shows the
exostome teeth opposite endostome teeth
while Fig. 11 shows Hypnum cupressifonne
Hedw., with exostome teeth alternating with
endostome teeth. From an evolutionary point
of view, the ‘opposite’ arrangement of the
endostome and exostome is considered more
primitive (Vitt 19.84).
Haplolepideous peristomes have teeth
with an outer face of one column consist-
ing of wall remnants of a stack of cells and
an inner face of two columns (PPL -f IPL)
consisting of wall remnants of two stacks
of cells. Haplolepideous peristomes usual-
ly consist of a single layer of 16 teeth
(Shaw and Renzaglia 2004). The term hap-
lolepideous refers to the outer face consist-
ing of wall remnants of the single stack of
cells. The horizontal lines (trabeculae)
(Fig. 12) correspond to the top and bottom
plates. Figure 13 represents the haplolepi-
deous configuration. It is thought that the
haplolepideous peristome (Fig. 14) is
208
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Fig. 10.. F unaria-type diplolepideous peristome showing ‘opposite’ tooth arrangement. Exostome of
outer teeth (ex). Endostome ol inner teeth (en). Zig-zag median line (ml). In evolutionary terms, the
‘opposite’ arrangement of outer and inner teeth is considered more primitive than the alternate tooth
arrangement shown in Fig. 1 1. Seale bar is 40 pm.
Fig. II.. Diplolepideous peristome of Hypnum cupressiforme Hedw., showing ‘alternate’ tooth
arrangement. Exostome of outer teeth (ex). Endostome of inner teeth (en) with basal membrane and
keeled, perforated teeth (segments). Cilia alternate with segments, but arc obscured by spore mass.
Exostome teeth are trabeculate (tr) on both the outer face and inner face but the inner face is deeply
trabeculate. Capsule (c). Spores (sp). Scale bar is 100 pm.
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
209
Bryophyte special issue
Fig. 12.. Ouier face of haplolepideous teeth of Dicranoloma menziesii (Taylor) Renauld showing
trabeculae (t) reflecting the wall material of a single column or stack of cells that forms each tooth,
contrasting with the two columns of diplolepideous teeth shown in Fig. 7. The trabeculae correspond
to the top and bottom cell wall plates which arc anticlinal, i.e. perpendicular to the capsule rim. The
material seen between the trabeculae is the periclinal cell wall remnants, i.e. cell wall remnants par-
allel to the capsule rim. Scale bar is 10 pm.
tooth
thickened cell wall remnant of
one cell from PPL
thickened cell wall remnants of
two cells from I PL
Fig. 13.. Diagram of haplolepideous peristome (after Buck and Goffinet 2000). Much of the anticli-
nal wall material (A) perpendicular to the capsule becomes reabsorbed. Periclinal walls (PE). Outer
peristomal layer (OPL). Primary peristomal layer (PPL). Inner peristomal layer (1PL).
derived from the diplolepideous peristome
with opposite endostome and exostome,
and is homologous with endostomal seg-
ments (Buck and Goffinet 2000; Magombo
2003; Newton and Cox 2000; Shaw and
Renzaglia 2004; Vitt 1081).
Peristomal terminology does not end
here, but the above detail provides readers
with an introduction to this cumbersome
language belonging to the intricate, elabo-
rate and beautiful world of peristomal
architecture, moss identification and classi-
fication. Study of these ancient plants and
their reproductive innovations is crucial to
understanding the evolution of land plants
(Shaw and Renzaglia 2004).
Acknowledgements
We sincerely thank the anonymous referee, for
whose time and thoughtful comments we are
most grateful. Thanks also to Department of
Sustainability and Environment for permission
to collect specimens (Permit Number
10002309).
210
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Fig. 14.. Tortilla recurvata Hook, showing haplolepideous peristome (p) consisting of basal mem-
brane and 32 tubular teeth. Capsule (c). The haplolepideous peristome is believed to be derived from
the diplolepideous peristome with opposite exostome and endostome as depicted in Fig. 10, and that
it is homologous with endostomal segments. Scale bar is 40 pm.
References
Buck WR and GolTinct B (2000) Morphoplogy and
classification of mosses. In Bryophyte Biology, pp
71-123. Ed AJ Shaw and B Goffinet (Cambridge
University Press, New York)
Crum II (2001) Structural Diversity of Bryophytes.
(The University of Michigan Herbarium: Michigan)
Edwards SR (1984) Homologies and inter-relationships
of moss peristomes. In New Manual of Bryology, pp
658-695. Ed RM Schuster (The Hat-tori Botanical
Laboratory: Niehinan, Japan)
Goffmet B, Shaw AJ, Anderson EE, and Mi shier BD
(1999) Peristome development in mosses in relation
to systematic and evolution. V. Diplolepideae:
Orthotriehaceae. The Bryologist 102, 581-594.
Magombo ZL.K (2003) The phylogeny of basal peris lo-
in ate mosses: Evidence from cpDNA, and implica-
tions for peristome evolution. Systematic Botany 28.
24-38.
Newton AE and Cox CJ (2000) Evolution of the major
moss lineages: Phylogenetic analyses based on multi-
ple gene sequences and morphology. The Brvohgist
103. 187-211.
Proctor MCF (1984) Structure and ecological adapta-
tion. In The Experimental Biology of Bryophytes, pp
9-37. Eds AF Dyer and JG Duckett (Academic
Press: London)
Shaw AJ. Anderson LE, and Mishlcr BD (1989)
Peristome development in mosses in relation to sys-
tematies and evolution. IV. Haplolepideae:
Ditriehaceae and Dicranaceae. The Bryologist 92.
314-325.
Shaw AJ and Rcn/aglia K. (2004). Phylogeny and
diversification of bryophytes. American Journal of
Botany 91. 1557-1581.
Vill Dll (1981) Adaptive modes of the moss sporo-
phyte. The Bryologist 84. 1 66- 1 86.
Vitt DM (1984) Classification of the Bryopsida. In
New Manual of Bryology, vol. 2, 676-759. Ed RM
Schuster (The Haltori Botanical Laboratory:
Niehinan, Japan)
Vitt Dll ( 1999) flic classification of mosses. Two hun-
dred years afer I ledwig. Nova Hedwigia 70. 25-36.
Received 14 April 2006; accepted 8 June 2006
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
211
Bryophyte special issue
Studies on Victorian bryophytes 4. The genus Fabronia Raddi
David Meagher
School of Botany, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010
Abstract
Fabronia australis Hook, is the only species of the moss genus Fabronia in Victoria. This species is
described, its distribution in Victoria is delineated, and its conservation status is assessed. Victorian
records of F. Iiampeana Sond. are rejected. (The Victorian Naturalist 123 (4), 2006, 212-215)
Introduction
Fabronia Raddi is the nominate genus of
the family Fabroniaceae. Six species of
Fabronia have been reported from
Australia, and another has been reported
from New Guinea. Fabronia australis
Hook, has been reported from all states
and territories except the Northern
Territory (Streimann and Klazenga 2002),
and from New Zealand (Beever et al.
1996). Fabronia hampeana Sond. has been
reported from Western Australia, Victoria
and New South Wales (Scott and Stone
1976, Streimann and Klazenga 2002).
Description
Fabronia australis Hook., Musci Exotica
2: 160(1819)
Plants delicate, usually rather silky, pale
to dark green, with short branches arising
from a creeping leafy stem anchored to the
substratum by rhizoids. Rhizoids in fasci-
cles, arising from the primary stem and
branches, reddish brown, smooth. Leaves
narrowly to widely ovate, up to 1.1 x 0.4
mm on the stems, slightly smaller on
branches, flat to slightly concave, weakly
spreading from the stem and mostly turned
to the dorsal side of the stem, apex ciliate
with a long terminal cell, margins usually
strongly dentate or ciliate but sometimes
entire (Fig. la and d). Costa weak, single,
ending at or above mid-leaf. Cells in mid
to upper leaf thick-walled, ± rhomboid and
often slightly sigmoid, becoming rectangu-
lar towards the leaf base, extremely vari-
able in size. 30-190 x 8-12 pm but mostly
of a similar size in each plant; alar cells
quadrate, typically in about four rows but
often many more and reaching a long way
along the margin and almost to the costa.
Dioecious. Sporophytes on specialised
branches at base of current year’s growth;
seta straw-coloured, about 5 mm long and
50-80 pm in diameter. Capsule hemi-
spherical to conical, up to about 1.0 mm
long; operculum flat, with a small apiculus
in the centre; peristome single, fragile, pale
yellow to pale brown, strongly recurved
when dry. of 16 paired teeth, strongly stri-
ate-papillose, the striations oriented in var-
ious directions (Fig. lb). Spores brown to
greenish brown, 12-20 pm in diameter,
warty-papillose. Perichaetial leaves
(bracts) similar to the vegetative leaves but
slightly larger and colourless.
Habitat: on dry, shaded soil in rock crevices
and on ledges and cliffs, and on the bark of
trees and cycads in sclerophyll forest.
Known distribution: WA, SA, Vic, Tas,
NSW, ACT, Qld; also in NZ. In Victoria,
occurs in a wide band across the state (Fig.
2), mainly in dry sclerophyll forest.
Selected Victorian specimens: MELU
7402 Whitfield, Mar 1970; MUCV 1960
Billy Goat Bend, Mitchell River, Apr
1973; MUCV 2537 Natural Bridge, Mt
Eccles NP, Oct 1974.
Similar tava
Once the marginal cilia are noted the
genus is obvious, and then only the
species is in question. In New Zealand,
Catharomnion vitiation (Hedw.) Wils. also
has ciliate margins, but it is a larger
species with rather flattened shoots and
grows only on bark, and ihe leaves usually
have a distinct margin of elongate cells
(Beever et al. 1996). Ischryodon lepturus ,
Brachythecium albicans and Hypnum
cu press (forme var. mossmanianum have a
similar overall appearance to Fabronia
australis but lack marginal teeth or cilia.
Other taxa that have been mistaken for F.
australis in Australian collections are
Brachythecium rutabulum and Hypnum
cupressiforme var. cupress (forme.
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The V ictorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Discussion
All specimens of Fabronia from Victoria
seen in this study are referable to Fabronia
australis. It is a widespread species but does
not seem to tolerate very dry or very wet
environments. Most records are from dry
sclerophyll forest or dry, rocky grassland or
woodland. Under the current IUCN criteria
(Hallingbeck et a!. 2000), F. australis must
be classified as ‘least concern’ (LC) in
Victoria and Australia, because it occurs in
many widespread localities, including
numerous conservation reserves. It appears
to have declined slightly as a result of
urbanisation. For example, its only known
present-day locality close to Melbourne is
in the more or less undisturbed environment
of Warrandyte State Park.
There is a great deal of confusion about
other Australian 'species’, and a thorough
review is needed. Specimens in MEL
named F. baileyana Miill. Hal. seem to be
a form of F. australis with a long hair-
point. In F. brachyphylla Miill. Hal.,
reported from New South Wales, the ACT
and Queensland, the leaf apex is usually
acuminate, without a hairpoint or elongat-
ed apical cell, and the leaf margins are
Fig. 1.. Fabronia australis, a. Leaves: three typical on left, two atypical on right, b. Peristome tooth,
c. Cross-section of stem. Fabronia hampeana d. Typical leaf. Scale bars: a, d = 0.5 mm, b, c = 0. 1
mm. a-c drawn from GAM Scott s.n.. Alum Cliffs, near Launceston, Tasmania (MUCV 701), except
two entire leaves, drawn from GAM Scott s.n., Millstream Falls, Qld (MELU 1606). d drawn from 1G
Stone 6296, Esperance, WA (MUCV 1631).
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
213
Bryophyte special issue
Fig. 2. Known distribution of Fabronia australis
than 50 years old.
entire or weakly toothed. But whether
these characters are enough to separate F.
brachyphylla from F. australis is very
doubtful. Specimens in MEL given the
names F. novaevalesiae Mull. Hal, and F.
obtuso acuminata Mull. Hal. (both invalid
names because they were published with-
out a Latin diagnosis) seem to be identical
to F. brachyphylla. Scott and Stone (1976)
noted that F. brachyphylla has broad,
obtuse leaves on most shoots, and that F.
scoltiae Mull. Hal. has acuminate leaves
(i.e. lacking a ciliate haiipoint). Such a dif-
ference hardly seems enough to warrant
separation as species, given the great varia-
tion seen in leaf form that occurs in F. aus-
tralis. Furthermore, Scott and Stone (1976)
suggested that F. australis might be a
form of F. ciliaris (Brid.) Brid., a wide-
spread species of the northern hemisphere.
The entire margins in a small number of
specimens of F. australis could cause con-
fusion, but when capsules are present the
unusual pattern of striations on the peris-
tome teeth is diagnostic. Scott and Stone
(1976) described the seta as about 80 pm
in diameter and the spores as green and
about 12 pm in diameter, but specimens
examined in this study have much narrow-
er setae and spores are greenish-brown
when mature and up to 20 pm in diameter.
Fabronia hampeana has a very woolly
in Victoria. Open circles indicate records more
appearance when dry because of the more
ciliate and narrower leaves (Fig. Id), but
when moist it looks similar to F. australis .
Furthermore, some narrow-leaved and very
ciliate forms of F. australis (e.g. MUCV
1614, from Cambewarra Mountain in
NSW) can closely resemble F. hampeana.
In such cases, sporophytes arc the best
means of separation. The operculum in F.
hampeana is rounded-conical and the seta
is rather shorter (2 mm) and thicker (up to
100-115 pm). Other differences, such as
cell size and strength of the costa, seem
weak characters given their variability in
F. australis. Of the numerous specimens
called F hampeana from various regions
of Australia in MEL and MELU, only
those from Western Australia are that
species, so that it seems indeed to be
endemic to that state. F. australis also
occurs in Western Australia, but seems to
be rare there.
The only other species recorded in
Australasia is F. curvirostris Dozy and
Molk., an Asian species reported from
New Guinea by Norris and Koponen
(1990), who also rejected a record of F.
secunda Mont, from there. F. curvirostris
differs from other Australasian species in
having papillae on at least some teeth and
on the apical cell.
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The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Acknowledgements
Thanks to the curators of bryophytes at the
Australian National Botanic Gardens, Canberra
(CANB), National Herbarium of Victoria,
Melbourne (MEL) and the State Herbarium of
New South Wales, Sydney (NSW) for providing
specimens and data. Thanks also to Dr Pina
Milne for organising material at MEL, and Nic
Middleton and Kathy Vohs (MELU) for organ-
ising loans and providing laboratory facilities.
Finally, many thanks to the anonymous referee
who provided several sensible criticisms of the
first draft of this paper.
References
Beever J, Allison K.W and Child J (1996) The Mosses
of New Zealand. (University of Otago Press,
Dunedin)
Hallingbeck T, Hodgetts N, Raeymaekers G,
Schumacker G. Sergio R, Soderstrom L, Stewart N
and Vana J. (2000) Guidelines for application of the
1994 1UCN Red List categories of threats to
bryophytes. In Mosses, Liverworts and Hornworts.
Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for
Bryophytes . F.ds Hallingbeck T and Hodgetts N
(IUCN/SSC Bryophyte Specialist Group. IUCN:
Gland, Switzerland)
Norris Dll and Koponen T (1990) Bryophyte flora of
the Muon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea. XXXI11.
Leskcaeeae and Fabroniaecae (Musci) plus corrigen-
da and addenda 10 previous papers. Ann. Bot. Fennici
27,1 12.
Scot! GAM and Stone IG (1976) The Mosses of
Southern Australia. (Academic Press: London)
Slreimann 11 and Klazenga N (2002) Catalogue of
Australian Mosses. (Australian Biological Resources
Study: Canberra)
Received / 6 February 2005; accepted 8 June 2006
Melbourne’s Marvellous Mosses
Helen Jolley
National Herbarium of Victoria, Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne,
Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, Victoria 3141
Abstract
The State Botanical Collection in the National Herbarium of Victoria (MEL) includes more than
49,000 mosses, MF.L’s Australian moss collection has been databased and curated and contains rep-
resentatives of all Victorian taxa and 76% of Australian laxa. A timeline of MEL’s Australian moss
collections shows that during the 1940s-80s, the collection has benefited from the activities of three
significant collectors JH Willis, AC Beaugleholc and IG Stone. Australia’s Virtual Herbarium pro-
ject provides access to MEL’s moss data via the Royal Botanic Gardens website. (The Victorian
Naturalist 123, (4), 2006, 215-22 1 )
MEL’s moss collection
The National Herbarium of Victoria
(MEL) houses the State Botanical
Collection which comprises approximately
1.2 million plant specimens including
more than 49,000 mosses. There are cur-
rently 43,557 Australian moss specimens,
with 44% of these from Victoria. There are
more than 5,500 moss specimens collected
from outside Australia, the majority of
which are yet to be accessioned and curat-
ed. Numerous collections from New
Zealand, the sub-Antarctic Islands,
Indonesia and Canada have been curated
and databased.
The diversity of the Australian moss col-
lections at MEL may be investigated, as
they have been databased. When compar-
ing the taxa known from Australia with the
taxa represented at MEL (Table 1), as one
might expect MEL has the best representa-
Table 1. Number of Australian moss taxa per
state (Streimann and Klazenga 2002) and num-
ber represented at MEL.
% of taxa
# Taxa
MEL
coll'ns
represented
at MEL
WA
209
177
84.6
NT
111
726
4.9
SA
189
140
74.1
QLD
522
444
85.1
NSW
537
399
74.3
LHI
113
80
70.8
ACT
199
93
46.7
Vic
447
447
100.0
Tas
383
255
66.6
MI
85
42
49.4
Australia
1035
798
77.1
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
215
Bryophyte special issue
tion of Victorian taxa, with all known
Victorian taxa found amongst the MEL
collection. More than 84% of Queensland
and Western Australian taxa are represent-
ed at MEL. The taxa of New South Wales
are well represented with 74.3%. Only
65.8% of Tasmania taxa arc found at MEL
and the Australian Capital Territory has
the lowest representation of taxa from any
of the Australian states or territories at
46.7%. Overall MEL has representatives
of 77.1% of all the Australian taxa. In
order to enhance and develop a corapre-
ROYAL BOTANIC GARDENS AND NATIONAL HERBARIUM \
VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA.
MUST!
PfrycAoMff/o n c/e/cvAere, QSr>/. ) Wtt,
Loc : /V. Potf.
Ap rv/fa Jfy nrer? /‘t/rrvmvtfaj /V S Vy! ) .
Coll.. fT ^ ft. 3, /' 3
Dec . ‘t/iMc 1 MEL 1 QQ753 1
Fig. 1. MEL’s earliest Australian moss
specimen.
hensive Australian moss collection at
MEL, further collections from Tasmania
and the ACT should be made.
Amongst the 19,000 Victorian moss col-
lections at MEL, the family Pottiaceae is
the most numerous, with 13.7% of speci-
mens from this family. The families
Bartramiaceac (6.3%), Bryaceae (5.9%)
and Ditrichaccae (5.6%) are also promi-
nent amongst the Victorian moss collec-
tion at MEL. The following genera are
well represented amongst the MEL collec-
tion also: F is side ns ( Fissidentaceae).
Campy /opus ( Leucobryaceae), Tor tula
(Pottiaceae), Bryum (Bryaceae) and
Dicranoloma ( Ditrichaccae).
Although the National Herbarium of
Victoria was founded in 1853, MEL holds
moss collections from the early 1800s,
with the earliest Australian moss speci-
men. Ptvehomnion aciculare , collected in
NSW by FW Sieber in 1823 (Fig. 1). This
specimen was collected during Sieber’s
t f id r/uuuJri’t r\ J
dr
:> 2TS5IDFNS osmtmilioides. E Dicrar.um Lryoides.
Swarlm
— in piatis imfoso-priludosis, in D u c a t u Megapolit
circa EalcLin nbi IViajo lfloo cum lporangiis deopercu*
latis J#gi, circa Fricdiand « Cl. Dr. Kiiger.
prOU. iilc^oLrur
Fig. 2. MEL's earliest foreign moss specimen.
The Victorian Naturalist
216
Bryophyte special issue
trip to Port Jackson, NSW, between June
and December 1823. The earliest known
foreign moss specimen, Fissidens
os mundo ides, is from Germany and was
collected by Dr Kruger in May 1800 (Fig.
2). This specimen is presumed to be from
Blandow’s herbarium as it has his name
and a date on the original label. The loca-
tion of Blandow’s herbarium is unknown.
Otto Blandow (1778-1810) was a German
pharmacist, notary and bryologist in
Mecklenburg (Stafleu and Mennega 1993).
Some of the earliest moss collections at
MEL were made by Baron Ferdinand von
Mueller in the 1850s (Fig. 3). Mueller was
Victoria’s first Government Botanist and
founder of the National Herbarium of
Victoria. He undertook extensive collect-
ing trips throughout Victoria and NSW,
and gradually developed a network of col-
lectors and correspondents (Orchard
1999). Mueller’s personal collections and
those of his correspondents formed the
basis of Australia’s 'largest and historical-
ly most important herbarium (MEL)’
(Orchard 1999).
During the 1 880s and 1 890s there was a
significant increase in the collecting of
mosses, as shown from the MEL collec-
tion. This was primarily due to the activi-
ties of RA Bastow, as well as other early
collectors including FM Reader, T
Whitelegge, WA Weymouth and D
Sullivan. Richard Austin Bastow was an
architectural draughtsman by profession
and a naturalist in his leisure. Bastow was
an avid collector, collecting primarily in
Victoria and Tasmania (Fig. 4). He con-
tributed an important collection of cryp-
togams - including mosses, liverworts,
lichens and algae to MEL. His original
notebooks with their tiny detailed draw-
ings, his manuscript of Australian mosses,
a folio of illustrations and a reference set
of Australian mosses accompanied his per-
sonal herbarium, which is held at MEL. Of
particular interest is the original copy of
Bastow ’s Illustrated Key to the Tasmanian
Mosses on wax paper with watercolour
drawings, which is held in the RBG
library.
Between 1900 and 1940 few mosses
were added to MEL’s collection (Fig. 3).
After Mueller’s death in 1896, ‘the
Herbarium languished in the doldrums and
there were few accessions to the collec-
tions’ (Cohn 2003). From the 1940s
through to the 1980s there was a large
increase in the number of mosses lodged at
MEL. This was due to the activities of
three significant collectors - JH Willis, AC
Beauglehole and IG Stone (Fig. 5).
Year (1800 -2005)
Fig. 3. Australian moss specimens at MEL.
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
217
Bryophyte special issue
Fig. 4. Distribution map of RA Bastow collections.
James Hamlyn W illis (1910-1995)
Jim Willis was a forestry officer before
he joined the National Herbarium of
Victoria as a taxonomic botanist in 1937.
He worked at MEL for 34 years until his
retirement in 1972 (Aston 1996). Willis’s
botanical collections extend over a long
period and over most of Australia (Fig. 6).
He researched and published on both vas-
cular and non-vascular plants. His \A
Handbook to Plants in Victoria ’ was
described by Aston (1996) as a 'milestone
for botany in Victoria, as it was largely
based on Jim’s own meticulously gathered,
first hand observations’. In total. Willis
published over 880 items including books,
scientific and popular papers, pamphlets,
essays and reviews (Aston 1996). Jim
Willis was described by Aston (1996) as fca
superb all-round naturalist and one of the
greatest Australian botanists of the 20Tb
Century’. He contributed a total of 19 151
specimens to MEL, of which 3340 were
bryophytes. Willis’ moss collections were
well prepared, annotated and high quality
specimens.
Alexander Clifford Beauglehole (1920-
2002)
Cliff Beauglehole was a farmer from
Portland who is best remembered for his
enormous herbarium (>90 000 specimens),
which he collected during plant surveys of
the whole of Victoria. There are currently
65 809 specimens of Beauglehole’s data-
based at MEL, including 5859 bryophytes.
He collected all over Australia (Fig. 7); his
interests were not only in plants, both vas-
cular and cryptogams, but also birds, bees
and other insects (C'orrick 2002). Corrick
described Beauglehole as having 'bound-
less energy and enthusiasm and his wide
knowledge of the environment was exhila-
rating’. lima Stone named the moss
Phascum beaug/eho/ei after him (Corrick
218
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
12000
10000
8000 I
6000 I
4000 1
2000
0
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
Year (1940-1990)
Fig. 5. Significant collectors of Australian mosses at MEL.
2002). Beauglehole’s moss collections
were made whilst undertaking surveys of
the Victorian flora, using his unique grid
system. Due to the nature of this work, his
collections are not accompanied by
detailed notes, but he collected mosses
from the whole of the state, often from
areas where few other collections have
been made.
lima Grace Stone (1913-2001)
In an obituary on lima Stone, Seppelt et
al. (2002) comment that ‘Australian
Bryology came of age in the 1960s-70s
through the influence of lima Stone, George
Scott, David Catcheside and James Willis,
and the publication of the Mosses of
Southern Australia’ (Scott and Stone 1976).
It is this publication that best reminds us of
lima. However, lima also published more
than 70 bryological papers, the first of
which was published when lima was 48
(Beever 2001 ). From 1969 llma’s research
concentrated on mosses (Seppelt et al.
2002). Her earlier work focused on ferns.
As shown in Figure 8, lima was a prolific
collector. In fact she contributed the great-
est number of moss collections (over 19
000) to MEL between the 1960s and 1980s.
llma’s collections were also extraordinary
in that they came from some of the most
extreme habitats in Australia. lima collected
from tropical far north Queensland to the
very dry parts of Southern Australia (Fig. 8)
(J Milne 2005 pers. comm.). There are five
bryophytes named in honour of lima Stone:
Stoned oleaginosa , Stoneobryum
bunyaense , Stoneobryum minum ,
Maeromitrium stoneae and Syrrhopodon
stoneae (Seppelt et al. 2002).
Australia's Virtual Herbarium (AVH) -
the Future
The AVH project aims to bring together
and database Australia's entire collection of
scientific plant specimens. It is a collabora-
tive project between all major Australian
herbaria, which will make available the
records of six million specimens. This infor-
mation is available via the Internet, and may
be accessed via any of the participating
herbaria’s websites. At this point, each
herbarium links to a central database, which
consolidates the data available from all of
the herbaria MEL’s moss data (as well as
other cryptogamic and vascular plant data is
currently available via the link at:
http:/Avww. rbg.vic.gov.au/avh/ (accessed 1
June 2005). These data have many uses:
botanists, environmentalists, land managers
and members of the public may access the
distribution records of species which are
based on the records from herbarium speci-
mens over a long period of time. For exam-
ple, the City of Melbourne made a request
recently for moss data for specimens collect-
ed prior to the urbanization of Melbourne.
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
219
Bryophyte special issue
Fig. 6. Distribution map of JH Willis collections.
Fig. 7. Distribution map of AC Beauglehole collections.
220
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Fig. 8. Distribution map of IG Stone collections.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Dr Pina Milne, Katy Sommerville, Dr
Niels Klazenga, Jill Thurlow and Joan Thomas
for their assistance in the preparation of this
paper.
References
Aston HI (1996) Dr James Hamlyn Willis AM 28
January 1 910-10 November 1995. Mueller ia 9, 1-4.
Beever JE (2001) A tribute lima G Stone 1912-2001.
Australasian Bryological Newsletter 43. 2-5.
Cohn HM 2003 150 vears: The National Herbarium of
Victoria, 1853-2003. Mueller la 17, 3-14.
Corriek MG (2002) Alexander Clifford Beauglehole.
The Victorian Naturalist 1 19. 81-82.
Orchard AE ( 1999) A History of Systematic Botany in
Australia. Flora of Australia 1. (Australian
Biological Resources Study: Canberra).
Scott GAM and Stone IG (1976) The Mosses of
Southern Australia. (Academic Press: London)
Seppelt RD, Beever JE and Milne J (2002) Obituary,
lima Grace Stone (1913-2001). Journal of Brvologv
24. 173-175.
Stafleu FA and Mennega EA (1993) Taxonomic
Literature. A selective guide to botanical publica-
tions and collections with dates, commentaries and
types. (Koellz Scientific Books: Germany)
Streimann II and Klazenga N (2002) Catalogue of
Australian Mosses. Flora of Australia Supplementary
Series No. 17. (Australian Biological Resources
Study: Canberra).
Received 13 April 2006; accepted 6 July 2006
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
221
Bryophyte special issue
Epiphytes on Nothofagus cunninghamii and
Eucalyptus regnans in a Victorian cool temperate rainforest
Claudette Kellar1, Megan Short1 and Josephine Milne2
Deakin University, Burwood campus, 221 Burwood Hwy, Burwood, Victoria 3125
National Herbarium of Victoria. Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne,
Bird wood Avenue, South Yarra, Victoria 3141
Abstract
This study investigated the epiphytic communities on Myrtle Beech Nothofagus cunninghamii
(Hook.) Oerst. and Mountain Ash Eucalyptus regnans F.Muell. trees in a pocket of Cool Temperate
Rainforest in the Yarra Ranges National Park, Victoria, Australia. Twenty species were identified
growing on N. cunninghamii , with nine species found on E. regnans. The dominant epiphytes were
the moss Dicranuloma menziesii on N. Cunningham Hi, and the liverwort Bazzania adnexa var.
adnexa on E. regnans. ( The Victorian Naturalist 123 (4), 2006, 222-229)
Introduction
Cool Temperate Rainforests are unique
environments that support a diversity of
plants and animals. Their distribution in
Victoria has become very fragmented due
to deforestation, recurrent wildfires and,
more recently. Myrtle Wilt has been identi-
fied as a disease affecting Myrtle Beech
Nothofagus Cunningham ii (Hook.) Oerst.
(Peel 1999). In the Central Highlands Cool
Temperate Rainforests, the canopy is dom-
inated by N. cunninghamii and inter-
spersed with Mountain Ash Eucalyptus
regnans F.Muell. and Sassafras Athero -
sperma moschatum Labi II. (Peel 1999)
There is a notable abundance and diversity
of bryophytes and lichens from the forest
floor through to the canopy branches.
While many of these cryptogams are found
in other habitats, they are most abundant in
rainforests, Indeed, cryptogams attain their
greatest diversity in rainforests, often
exceeding more than 35 species (Ashton
and McCrae 1970; Dickinson et ai 1993;
Jarman and Kantvilas 1995a; Louvvhoff
1995; Milne and Louwhoff 1999; Franks
2000; Franks and Bergstrom 2000; Ford
and Gibson 2000; Morley and Gibson
2004, Dalton 1998 cited in Roberts et ai.
2005). The trunks of the two dominant tree
species, N. cunninghamii and E. regnans.
provide a diversity of microhabitats for
epiphytic bryophytes and lichens, thus a
complex array of species may coexist
(Ashton and McRae 1970; McQuillan
1993). Milne and Louwhoff (1999) record-
ed 64 epiphytic species (28 bryophytes and
36 lichens) on just one fallen N. cunning-
hamii tree. Epiphytes are not confined just
to overstorey species within rainforests.
Large tree-ferns Cyathea cunninghamii
Hook, f., C. australis and Dieksonia
antarctica LabilL, major components of
the understorey of rainforests, also provide
suitable substrata (Ford and Gibson 2000;
Roberts et ai 2003, Roberts et ai 2005).
In Tasmania, bryophytes, particularly
mosses, comprise most of the species on
tree ferns (Roberts et ai 2003, Roberts et
ai 2005). In Victoria, lichens also are
common on Dieksonia antarctica (Ford
and Gibson 2000).
The distribution of epiphytes can be affect-
ed by host species, age of host tree, the
physical characteristics (texture, porosity,
thickness, stability), chemical characteristics
(pH) and the nature of the plant substratum
as well as many environmental factors
including changes in the relative humidity,
temperature and light regimes (Gimingham
and Birse 1957; Gough 1975; Ashton 1986;
Franks and Bergstrom 2000; Ford and
Gibson 2000; Morley and Gibson 2004).
The aim of this study, which forms part
of a larger investigation examining inverte-
brate assemblages in epiphytes (Kellar
1999), was to assess the vertical distribu-
tion of epiphytes to a height of 1.5 metres
on N. cunninghamii and E. regnans in a
Cool Temperate Rainforest, and to com-
pare epiphyte diversity between the two
tree species.
222
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Fig. 1. Location of study site at Cement Creek, Yarra Ranges National Park, Victoria, Australia.
Methods
Study Site
This study was conducted in Cool
Temperate Rainforest at Cement Creek in
the Yarra Ranges National Park, Victoria
(37° 41’ S, 145° 42’ E) (Fig. 1). The site is
situated on the southern slopes of the Great
Dividing Range and is 660 m above sea
level. Cement Creek rises on the slopes of
Mount Donna Buang, Hows through the
rainforest at the study site and down to the
Yarra River. Temperatures range from -0.5
to 26.6 °C and the average annual rainfall
is 1300 mm. Snow falls are fairly common
at Cement Creek, with an average of six
falls per year. The soils are volcanic in ori-
gin and contain rock fragments together
with silt along the creek. The site is domi-
nated by N . cutminghamii, and a number of
E. regnans and A. moschalum are scattered
throughout. The understorey consists of
the tree-fern species Dicksonia antarctica
and Cyathea australis (R.Br.) Domin, and
the ground layer comprises a variety of
ferns including Hypolepis sp. and
Blechnum wattsii Tindale.
Data Collection
Two field collections were carried out, one
in summer (February 1999) and one in
autumn (May 1999). To minimise variability
in tree size and age, only living trees of N.
cmnmghamii with a circumference between
2.5 and 3.5 m and E. regnans with a circum-
ference between 6 and 8 m were selected for
sampling. Eight trees of each species were
sampled, as this was the maximum number
of trees found in the area that were within
the specified size range. Epiphytes were
sampled at three heights: 0.5, 1 and 1.5m
(Fig. 2). four samples 5x5 cm were collect-
ed from each trunk, within a 45° arc either
side of due south. The four samples collect-
ed at each height were amalgamated and
treated as one bulk sample for each height.
Epiphyte species in each of the samples
were identified and cover abundance esti-
mated. Taxonomic nomenclature follows
Streimann and Klazenga (2002) for mosses,
and McCarthy (2003) for liverworts.
Data Analysis
Statistical analysis was undertaken using
the statistical package SYSTAT version 10
(Wilkinson, 1990) and PRIMER 5 (Clarke
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
223
Bryophyte special issue
Table 1. Epiphytes present and Mean % Cover abundance on Nothofagus cunninghamii and
Eucalyptus regnans at Cement Creek. Victoria (n = 48 samples for each host tree species).
Taxon
N.
cunninghamii
E. regnans
Liverworts
Acrobolbaceae
Marsupidium surculosum (Nees) Schiffn.
0.08
Lepidolaenaceae
Lepidoziaceae
Gaekstroemia weindorferi (Herzog) Grolle
Bazzania adnexa (Lehm. and Lindenb.)
0.02
Trevis. var. adnexa
7.56
74.22
Kurzia compacta (Steph.) Grolle
0.45
Metzeeriaceae
Metzgeria fur cat a (L.) Durnort.
0.02
Plagiochilaceae
Plagiochi/a fasciculata Lindenb.
0.8
Thallosc liverwort sp. 1
0.007
Mosses
An 1 acomn iaceae
Lepthotheca gaudichaudii Schwagr.
0.55
Dicranaceae
Dicranoloma menziesii (Taylor) Renauld
56.15
Dicranoloma platveaulon Dixon
1.23
Hypnaceae
Hypnum cupressifonne Hedw.
2.01
7.71
Rhizogon iaceae
Rhizogonium pennatum Hook, t and Wilson
2.06
Sematophy 1 1 acea e
Wijkia extenuata (Brid.) H.A.Crum
17.52
1.27
Lichens
Cladiaceac
Cladia aggregate i (Sw.) Nyl.
1.55
3.23
Deuteromycotina
Lepraria sp.
0.12
Lobariaceac
Pseudocvphellaria sp.
0.17
Foliose sp. 1
0.24
0.098
Ferns
Grammitidaceae
Grammitis hi Hardier i Willd.
1.34
0.19
Hymenophyllaceae Hymenophyllum rarum R.Br.
1.21
8.02
Fungi
Fern sp. 1
Fern sp. 2
0.01
0.002
Fungus sp. 1
0.05
and Warwick, 1994). Cover abundance and
richness were tested using double within-
subject repeated measures ANOVAs with
tree species as the between factor, and sea-
son and height the within factors. An
Arcsine transformation was performed on
cover abundance of the three dominant
species of epiphytes and a log transforma-
tion was performed on species richness to
improve the normality and heterogeneity
of variances.
Non-metric multi-dimensional scaling
(NMD'S) was applied to the cover abun-
dance of epiphyte species using the software
package PRIMER (Plymouth Routines in
Multivariate Ecological Research). The pro-
cedure was carried out on epiphyte abun-
dance to generate a Brav-Curtis similarity
matrix. Separate two-dimensional ordination
plots were generated for summer and
autumn using replicates for the cover abun-
dance of epiphytes. Two-way analyses of
similarities (ANOSIM) were used to test the
hypothesis that there were no differences in
assemblages between trees and height.
Results
A total of 22 species of epiphytes was
found in this study. Mosses and liverworts
were the dominant epiphytes on both host
trees. Twenty species of epiphytes were
recorded on N. cunninghamii while only
nine species were recorded for E. regnans
(Table 1). Nothofagus cunninghamii had
an overall higher cover of epiphytes than
E. regnans. The dominant epiphytes found
on N. cunninghamii were the mosses
Dicranoloma menziesii (56%) and Wijkia
extenuata (17.5%), and the liverwort
Bazzania adnexa var. adnexa (7.5%)
(Table 1 ). Other species found occurred in
low abundance. In contrast B. adnexa var.
adnexa (74%), the filmy fern
Hymenophyllum ratrum (8%) and the moss
Rhizogonium pennatum (7.71%) were the
most dominant epiphytes on E. regnans
(Table 1).
The patterns of distribution shown by the
dominant epiphyte species were signifi-
cantly different between the tree species.
The species fall into three distinct
224
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Table 2. Presence of epiphyte species
of samples in which each species was
in different trees/height samples. Numbers represent the number
found (Total samples at each height for each tree species = 1 6).
Cryptogam
Nothqfagus cunninghamii
0.5 m 1 m 1.5 m
E. regnans
0.5 m 1 m
1.5 m
GROUP A
Dicranoloma menziesii
16
16
15
Hypnum cupressiforme
5
5
10
Dicranoloma platycaulon
5
5
Leptotheca gaudichgudi i
5
7
Plagiochila fasciculata
2
2
Lepraria sp.
1
1
Pseudoc yphellaria sp .
1
1
Fungus sp. 1
1
1
Marsupiaium surculosum
1
Metzgeria furcata
1
Gaekstroemia weindorferi
1
Liverwort (thallose) sp. 1
1
Fern sp. 1
1
GROUP B
Rhizogonium pennatum
1
4
5
11
6
8
Hymenophyllnm rarum
5
6
7
8
6
8
Bazzania adnexa var. adnexa
12
15
15
16
16
16
Lichen (foliose) sp. 1
3
3
4
1
2
3
Cladia aggregata
6
7
6
8
9
10
Grammitis billardieri
5
3
2
3
1
Wijkia extenuata
15
14
16
3
2
GROUP C
Kurzia compacta
1
2
1
Fern sp. 2
1
Total
12
16
16
9
8
6
Table 3. Results of doubly within-subject repeated measures ANOVA
ness on Nothofagus cunninghamii and Eucalyptus regnans.
for bryophyte species rich-
Source of
Species Richness
Variation
Df
MS
F
Between subjects
Tree Species
1
0.227
30.971***
Error
14
0.007
Within Subjects
Season
1
0.001
0.289
Season x Tree Species
1
0.022
6.668*
Error (Season)
14
0.003
1 Icight
2
0.002
0.979
Height x Tree species
2
0.016
6.769**
Error ( Height)
28
0.002
Season x Height
2
0.004
0.148
Season x Height x Tree Species
2
0.005
0.126
Error (Season x Height)
Significance of F-ratios: *P <0.05; **P <0.01; ***P <0.001
28
0.002
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
225
Bryophyte special issue
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assemblages (Table 2). Group A
includes all those epiphyte species spe-
cific to N. cunninghamii , Group C all
those specific to E. regnans while
Group B comprises ‘cosmopolitan*
species widespread on both N. cun-
ninghamii and E. regnans (Table 2).
On N. cunninghamii , total epiphyte
species richness increased with height
from 12 species at 0.5 m to 16 species
at 1.5 m (Table 2), while on E. reg-
nans there was a reduction in total
species richness from nine species to
six at 0.5 m and 1 .5 m respectively.
This interaction between tree species
and height was statistically significant
(P <0.01). Although the difference in
species richness between the two host
tree species was significant (P <0.001 ),
height and season were not the signifi-
cant factors influencing epiphyte
distribution (Table 3).
The mean percentage cover abun-
dance of each of the three dominant
epiphytes on the two host tree species
w'as found to differ significantly (P
<0.001); however, height from ground
and season were not significant influ-
ences on the pattern of distribution of
these three epiphytes on the two host
tree species (Table 4). For both sea-
sons, the NMPS plot (Fig. 2) and the
ANOSIM results indicate there were
differences in epiphyte community
structure between N. cunninghamii and
© E. regnans (summer: P - 0.001, global
5 R = 0.938; autumn: P - 0.001, global
jY R = 0.969). There was, however no
t difference in community structure in
^ relation to height up the trunk (sum-
m mer: P = 0.486. global R = 0.003;
v autumn: P = 0.951 , global R = 0.049).
*
Discussion
q The epiphyte communities on the two
v dominant tree species of the forest at
g- Cement Creek were found to be dis-
tinct, with N, cunninghamii having a
*= different assemblage of cryptogam
species as well as a higher epiphyte
'3 species richness and cover abundance
g than E. regnans. There was a distinct
p assemblage of cryptogams on trunks of
£ both host species. Lichens were not
.§) present in high abundances as they are-
(75
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Fig. 2. Non-metric multi-dimensional scaling
ordinations for epiphytes present at different
heights (0.5, 1, 1.5 m) on Nothofagus cunning-
hamii (NC) and Eucalyptus regnans (Euc) in
summer and autumn.
less tolerant to the damp andfitered light
conditions at the trunk heights sampled in
this study, and are more likely to occur
higher up the tree where there is greater
light (Kantvilas et al. 1985; Kantvilas
1988; Louwhoff 1995; Milne and
Louwhoff 1999). The moss D. menziesii
was dominant on ;V. cunninghamii while
the liverwort B. adnexa var . adnexa was
dominant on E. regnans. This supports the
findings of Ashton and McC'rae (1970) and
Tyshing (2003) that D. menziesii is the
dominant species on N. cunninghamii , and
Ashton’s (1986) study in which he found
Bazzania to be the most dominant on
E. regnans.
There are many factors that influence the
distribution of epiphytes, with the most sig-
nificant being characteristics of the substra-
tum (Jarman and Kantvilas 1995b; Eldridge
and Tozer 1997; Morlcy and Gibson 2004).
The different properties of bark, such as
texture, pH, age, ability to fissure, and
moisture retention can all affect the distrib-
ution of epiphytes. The bark of N. cunning-
hamii is rigid, stable and corrugated, thus
creating many different microhabitats for
epiphytes to establish (Ashton and McCrae
1970). Within these corrugations there also
is an accumulation of humus, which
improves the likelihood of spore germi na-
tion and the establishment of gameto-
phytes. The bark of E. regnans is sub-
fibrous in the butt area from 0-3m while the
trunk above is smooth, with strips that are
shed periodically. The instability of E. reg-
nans bark is a factor likely to affect epi-
phyte species with the outermost layers
known to fake off in dry periods and in
heavy rain (Ashton 1986). Only the more
hardy and faster growing epiphytes there-
fore would be expected to establish. In con-
trast, the sub-fibrous acidic nature and high
water content of the butt suggests that it is
particularly suitable for epiphyte establish-
ment, especially liverworts such as B.
adnexa var. adnexa (Ashton 1 986).
Light intensity and humidity also affect
epiphyte distribution. The different growth
forms of the two trees influence light pene-
tration and air flow onto their trunks.
Nothofagus cunninghamii has many lateral
branches that occur all along the tree, with
many small leaves that are horizontally
positioned and hence reduce the sunlight
filtering through as well as restricting air
movement. Eucalyptus regnans is much
taller with lateral branching high in the
canopy, and leaves positioned vertically,
allowing more sunlight and air to pass to
the lower trunk and litter beneath. The
large number of epiphyte species found
only on N. cunninghamii possibly were
unable to tolerate the higher light and
lower air humidity of E. regnans.
The increase in diversity of epiphytes
with increasing height on N. cunninghamii
may be due to the reduction of the domi-
nant species D. menziesii , which is less tol-
erant to desiccation (Milne and Louwoff
1999). Jarman and Kantvilas (1995b) sug-
gest that the epiphytes that survive higher
up the trunk are those tolerant to desicca-
tion. Franks and Bergstrom (2000)
observed that moisture availability influ-
enced the composition of epiphytic
bryophytes on Nothofagus moorei (F.
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
227
Bryophvte special issue
Muell.) Krasser, with some bryophytes
species being restricted to the basal trunk
and other species (e.g. Wijkia extenuata)
showing no restriction in vertical distribu-
tion. The reduced abundance of D. men-
ziesii would encourage establishment of
more tolerant epiphytes, thus increasing
diversity. The decrease in species numbers
up the trunk of E. regnans would be due to
B. adnexa var. adnexa outcompeting other
species and preventing their establishment.
Presence of greater species richness at the
base of the trunk may also be due to the
local topography of the E. regnans butt
with its many ridges, which would offer
different degrees of protection and concen-
tration of trunk water flow.
Interspecific competition is especially
prevalent in plant communities (Begon
1996) and may also be a contributing fac-
tor determining epiphyte community struc-
tures on E. regnans and N. cunninghamii.
Bazzania adnexa var. adnexa appears to
outcompete and in fact exclude the estab-
lishment of other epiphyte species on E.
regnans (Ashton 1986). This is likely to be
due to the growth form of B. adnexa var.
adnexa being a thick, dense mat, which
does not allow the spores of other species
to establish. While it still grows on N. cun-
ninghamii it is possibly limited by sub-
optimal conditions (such as lower light)
preventing it from out-competing other
species. No species appears to be exclud-
ing other species on N. cunninghamii .
allowing high species richness to be main-
tained. Dicranoloma menziesii, the domi-
nant species on V. cunninghamii , has an
open turf growth form, allowing other
species (e.g. small liverworts) to grow
between the shoots and hence enabling a
wide variety of epiphytes to establish.
This study showed that vertical zonation
does not occur on cither of the two host
tree species in the first 1.5 m of the trunk.
However, the differences found between
epiphyte communities are significant and
illustrate the importance of maintaining not
only a diversity of host tree species, but
also the integrity (i.e. moisture and light
regimes) of the rainforest.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr Anneke
Veenstra-Quah, Bernadette Sinclair and Richard
Gough for their assistance in the field, Jeff
Jeanes (MEL) and Dr Sharon Morley (DPI
Knox field) for confirmation and identification
of ferns and lichens. Dr Gerry Quinn (Deakin
University) and Dr Ralph MaeNallv (Monash
University ) for statistical advice, and Prof Rod
Seppelt (Australian Antarctic Division) for
invaluable comments.
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Gough 1- (1975) Cryptogam distributions of
Pseudotsuga menziesii and Abies lasiocarpa in (lie
Front Range, Boulder County, Colorado. The
Bryologist 78, 124-145.
Jarman S and Kantvilas G (1995a) Epiphytes on an old
IJuon pine tree ( Lagarostrabos franklinii) in
Tasmanian rainforest. New Zealand Journal of
Botany 33, 65-78.
Jarman S and Kantvilas G (1995b) A tloristic study of
rainforest bryophytes and lichens in Tasmania’s myr-
tle-bccch alliance. The Tasmanian component of the
National Rainforest Conservation Program.
Kantvilas G (1988) Notes on Tasmanian rainforest
lichens. The Tasmanian Naturalist 95, 1-7.
Kantvilas G, James PW and Jarman SJ (1985)
Macrolichens in Tasmanian rainforests.
Lichenologist 17, 97-83.
Kantvilas G and Jarman S (1993) The cryptogamic
flora of an isolated rainforest fragment in Tasmania.
Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 111,
21 1-228.
228
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Kellar C (1999) Epiphytes as a habitat for invertebrates
in a cool temperate rainforest at Cement Creek,
Victoria. (Unpublished BSc Honours Thesis, Deakin
University)
Louwhoff S ( 1995) The Lichen Flora of Mr Donna
Buang. (Unpublished Masters Thesis, Deakin
University)
McCarthy PM (2003) Catalogue of Australian liver-
worts and hornworts. Flora of Australia
Supplementary Series No. 21. (Australian Biological
Resources Study, Canberra)
McQuillan P (1993) Nothofagus (Fagaceae) and its
invertebrate fauna an overview and preliminary
synthesis. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
49.317-354.
Milne J and Louwhoff S ( 1999) Vertical distribution on
bryophytes and lichens on a Myrtle Beech,
Nolhofagus cunninghamii (Hook.) Oerst. Hikobia 13,
23-30.
Morley S and Gibson M (2004) Cool temperate rainfor-
est lichens of Victoria, Australia: Floristics and dis-
tribution. The Bryologist 107, 62-74.
Peel B (1999) Rainforests and Cool Temperate Mixed
Forests of Victoria. (Department of Natural
Resources and Environment: East Melbourne)
Roberts N, Dalton PJ and Jordon GJ (2003) A species
list for the bryophytes and ferns occurring on
Tasmanian tree ferns. Hikobia 14, 25-31.
Roberts N, Dalton PJ and Jordon GJ (2005) Epiphytic
ferns and bryophytes of Tasmanian tree-ferns: A
Comparison of diversity and composition between
two host species. Austral Bi ology 30, 146-154.
Streimann II and Klazenga N (2002) Catalogue of
Australian mosses. Flora of Australia Supplementary
Series No. 17. (Australian Biological Resources
Study: Canberra)
Tyshing C (2003) Niche specificity of spore dispersal
mechanisms in mosses. (Unpublished BSc Hons
Thesis, Deakin University)
Wilkinson L ( 1990) SYSTAT: The System for Statistics.
Systat Inc. (Evanston: Illinois)
Received 13 April 2006; Accepted 15 June 2006
Epiphytic bryophytes of Dicksonia antarctica Labill. from
selected pockets of Cool Temperate Rainforest, Central
Highlands, Victoria
Aaron B Floyed and Maria Gibson
Plant Ecology Research Unit, School of Life and Environmental Sciences,
Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burvvood, Victoria 3125
Abstract
Epiphytic bryophytes of the Soft Tree-fern Dicksonia antarctica Labill. were examined in four Cool
Temperate Rainforest pockets of the Central Highlands of Victoria. Thirty-two species, 17 mosses
and 15 liverworts, were noted. There was no distinction in species assemblage between the north and
south side of tree-ferns although bryophytes occurred on the south side of more tree-ferns than they
did on the north side. (The Victorian Naturalist 123 (4), 2006, 229-235)
Introduction
Victorian Cool Temperate Rainforest is
restricted to small pockets and ribbons
found in gullies and along ridge tops
(Howard and Ashton 1973; Busby 1986).
These pockets are dominated by Myrtle
Beech Nothofagus cunninghamii (Hook.)
Oerst. with smaller trees such as
Blackwood Acacia melqnoxylon R.Br. and
Southern Sassafras Atherosperma moscha-
tum Labill. forming the understorey along
with the Soft Tree-fern Dicksonia antarcti-
ca Labill. and Rough Tree-fern Cyathea
australis (R.Br.) Domin. (Howard and
Ashton 1973; Jarman and Brown 1983).
The Soft Tree-fern (Fig. 1) is much more
common than the Rough Tree-fern and fre-
quently has a luxuriant cover of bryophytes
(Cameron 1992; Jarman cl al. 1986; Ough
and Murphy 1996; Peacock 1994; Roberts
et al. 2003), but only one published study
has documented the bryophytes of tree-
ferns. Roberts et al. (2003) listed 81
bryophytes on Soft Tree-ferns and fifty-two
on Rough Tree-ferns in Tasmania.
This study examined the bryophytes of
Soft Tree-ferns in selected Cool Temperate
Rainforest pockets in Victoria.
Methods
Four pockets of Cool Temperate
Rainforest from the Central Highlands of
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
229
Bryophyte special issue
Fig. 1. Soft Tree-ferns in Cool Temperate Rainforest are common, and potentially provide much sur-
face area for epiphyte growth.
Victoria were examined between April and
September in 1999. Three pockets (Lady
Talbot Drive. Bellell Creek and Mount
Donna Buang) were located within the
Yarra Ranges National Park, while the
fourth pocket (Mount Erica) was located in
the Baw Baw National Park (Fig. 2). All
sites were dominated by N. cunninghamii;
however. Mountain Ash Eucalyptus regnans
F Muell. was emergent in some areas. The
understorey consisted of A. melanoxylon .
Hazel Pomaderris Pomaderris aspera Sieb.
ex DC. A. moschatum (Mt Donna Buang
only), D. antarctica and C. australis . The
sparse ground cover was a combination of
Hard Water-fern B/echtwm watts ii Tindale
and Mother Shield-fern Polystichum pro-
life rum (R.Br.) Presl.
At each site, three transects were placed
from the roadside edge of each pocket run-
ning the complete length of the pockets.
Transects were not of equivalent length as
pockets of Cool Temperate Rainforest in
Victoria are small and of uneven shape.
Quadrats of 10 m by 5 m were sampled at
15 m intervals along each transect. All Soft
Tree-ferns that were 40 cm or more in cir-
cumference were sampled in each quadrat.
Quadrats of 20 cm by 20 cm were placed
every 50 cm along transects running up the
northern and southern aspect of each tree-
fern up to a height of 2 m, this being the
limit of accessibility. The old maxim that
moss grows only on the south side of trees
suggests that different species may occur on
the two sides, albeit less on the north side, so
both aspects were examined to ensure col-
lection of as many species as possible.
Percentage cover of each bryophyte was
determined in each quadrat. All bryophytes
were identified to species level. Mosses
were identified using Scott and Stone (1976)
and Beever et at. (1992), while liverworts
were identified using Scott (1985). Revised
taxonomic nomenclature followed that of
Strcimann and Klazenga (2002) for mosses
and McCarthy (2003) for liverworts.
Samples of each species arc held by the
Plant Ecological Research Unit at Deakin
University, Burwood.
Non Metric Multidimensional Scaling
(NMDS) was applied to the frequency data
to determine species assemblage patterns at
the various sites, with aspect and with height
230
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Fig. 2. Map showing general location of surveyed areas, relative to Melbourne (M). Lady Talbot
Drive (LTD), Mount Donna Buang (Mt DB), Mount Erica (Mt E) and Bellell Creek (BC)
on the host. The software package PRIMER
(Plymouth Routines in Multivariate
Ecological Research) was used. This was
based on a Bray-curtis similarity matrix.
Results
One hundred and seven Soft Tree-ferns
were sampled, of which 83 had epiphytic
bryophytes (Table 1). A total of 32
bryophyte species were recorded from the
trunks of the tree-ferns (Table 1 ), of which
seventeen were mosses, while 15 were liv-
erworts (Table 2). Twenty-one species
occurred at Mount Donna Buang, 20 at
Lady Talbot Drive, 1 1 at Bellell Creek and
nine at Mount Erica. No species occurred
at all four sites although 10 species
occurred at each of three sites. Thirteen
species occurred at only one site: seven at
Mount Donna Buang, three, two and one
species at Lady Talbot Drive, Bellell Creek
and Mount Erica respectively. Lady Talbot
Drive and Mount Donna Buang had 29 of
the total 32 bryophyte species between
them but had only 12 species in common.
NMDS showed they had two quite distinct
assemblages of bryophytes (Fig. 3).
Bryophytes were found in only 214 of
the total 982 quadrats examined on the
trunks of the tree-ferns. Most abundant
were the liverworts Metzgeria furcata (L)
Dumort. and Heleroscyphus fissistipus
(Hook.f. & Taylor) Schiffn. occurring in
46 and 39 quadrats respectively (Fig. 3).
The most common moss was Cyathophorum
b u l bos uni (Hedw.) Mull. Hal. which was
found 33 times (Fig. 4). Only 10 species
occurred 10 or more times. Fifteen species
occurred less than five times.
Table 1. Distribution of bryophytes epiphytic on Soft Tree-ferns of the Central Highlands (LTB -
Lady Talbot Drive, MDB - Mt Donna Buang, ME - Mt Erica, BC - Bellel Creek).
LTB
MDB
ME
BC
Total
number of tree-ferns examined
65
24
7
11
107
number of tree-ferns with bryophytes
47
20
6
10
83
number of tree-ferns w ith bryophytes on south side
38
16
6
8
68
number of tree-ferns with bryophytes on north side
25
13
1
4
43
number of bryophyte species
20
21
9
11
32
number of bryophyte species on south side
16
18
7
9
28
number of bryophyte species on north side
14
13
4
6
24
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
231
Bryophyte special issue
Fig. 3. NMDS showing distribution of epiphytic bryophytes. Lady Talbot Drive (LTD), Mount
Donna Buang (Mt DB), Mount Erica (Mt E) and Bellell Creek (BC). Stress - 0.05
Bryophytes occurred on the south side of
68 tree-ferns but on the north side of only
43 tree-ferns. This pattern occurred at each
site. At Lady Talbot Drive, 38 tree-ferns
had bryophytes on the south side while
only 25 tree-ferns had bryophytes on the
north side, i.e. 80% compared to 53% of
the total tree-ferns (with bryophytic epi-
phytes) respectively. Indeed, at each site,
bryophytes occurred on the south side of
80% or more of the tree ferns with
bryophytic epiphytes (Table 1). NMDS,
however, showed no distinction between
the two aspects.
Overall, there were slightly more species
on the south side than north side of tree-
ferns, i.e. 28 compared to 24 species
respectively (Tables 1 and 2). This pattern
was reflected at each site (Table l). Seven
species occurred only on the south side
( Thamnobryum pumiluin, Catagonium
nitens, Fissidens curvatus var. curvatus,
Trachylotna plant 'folium, Distichophyllum
crispulum, Kurzia hippttrioidcs and
Chiloscyphus semi teres var. semiteres)
while three species occurred only on the
north side ( Plagiochila fasciculate.
Tylimanthus tenel/us and Dicranotoma bil-
larderi) (Table 2).
No distinction occurred between species
distribution and their height on the trunk of
tree-ferns.
Discussion
The much lower number of bryophytes
found on Soft Tree-ferns in this study
compared to the Tasmanian study (Roberts
el al. 2003) is to be expected. Ten sites
were examined in Tasmania while only
four were investigated in this study. Also,
Cool Temperate Rainforest in Tasmania is
far more extensive, 563 000 hectares
(Hickey et al. 1093), than in Victoria, 13
270 hectares (Adam 1992). Also, Victorian
forests occur in small pockets or ribbons
and thus are more prone to drying and fire
than Tasmanian forests.
Old fronds of tree-ferns remain attached
and form a skirt around the upper portion
of trunks. This prevents light from pene-
trating this region of the trunk and protects
this area of trunk from rain, forming a
darker and drier region that would inhibit
the colonisation of epiphytes. Short tree
ferns, therefore, would have few if any
bryophtcs. Page and Brownsey (1986),
Ough and Murphy (1996) and Ford and
Gibson (2000) all reported few epiphytes
on tree-ferns less than 2 m in height. This
study included all tree-ferns of 40 cm or
more in circumference but some were
shorter than 2 m in height, contributing to
some of the difference in bryophyte num-
bers of this study compared to the study of
Roberts et al. (2003), where only tree-ferns
232
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Table 2. Bryophytes of Soft Tree-ferns in Cool Temperate Rainforests of the Central Highlands. +
indicates presence. Lady Talbot Drive (LTD), Bellell Creek (BC), Mount Donna Buang (MDB)
and Mount Erica (ME).
Species
LTD MDB BC MTE N S
A crophyl l um dentatum
(Hook.f. & Wilson) Vitt & Crosby
Ch i l oscyph us m uric at us
(Lehm.) J.J. Engel & R.M.Schust.
Cyanolophocolea ecbinella
(Lindenb. & Goltsche) R.M.Schust.
C 'yathophorum bulbosum
Dicranolomci billanieri
(Brid. ex Anon) Paris
Heteroscyphus coalitus (Hook.) Schiffn.
Heteroscyphus fissistipus
(Hook.f & Taylor) Schiffn.
Lepidozia ulothrix (Sclnvaegr.) Lindenb.
Leptophyllopsis l ax us (Mitt.) R.M.Schust.
Leptostomum inch nans R.Br.
Lepto theca gaudichaudii Schwagr.
Metzgena con jugal a Lindb.
Metzgeria furcata (L.) Dumort.
Paracromastigum longiscyphwn
(Taylor) R.M.Schust. & J.J. Engel
Plagiotheci uni lamprostacln >s
(Hampe) A, Jaeger
Rhaphidorrhyncbium amocnum
(Hedw.) M.Fleisch
Rbyncbostegium tenuifolium
(Hedw.) Reichardlvar. tenuifolium
T hamnobryi im pum i I um
Thuidiopsis sparsa
(Hook.f. Sc Wilson) Broth.
Wijkia extenuata (Brid.) H. A. Crum
Catagonium nilens
(Brid.) C’ardot subsp. Nitens
Fissidcns curvatus Hornsch var. curvatus
Trcichyloma planifolium (Hedw.) Brid.
Bazzania involuta (Mont.) Trcvis.
Dicranolomci dicarpum (Nees) Paris
Dicranoloma menziesii (Taylor) Renauld
Dis t ichophyl l um crispulum
(Hook.f. Sc Wilson) Milt.
Kurzia hippurioides
(Hook.f. & Taylor) Grolle
Lepidozia lacvi folia var. laevifhlia
(Hook.f. & Taylor) Taylor ex Gottsche,
Lindenb. & Nees
Plagiochi la fasciculate) Linden b.
Tvl i man thus t cue Hits
(Hook.f. & Taylor) Mitt.
Chiloscyphus semiteres var. semiteres
(Lehm. & Lindenb.) Lehm. Sc Lindenb.
+ + +
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
over 2 m in height were examined. It also
explains why so few quadrats on the tree-
fern trunks had bryophytes.
Roberts et al. (2003) concluded that Soft
Tree-ferns were an important host for
bryophytes in Tasmania. They found that
the number of bryophyte species on tree-
ferns were much higher than the number on
M Gunninghamii found in similar forests,
i.e. 81 compared to 55. In Victorian Cool
Temperate Rainforest, Ployed (1999) found
46 bryophyte species on N. cunninghamii ,
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
233
Bryophyte special issue
43 on fallen logs, 33 on rock, 27 on A.
melanoxyton , 25 on soil, 16 on E. regnans ,
eight on /l. moschatum and only six on
Pomadetris aspera Sieb. ex DC. Thus, Soft
Tree-ferns in Victorian Cool Temperate
Rainforest also are an important substratum
type for bryophytes and their diversity,
supporting 32 bryophyte species, but not as
important as some other substrata. Also,
the number of bryophyte species supported
by a particular substratum can vary from
place to place. In Victorian Cool
Temperate Rainforest TV. cunninghamii
supports more bryophytes than Soft Tree-
ferns, whereas the converse occurs in
Tasmania.
A number of papers have shown that there
are distinct differences in epiphyte species
composition between aspects (Pike et al.
1975; Kantvilas and Minchin, 1989; Peck et
al. 1995). Kantvilas and Minchin (1989)
suggested differences in composition were
caused by trunks leaning towards canopy
gaps, resulting in the formation of a dry and
wet side. They studied lichens but their
findings arc pertinent in that bryophytes
tend to grow in more moist conditions than
lichens, so it would be expected that more
bryophytes would occur on the wet side
regardless of whether it was the north or
south aspect. This study did not examine
moisture levels of the two aspects but
shows that while there are more tree-ferns
with bryophytes on the south side than on
the north side, there is no distinction in
species assemblage between the two
aspects. Similarly, Franks and Bergstrom
(2000) looked at the effects of aspect on
234
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
bryophytes growing on Antarctic Beech
Nothofagus moorei (F Muell.) Krasser in
south-east Queensland. They noted that
although there were slightly fewer species
of both mosses and liverworts on the south-
ern aspect compared to the northern aspect
of trees, there was no statistical difference.
Generally, Soft Tree-ferns make compara-
tively good hosts for bryophytes; however,
their importance as a substratum can vary
from place to place. In Tasmania, Soft Tree-
ferns support more bryophytes than N. cun-
ninghamii but this is not so in Victoria. This
study also found quite a variation in the
number of bryophytes supported by Soft
Tree-ferns from place to place. This has
important implications for conservation of
bryophytes and the concept of vascular
plants being useful as surrogates to deter-
mine which areas should be conserved to
maintain bryophyte diversity. One host can-
not be considered more important than
another as the number of species supported
by it can vary from place to place.
Therefore the use of surrogacy must be used
with caution when determining whether one
area may be more important than another
and so have conservation priority. In order
to determine an area's importance for
bryophyte conservation it is important to
ascertain which bryophytes live there.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Parks Victoria
and the Department of Sustainability and
Environment for allowing sampling within the
National Parks (Permit No. 1 0002309). The
authors also would like to thank Arthur Theis of
the National Herbarium (Melbourne) for his
assistance with troublesome identifications, as
well as Brodie Evven and Bernadette Sinclair for
field assistance and the referees for useful com-
ments; their time and effort is appreciated.
References
Adam P (1992) Australian Rainforests. (Claredon
Press: Melbourne)
Beever J, Allison KW and Child J (1992) The mosses
of New Zealand. 2 ed. (University of Otago Press:
Dunedin)
Busby JR (1986) A biogeoclimatic analysis of
Nothofagus cunninghamii (Hook.) Oerst. in
Southeastern Australia . Australian Journal of
Ecology ! II. 1-7.
Cameron D (1992) A portrait of Victorian rainforests:
distribution, diversity and definition. In Victoria's
rainforests: perspectives on definition, classification
and management. Eds P GelJ and l) Mercer
(Department of Geography and Environmental
Science: Monash University: Melbourne)
Floyed AB (1999) Bryophyte communities of selected
Rainforests within Victoria. (Unpublished BSc
Honours thesist, Deakin University)
Ford S and Gibson M (2000) Lichens of the Soft Tree-
fern Dickson ia an fare tic a Labill. in Victorian
Rainforests. The Victorian Naturalist 117, 172-179.
Franks AJ and Bergstrom DM (2000) Corticolous
bryophytes in microphyll (cm forests of south-east
Queensland: distribution on Antarctic beech
( Nothofagus moorei). Austral Ecology 25, 386-393.
Hickey J, Davis S, Wardman R and Harris J (1993)
How much rainforest is in Tasmania? A better
answer to a difficult question. Tasjbresfs 5, 13-24.
Howard I'M and Ashton DH (1973) The distribution of
Nothofagus cnnninghamii rainforest. Proceedings of
the Royal Society of Victoria 86, 47-75.
Jarman SJ and Brown MJ (1983) A definition of Cool
temperate Rainforest in Tasmania. Search 14, 81-87.
Jarman SJ. Kantvilas G and Brown MJ (1986) The
ecology of Pteridophytes in Tasmanian Cool
Temperate Rainforest. Fern Gazette 13, 77-86.
Kantvilas G and Minch in PR (1989) An analysis of
epiphytic lichen communities in Tasmanian Cool
Temperate Rainforest. Vegetation 84. 99-1 12.
McCarthy PM (2003) Catalogue of Australian liver-
worts and hornworts (Australian Biological
Resources Study: Canberra)
Ough K and Murphy A (1996) Ihe effect of clearfell
logging on tree-ferns in Victorian wet forest.
Australian Forestry 59, 178-188.
Page CN and Brownsey P.l < 1986) Tree-fern skirts: a
defence against climbers and large epiphytes. The
Journal of Ecology 47, 787-796.
Peacock R.i ( 1994) Effects of steep country logging on
vegetation in Tasmania. (Unpublished report.
Commonwealth Department of Primary Industries
and Energy and Forestry Commission:Tasmania)
Peck JE, Hong WS and MeCune B (1995) Diversity of
epiphytic bryophytes on three host tree species.
Thermal Meadow. Hotsprings Island, Queen
Charlotte Islands, Canada. The Brvoiogist 98. 1 23-
128.
Pike LH, Dcvinson WC, Tracey DM, Sherwood MA
and Rhoades FM (1975) Florislic surv ey of epiphytic
lichens and bryophytes growing on old-growth
conifers in western Oregon. The Brvoiogist 78. 389-
402.
Roberts NR, Dalton PJ and Jordan GJ (2003) A species
list for the bryophytes and ferns occurring as epi-
phytes on Tasmanian tree ferns. Uikobia 14, 25-31.
Scott GAM (1985) Southern Australian liverworts.
(Australian Government publishing service:
Canberra)
Scott GAM and Stone IG ( 1976) The mosses of
Southern Australia. (Academic Press: London)
Streimann II and Klazenga N (2002) Catalogue of
Australian mosses. (Australian Biological Resources
Study: Canberra)
Received 18 May 2006; accepted 13 July 2006
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
235
Bryophyte special issue
Studies on Victorian bryophytes 5.
Key to leafy liverworts
David Meagher
School of Botany, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010
Abstract
A new key to the genera and many species of leafy liverworts in Victoria is provided. {The Victorian
Naturalist 123 (4), 2006, 236-247)
Introduction
In the mid 1970s George Scott produced
the first key to Victorian liverworts, mainly
for botany students at Monash University
(Scott 1975). He later expanded this key for
his magnum opus on southern Australian
liverworts (Scott 1985), providing botanists
for the first time with an authoritative key
for identifying our hepatic flora.
In the time since that publication, many
additions, deletions and renamings of
species have occurred. This new key is
based on Dr Scott's original keys, but
includes new genera and new names for
existing genera. Allowance is also made for
common errors, especially with characters
that may be variable or difficult to distin-
guish. Thallose liverworts with a leafy form
are included in the key for completeness.
Although this is mainly a key to genera,
many couplets lead to a single species, and
Group B is keyed to species throughout.
Full keys to species in various genera will
be published progressively in later papers
in this Studies series. In the meantime, the
treatments of genera in Scott (1985) are
still more than adequate.
In using this key, keep in mind that our
knowledge of the Victorian bryophyte
flora is still very incomplete, and species
and genera presently known only from
Tasmania. New Zealand or other parts of
the world might still be found here. The
key is also valid for South Australia and
southern Western Australia and for most
genera encountered in Tasmania and New
South Wales.
Of the taxa in this key, only
Andrews ianthus cuspidal us and Triandro-
phyllum subtrifidum are not described or
illustrated in Scott (1985) or Meagher and
Fuhrer (2003). Both are well illustrated in
Schuster (2002).
Names of taxa follow the current national
checklist (McCarthy 2006).
A basic glossary of terms used in this
key, and in the key to thallose liverworts
and horn worts ( Studies 6) that follows, is
included at the end of this paper. For a
complete and beautifully illustrated glos-
sary of bryological terms, see Malcolm and
Malcolm (2000).
Key to groups
1 Leaves complicate-bilobed; folded, keeled, or with an inflated ventral sac .. Group A
Leaves not complicate-bilobed 2
2 Leaves densely hairy or ciliatc, the leaf lamina hard to distinguish Group B
Leaves ciliate or not, but lamina always easily distinguished 3
3 Underleaves absent or not visible Group C
Underleaves present 4
4 Leaves inserted incubously on stem; i.e, when viewed from the dorsal
side, each leaf overlaps one closer to the shoot apex (or would do so
if they were close enough) Group I)
Leaves inserted succubously. i.e. when viewed from the
dorsal side, each leaf overlaps one farther from the shoot apex
(or would do so if they were close enough); or inserted transversely 5
5 Leaves without lobes or marginal teeth Group L
Leaves with 2 or more lobes, or with marginal teeth Group F
236
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Group A
Leafy liverworts with complicate-bilobed leaves
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Leaves with a keel running longitudinally along the leaf; lobules absent 2
Leaves not keeled; lobules present 3
Underleaves present Schistochila lehmanniana
Underleaves absent Paraschistochila tuloides
Lobule dorsal 4
Lobule ventral 6
Plants thick, fleshy, brittle, bright green Treubia tusmanica
Plants delicate, not at all fleshy, dull green to yellow, often tinged chestnut 5
Underleaves present Balantiopsis
Underleaves absent Diplophyllum
Underleaves (as well as leaves) with saccate lobules Heteroscyphus cymbaliferus
Underleaves without saccate lobules 7
Lobules complex, forming an inflated claw or sac, very narrowly
connected to the stem , , 8
Lobules simple, consisting of the inrolled or folded ventral margin
of the leaf, inflated or not, usually widely connected to stem 9
More than 1 lobule per leaf Gackstroemia weindorferi
Only 1 lobule per leaf Frullania
Underleaves absent 10
Underleaves present 1 1
Rhizoids absent or arising from lobules; habitats various,
rarely if ever epiphyllous Radula
Rhizoids in bundles on stem in the position of missing underleaves;
mainly epiphyllous plants on leaves in rainforest Cololejeunea
Underleaves entire Acrolejeunea securifolia
Underleaves lobed or shallowly notched at apex 12
Lobule an inflated sac, appearing to be unattached to leaf 13
Lobule formed by a simple rolling or folding of the ventral leaf margin 14
Leaves with long, ciliate marginal teeth, at least in partA ... Gackstroemia weindorferi
Leaves entire Frullania
14 One underleaf for each lateral leaf 15
One underleaf for each pair of lateral leaves 16
15 Cells with high papillae Colura
Cells mamillose, never papillose Diplasiolejeunea plicatiloba
16 Leaves very narrow at base, attached to stem by 1 or 2 cells 17
Leaves widely attached to stem, by several cells 18
1 7 Leaf apex rounded; lobule with 3-4 teeth Siphonolejeiinea nudipes
Leaf apex pointed; lobule with 1 tooth Nephelolejeunea hamata
1 8 Oil bodies 1 or 2 per cell, each resembling a cluster of grapes;
apical tooth of lobule ± at right angles to stem; hyaline papilla
on inner side of apical tooth of lobule Cheilolejeunea mimosa
Oil bodies several per cell, not grape-cluster type; apical tooth of lobule
± parallel to stem; hyaline papilla on outer side of apical tooth of lobule 19
19 Leaf base with 1 or 2 enlarged cells, each almost filled by an
oil body Harpalcjeunea latitans
Leaf base without such cells Lejeunea
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
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Btyophyte special issue
Group B
Leafy liverworts with densely hairy or spiny leav es
1 Lobules present, either dorsally or ventrally
Lobules absent
.. Gackstroemia weindorfei
3
, Schistochila lehnuinniana
.... Balantiopsis diplophylla
Small, helmet-shaped ventral lobules present
Ventral lobules not present
Lobule formed by keeling of leaf
Lobule formed by folding of leaf margin
Leaves with long, single-celled spines bent ± parallel to
stem, pointing to the stem apex Psiloclada elandestina
Leaves not as above (if spines pointing to the apex, then not single-celled) 5
Leaves almost wholly divided into lobes and hairs, so that
leaf lamina is not evident; stems with paraphyllia 6
Leaf lamina evident, although bordered by hairs or spines; paraphyllia absent 7
Cilia of leaves distinctly papillose; in dry sclerophyll forest Trichoc ole a rigida
Cilia of leaves not papillose; in wet forest or rainforest Trichocolea mollissima
Hairs 1 -celled, bristle-like; plant of dry heathland or
woodland .... Chaetophyllopsis whiteleggei
Hairs many-eelled; plants of dry to wet sclerophyll forest or rainforest 8
Shoots bi pinnate, at least in w idest part
of plant; leaf hairs 1 cell wide at base Telaranea pulcherrima var. mooreana
Shoots simple or 1 -pinnate; leaf hairs several to many cells wide at base 9
Shoots long, fawn to yellow, epiphytic in w'et forest or
other cool, moist habitats; leaves bifid, each lobe also
bifid, the tips extended into hyaline hairs Lepicolea scolopendra
Shoots and leaves not as above 10
.... Temnoma town row ii
1 0 Shoots distinctly golden brow n, terrestrial on clayey soil
Shoots yellow-brown to yellow-green, epiphytic
on trees and rotting w'ood*
Lepidoziu ulothrix
Most specimens keying to here will be Lepidozia ultothrix , but another species
resesmbling L. hirta of New Zealand is present in Victoria. L. ulothrix often has the
lobes further divided; the other species does not.
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Bryophyte special issue
Group C
Leafy liverworts without underleaves, or underleaves not apparent
1 Leaves with a ventral lobule 2
Leaves without a ventral lobule 3
2 Rhizoids absent or arising from lobules; habitats various,
rarely epiphyllous Radula
Rhizoids in bundles on stem in the position of missing underleaves;
often epiphyllous Cololejeunea
3 Although appearing leafy and lettuce-like, plant thallose,
without a clearly defined stem 4
Plants truly leafy, leaves arising from a clearly defined narrow
stem (stem may be obscured by leaves) 5
4 Rhizoids hyaline or brown, never crimson; thallus a wide rosette
up to 20 mm in diameter, the lobe ruffled and lamellate on
dorsal surface; mature capsule enclosed in a bulbous central
involucre Petalophyllum preissii
Rhizoids usually crimson; thallus not lamellate; mature capsule
raised on translucent stalk Fossombronia/Austrofossombronia
5 Leaves with lobes, teeth or spine-like hairs 6
Leaves rounded, entire or crenulate, or tapering to a single sharp point 22
6 Margins of leaves with 2 or more slender spine-like hairs 7
Margins of leaves without teeth, or teeth broad at base, not spine-like 9
7 Plants terrestrial, clearly anchored to the soil by rhizoids along
the length of the stem Goebelobryum unguicu/atum
Plants terrestrial or not. but if so then without rhizoids,
or rhizoids confined to stem base 8
8 Margins of leaves with 2 widely spaced ± parallel spines,
swept backwards Adelanthus bisetulus
Margins of leaves with many short teeth Plagiochila
9 Plants densely papillose over stems and leaves 10
Plants papillose or not, but papillae not on stems 1 1
1 0 Stems hairy with short, stiff, papillose bristles; shoots
2-3 mm wide Marsupidium setulosum
Stems papillose but lacking bristles; shoots mostly less
than 1 mm wide * ... Acrobolbus cinerascens
1 1 Plants minute, thread-like, prostrate or erect, almost invisible
to the naked eye; leaves bilobed, sometimes also toothed
(seee couplet 4 Group F) Cephaloziella
Plants small to large, shoots easily visible to the naked eye;
leaves variously lobed or toothed * 12
12 Oil bodies conspicuous, dark brown in transmitted light 13
Oil bodies often inconspicuous, not dark brown (usually transparent) 14
1 3 Outer cells of stem similar to inner cells; marsupium at
base of stem Marsupidium su rculos urn
Outer cells of stem small and thick-walled, forming a
distinct 2-3-layered cortex; marsupium at the shoot tip Tylimanthus
14 Leaves with more than 2 lobes or teeth 15
Leaves bilobed or with 2 large apical teeth, otherwise with entire margins 17
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
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Bryophyte special issue
Group C cont'd
Leafy liverworts without underleaves, or underleaves not apparent
15 Stems green or brown v Plagiochila
Stems black 16
16 Shoot tips often curved over like a walking stick: leaves opposite,
finely toothed ± all round margin; leaf cells
without trigones Calyptrocolea falcata
Shoots tips erect; leaves alternating along stem, coarsely toothed
or lobed along apical margin; leaf cells with very large
trigones .. Acrochila biserialis
17 Leaves tightly and evenly pressed against stem 18
Leaves spreading from stem, at least in one direction 19
18 Plants greyish; leaves obvious, overlapping; stem hidden by leaves;
on soil Gymnomitrion incompletum
Plants very dark green to black, appearing leafless
but with minute widely spaced leaves; stem clearly visible;
on rocks in flowing water Cephalomitrion aterrimum
19 Leaves bifid to halfway; plant aquatic or semi-aquatic Allisoniella nigra
Leaves bifid but never to halfway; plant not aquatic or semi-aquatic 20
20 Leaves wrapped around stem; epiphytic in wet forest or
rainforest Anastrophyllum schismoides
Leaves spreading widely from the stem; not epiphytic 21
21 Leaves longer than wide, ± oblong; on soil
at low elevations* Andrewsianthus cuspidatus
Leaves wider than long, ± oval, on rock at higher elevations .. Marsupelhi sparsifolia
22 Shoots prostrate, with many rhizoids along much of the stem 23
Shoots erect or ascending, attached to the substrate only at the base 31
23 Leaves with papillose cuticle, at least in lower half of leaf 24
Leaves smooth or striolate, never papillose 26
24 Epiphytic in w>et forest or rainforest, or on rocks in subalpine
to alpine areas; capsule developing in perianth Jamiesoniella colorata
On soil in drier habitats (rarely aquatic); not in alpine areas;
capsule in a buried marsupium 25
25 Plants yellowish to deep green, sometimes tinted chestnut;
oil bodies large, brownish, few per cell; leaf cuticle papillose
only towards apex Lethocolea pansa
Plants silvery white to whitish green, not tinted chestnut;
oil bodies small, colourless, up to 14 per cell; leaf cuticle
usually papillose all over , Gongylanthus scariosus
26 Leaves ± opaque, cells almost filed by brownish oil bodies ... Acrobolbus concinnus
Leaves translucent, oil bodies pale (brownish only in Lethocolea puma) 27
27 Plants minute: leaf and stem cells all similar, bulging; leaves fcw-celled Zoopsis
Plants small to large, leaf and stem cells not bulging, leaf cells
distinctly different from stem cells; leaves many-celled 28
28 Leaves tongue-shaped, ending in an acute point Cuspidatula monodon
Leaves w ith widely rounded apex, not at all pointed 29
29 Leaf insertion succubous, orientation ± longitudinal; leaves ± flat;
epiphytic in rainforest or subalpine woodland" Pedinophyllum monoicum
Leaf insertion ± transverse; leaves flat to concave; terrestrial or aquatic 30
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Bryophyte special issue
Group C cont'd
Leafy liverworts without underleaves, or underleaves not apparent
30 Outer cells of stem enlarged and translucent, forming a distinct
hyaloderm; leaves 2-3 cells thick in middle near the base; stolon-like
stems present; plants of subalpine and alpine areas .. Hygrolembidium acrocladum
Outer cells of stem not differentiated as a hyaloderm;
leaves 1 cell thick throughout; stolon-like stems not present;
plants in various habitats Solenostoma ( Jungermannia )
3 1 Leaves tightly and evenly appressed to stem 32
Leaves spreading from stem, at least in one direction 33
32 Cells of leaf margin thick-walled, with peg-like projections;
leaves densely papillose, especially in basal half Nothogymnomitrion erosum
Cells of leaf margin thin-walled; leaves smooth or finely
striate, not papillose Herzogobryum teres
33 Erect branches arising from creeping stolon-like stems;
plants small, leaves deeply concave; in subalpine or
alpine areas Hygrolembidium acrocladum
Stolon-like stems not present; leaves concave or not,
but never deeply; habitats various 34
34 Stems mostly erect and unbranched, forming low dense turf on soil;
capsule formed in tubular perianth, or in a marsupium 35
Stems usually branched, not forming low dense turf; capsule
formed in tubular or flattened perianth 37
35 Male and female branches at end of shoot; oil bodies
always pale Solenostoma (. Jungermannia )
White male branches and marsupia carried at base of
stem; oil bodies clear brown, rarely pale 36
36 Plants green, robust; leaves 1-2 mm wide; leaf cells without
trigones Marsupidium surculosum
Plants usually brownish, small; leaves < 1 mm wide;
leaf cells with distinct trigones Jackiella curvata
37 Leaves dark green, brown or black, margins entire; in montane
to alpine areas in or next to water Cryptochila grandiflora
Leaves yellowish, green or greenish brown, margins usually toothed;
in various habitats but mostly montane or lower Plagiochila
A Species of Lophozia , a genus not yet formally reported for Victoria but undoubtedly
present here, could key out at couplet 1 6 or 22.
B Jamesoniella tasmcmica , doubtfully recorded for Victoria, would key to here. It has
yellowish or brown concave leaves and the perianth tapers to a narrow mouth;
Pedinophyllum monoicum is always green and the perianth expands to a wide mouth.
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
241
Bryophyte special issue
Group D
Leafy liverworts with underleaves and incubous leaves
1 Leaves with ventral lobules Group A
Leaves without ventral lobules * 2
2 Most leaves on main stems 4-lobed 3
Most leaves on main stems 3-lobed, 2-lobed or not lobed 5
3 Leaves inserted almost longitudinally; leaf cells in regular
rows , .... Telaranea centipes
Leaves clearly incubous to transverse; leaf cells not in regular rows 4
4 Leaves nearly transverse; tiny plants creeping over clay soil,
often in dense mats
Leaves clearly incubous, leaves densely overlapping on most
parts of shoot ,
5 Leaves divided almost to the base, each lobe consisting
± of 4-6 elongated cells in a row Paracromastigum longiscypha
Leaves not divided almost to the base, segments not as above 6
6 Ventral flagella absent 7
Ventral flagella present 9
7 Leaves constantly 3-lobed. never with extra teeth; underleaves
minute, entire to shallowly 3-lobed; plant minute Brucella integristipula
At least some leaves 2-lobed or entire; underleaves large,
distinctly 2-lobed or 3-lobed; plants small to large 8
8 Both leaves and underleaves variably and deeply 2-lobed and 3-lobed;
leaf insertion clearly incubous; leaf surface distinctly
striolate Triandrophyllum subtrifidum
Leaves and underleaves shallowly 2-lobed or entire, sometimes
with small accessory teeth, never 3-lobed; leaf insertion ± transverse;
leaf surface not striolate (but may be papillose) Isotachis
.... Kurzia
Lepidozia
9 At least some leaves 3-lobed; ventral flagellum arising from axil
of underleaf. Bazzania
All leaves 2-lobed or entire; ventral flagellum replacing
half of underleaf Acromastigum
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Bryophyte special issue
Group E
Leafy liverworts with underleaves and succubous to transverse leaves without lobes
1 Leaves with a lobule on the ventral side Group A
Leaves without a lobule on the ventral side 2
2 Plants minute, cells inflated and glistening; leaves consisting of
a few relictual cells topped by smaller oblique cells
Plants small to large, cells not inflated and glistening; leaves
consisting of many cells
3 Although appearing entire, apex of leaves with 2 small
closely spaced lobes Saccogynidium decurvum
Leaves without lobes 4
4 Leaves deeply concave, more or less fleshy; in
alpine habitats Hygrolembidium acrocladum
Leaves not deeply concave, never fleshy; in various habitats 5
5 Plants somewhat to distinctly dorso-ventrally flattened;
with brownish pigments; perianths ± laterally compressed,
basically 2-lipped, the ventral lobe much reduced in length;
rhizoids not confined to underleaf bases Leptoscyphus expansus
Plants usually lacking brownish pigments; perianth
trigonous to trigonous inflated, the mouth equally or
subequally trilobed; rhizoids confined to underleaf bases 6
6 Underleaves always joined to leaves on both sides,
usually strongly; sex organs always on short specialised
intercalary shoots; androecia on narrow leafless branches;
leaf cells often with large trigones
Underleaves joined to leaves on I side only, or weakly joined to
leaves on both sides; sex organs all or mostly on unspecialised
leafy shoots; androecia usually on leafy branches; leaf cells
without trigones, or trigones small to medium, never large
7 Plants stoloniferous; leaves transverse to succubous; leafy branches
erect, without flagella* Hepatostolonophora paucistipula
Plants not stoloniferous, leaves succubous; leafy branches usually prostrate 8
8 Leaves with irregular fragile teeth on margin, often broken off,
giving leaves a ragged appearance; cuticle with a distinct
rainbow sheen Leptophyllopsis l ax a
Leaves without such marginal teeth; cuticle without a distinct rainbow sheen 9
9 Leaves moderately to deeply concave; underleaves plane,
convex, or cucullate Clasmatocolea
Leaves plane or convex; underleaves sometimes strongly
concave, especially near shoot apices Chiloscyphus
* I have found no legitimate material of H. rota/a from Victoria, and therefore discount it
at present from the Victorian flora. It has symmetrical leaves with recurved
margins, and might well turn up in subalpine and alpine areas.
H eteroscyph us
7
Zoopsis
3
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
243
Bryophyte special issue
Group F
Leafy liverworts with underleaves and lobed or toothed succubous to transverse leaves
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
13
Leaves densely hairy or spiny, leaf lamina hard to distinguish Group B
Leaves not densely hairy or spiny, leaf lamina clearly visible 2
Plants minute; leaves consisting of a few cells topped by
smaller oblique cells Zo apsis
Plants minute to large; leaves consisting of many cells 3
Plants minute, thread-like; leaves hardly visible under hand lens;
underleaves minute or absent 4
Plants small to large, not thread-like, leaves clearly visibly
under hand lens; underleaves always present 5
Leaf margins entire Cephaloziella exiliflora
Leaf margins raggedly toothed Cephaloziella hirla
Stems dark, densely covered in pale hair-like paraphylls;
leaves and underleaves 2-lobed. underleaves usually
also eiliate or toothed Chandonanthus squarrosus
Stems variously coloured, lacking paraphylls; leaves variously lobed 6
Leaves divided to beyond half way 7
Leaves not divided beyond half way 9
Leaves divided into 3-4 narrowly triangular lobes, usually with
2 extra teeth on the side; lobes spreading away from stem Temnoma palmatum
Leaves divided into 4 long narrow lobes; lobes parallel to stem 8
Leaf lobes spine-like, bent in centre; leaves succubous Psiloclada c/andestina
Leaf lobes narrowly to widely triangular; leaves ± transverse Kurzia
Underleaves always joined to leaves on both sides, usually
strongly Heteroscyphus
Underleaves joined to leaves on 1 side only, or not joined at all 10
Leaves with irregular fragile teeth on margin, often broken off,
giving leaves a ragged appearance; cuticle w'ith a distinct
rainbow sheen Leptophyllopsis laxa
Leaves without such marginal teeth; cuticle without a distinct rainbow sheen 1 1
Leaves ± transverse, 4-lobcd to almost halfway; stolons present;
rare plant of subalpine woodland Pseudocephalozia paludicola
Leaves clearly succubous, not deeply 4-lobed; stolons not present 12
Sporophyte developing in perianth on short lateral branch;
underleaves usually joined to leaves on 1 side, sometimes
narrowly; leaves -t circular to tongue-shaped Chiloscyphus
Sporophyte developing in marsupium on short branch on underside
of stem; underleaves clearly not joined to leaves; leaves various 13
Leaves ± oblong, deeply lobed at apex; underleaves divided to
the base into 2 diverging lobes* Geocalyx caledonicus
Leaves ± triangular-ovate, entire or very shallowly lobed at apex;
underleaves almost circular, shallowly notched at apex Saccogynidium
* Species of Lophozia , a genus not yet formally reported for Victoria but undoubtedly
present here, could key out at couplet 13.
244
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Ackowledgements
Many thanks are due to two anonymous referees
who pointed out errors in the manuscript and
made some valuable comments and suggestions.
References
Malcolm B and Malcolm, N (2000) Mosses and Other
Bryophytes: An Illustrated Glossary. (Micro-Optics
Press: Nelson, NZ)
McCarthy PM (2006) Checklist of Australian
Liverworts and llornworts. Version 6 April 2006
(www.anbg.gov.au/abrs). (ABRS: Canberra)
Meagher D and Fuhrer B (2003) A Field Guide to the
Mosses and Allied Plants of Southern Australia.
Flora of Australia Supplementary Series No. 20.
(ABRS and FNCV: Canberra and Blackburn)
Schuster RM (2002) Austral Hepaticae. Part I. Nova
Hedwigia 1 18. 1 -524.
Scott CiAM (1975) Key to Victorian Liverworts.
/Botany Department, Monash University: Clayton)
Scott GAM (1985) Southern Australian Liverworts.
Australian Flora and Fauna Series No. 2. (AGPS:
Canberra)
Received 13 April 2006; accepted 8 June 2006
Glossary of liverwort terms
Alternate With branches alternating from
one side to another along stem or
thallus, so that the branches are not
opposite.
alternate
Bipinnate Branched pinnately, and each
branch also branched pinnately.
Ciliate With long hair-like processes
(cilia).
Complicate-bilobed Consisting of two
seemingly separate segments (lobe
and lobule, or double lamina and
keel), very different in their size and
shape; the segments are joined, but
sometimes very narrowly. See keel ,
lobule.
Dissected Notched at the apex; if the
notch is so deep that the two sides
touch or overlap at their tips, then
the term ‘deeply dissected’ is used.
Dioecious Having the male and female
organs on separate plants.
Dorsal On the upper side of the thallus or
shoot, i.e. farthest from the
substratum.
Elater Elongated cell with spiral or bispi-
ral internal structure, present in most
liverwort and some hornwort cap-
sules; involved in spore dispersal.
Entire Without teeth, spines or other pro-
jections (but may be lobed).
Epiphvllous Growing on the leaf or
frond of another plant.
Epiphytic Growing on another plant
(usually on bark).
Flagellum A ventral branch with minute
leaves, usually anchoring the plant to
the substratum.
Gemma A multicelled propagule capable
of growing into a new plant; often
formed in a specialised organ but
also often arising from leaves, thal-
lus margins or other plant parts.
Hyaline Transparent and colourless.
Incubous Arranged so that, when viewed
from the dorsal side, each leaf over-
laps the one nearer the stem apex (or
would if they were close enough).
Intercalary branch A branch produced
by an outgrowth from within the
stem, rather than from the stem apex.
Intercalary branches have a tiny
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
245
Bryophyte special issue
‘collar’ of stem cortex cells at their
base.
Involucre A cylindrical structure sur-
rounding the male organs (some-
times female organs) in some thallus
liverworts.
Keeled Having a double lamina in one
section of the leaf, the two halves
fused along a longitudinal line that
meets the stem at the leaf base, so
that the other part of the leaf
resembles a keel.
Lamellate Having wing-like projections
arising from the thallus.
Lamina The thinner parts of a thallus, as
distinct from the midrib.
Lobe Segment of a leaf or thallus, formed
by growth of separate apical cells.
See lobule.
folded lobule saccate lobule
Lobule Segment of a leaf or thallus
formed by rolling or folding of the
leaf or thallus, rather than growth
from separate apical cells.
Marsupium A fleshy, root-like and usu-
ally hairy organ buried in the soil,
containing the developing sporo-
phyte in some liverworts.
Midrib A narrow thickening along the
centre-line of a thallus.
Monoecious Having male and female
organs on the same plant.
Mucilage papilla Small club-shaped
cells formed at or near apex of thal-
lus or leaf; often not persisting when
dry.
mucilage
Oil body Globule within a cell, contain-
ing lipids and other fatty substances;
often useful for distinguishing genera
or species.
Palmate Branching from a central point,
like the fingers of a hand or the
spokes of a wheel.
Papilla Pimple-like thickening of the
outer cell wall.
Perianth A fleshy, usually cylindrical
structure in which the sporophyte
develops.
Pinnate Branched on each side of the
stem or thallus at more or less
regular intervals, so that the branches
are more or less in opposite pairs.
) f ~ '
pinnate
Pseudoelater Elater-like multicellular
structure in the capsules of some
hornworts.
Rhizoid A hair-like growth on the ventral
side of the plant, usually anchoring it
to the substratum.
Seta Translucent stem on which capsule
is raised.
Sporophyte The seta and capsule together.
Striolate Marked by fine lines or linear
structures.
Succubous Arranged so that, when
viewed from the dorsal side, each leaf
stem apex
VXj
246
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
overlaps the one farther the stem apex
(or would if they were close enough).
Tooth Small, tapering projection on
margin of leaf or thallus, consisting
of one or a few cells, or formed by
an extension of a cell wall.
Transverse Having the join between the
leaves and stem running sideways
across the stem, not angled.
Trigone Triangular to cordate thickening
at the point where three cells join.
Underleaves Leaves of a different size
(usually much smaller) and shape
than the lateral leaves, and attached
on the ventral side of the stem.
Ventral On the underside of the thallus or
shoot, i.e. closest to the substratum.
transverse leaves
Fa /
kr
vY
Studies on Victorian bryophytes 6.
Key to thallose liverworts and hornworts
David Meagher
School of Botany, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010
Abstract
A new key to the genera and many species of thallose liverworts and hornworts (except Fossombronia
and Riccia species) in Victoria is provided. {The Victorian Naturalist 123 (4), 2006, 247-254)
Introduction
This artificial key complements the key
to the genera of leafy liverworts in this
volume. It is based on the key to southern
Australian liverworts in Scott (1985), but
is substantially updated and revised to take
into account taxonomic changes and addi-
tions to the Victorian flora in the last 20
years. Common mistakes are allowed for
in the main key and group keys.
The key can be used to identify speci-
mens to species level, except for species of
Fossombronia (which are very difficult to
identify without detailed analysis) and
Riccia (which is under review in Australia
and is likely to undergo substantial
changes). Also keep in mind that species
and genera presently known only from
Tasmania, New Zealand or other parts of
the world might still be found in Victoria.
This key is not valid for other regions of
Australia.
Most of the thallose liverworts and horn-
worts in Victoria are described and illus-
trated in Scott (1985) and Meagher and
Fuhrer (2003).
Names of taxa follow the current national
checklist (McCarthy 2006).
A basic glossary of terms used in this key
is included in the key to leafy liverworts
(Studies 5 in this issue). For a complete
and beautifully illustrated glossary of bry-
ological terms, see Malcolm and Malcolm
(2000).
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
247
Bryophyte special issue
Key to thallose liverworts and horn worts
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Thallus leafy, or with leaf-like lobes on either side of a central axis 2
Thallus lobcd or unlobcd, but not leafy 5
Rhizoids crimson Fossombroniaceae (Group A)
Rhizoids not crimson, or absent, or not seen 3
Lobes pinnate or alternate, arranged all along the central thallus;
or plant leafy or lettuce-like 4
Lobes palmate, the lobes radiating or bifurcating (Y-branching) from
a central point; or thallus arising from a narrow, ± upright stalk 1 1
Thallus bright grass-green, thick and lleshy, rather brittle;
rare plant Treubiaceae ( Treubia tasmanica)
Thallus green or not; not thick and fleshy, not brittle;
common plants Fossombroniaceae (Group A)
Thallus one cell thick (except midrib) 6
Thallus mostly several cells thick in part 8
Thallus narrow throughout (< 3 mm), lobes pinnate, alternate or bifurcated 7
Thallus wide, at least in part (usually > 4 mm).
often palmately divided Pallavicinaceae (Group C)
Growing on wet or dried soil, commonly mud (either saline or fresh);
lobe pattern usually not obvious Sphaerocarpales (Group D)
Growing on trees or rocks, never on mud; lobes
bifurcating (Y-branching) Metzgeriaceae (Group E)
Chloroplasts usually l or 2 per cell; capsule erect, needle-like,
splitting gradually down from tip; large cavities containing dark
cyanobacteria often evident in thallus Anthocerophyta (Group B)
Chloroplasts several to many per cell; capsule ovoid to globose,
not needle-like; cavities in thallus (if present) not containing dark cyanobacteria . 9
Thallus half-buried in soil, firmly anchored by copious rhizoids;
capsule formed in marsupium buried in soil Enigmella thallina
Thallus on or above soil, or not on soil, anchored or not by rhizoids;
capsule not formed in marsupium buried in soil 10
Thallus surface without pores, upper surface homogeneous, without pores;
rhizoids all smooth 11
Plants surface with pores, often opening to the upper surface by air pores;
rhizoids normally of two sorts: one smooth and the other with internal
peg-like thickenings 15
Midrib conspicuous; lamina 1 cell thick in outer parts 12
No midrib; lamina never 1 cell thick, except sometimes at the very edge 13
Plants on bark or rock, never on soil; pale yellow-green, never rose-tinted;
prostrate; line hairs present on ventral surface and usually also on
thallus margins Metzgeriaceae (Group E)
Plants on soil or rotting logs, also epiphytic in humid habitats;
mid to dark green, often rose-tinted, often arising from a narrow,
± upright stalk; ventral surface and margins lacking hairs
(but may be toothed) Hymenophytaceae / Pallavicinaceae (Group C)
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The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
13 Plants with regular, few-celled lobes in the position of leaves and
underleaves miskeved Zoopsis or eroded leafy liverwort
Plants usually irregularly lobed; lobes many-celled 14
14 Sporophyte needle-like; chloroplasts usually 1 or 2 per cell; cavities in
thallus containing dark cyanobacteria often present ... Anthocerophvta (Group B)
Sporophyte not needle-like; chloroplasts usually several to many per cell;
cavities in thallus containing dark cyanobacteria
never present Aneuraceae (Group F)
1 5 Gemma cups circular or crescent-shaped, obvious on upper surface
of thallus * Marchantiaceae (Group G)
Gemma cups lacking 16
1 6 Upper surface of thallus spongy, often whitish 17
Upper surface of thallus firm, usually green 18
1 7 Plants usually forming complete or partial rosettes
on the ground, or else free-floating; not in salt pans Ricciaceae (Group H)
Plants not forming rosettes; in salt pans or on
compacted soil Sphaerocarpales (Group D)
1 8 Upper surface of thallus flat, not furrowed; sporophytes
carried outside the thallus * 19
Upper surface furrowed, V-shaped at least at apex; sporophytes
embedded in thallus Ricciaceae (Group H)
19 Thallus usually > 7 mm wide; many long, free rhizoids on
ventral surface Marchantiaceae (Group G)
Thallus usually < 6 mm wide; never with rhizoids
as above Aytoniaceae and Targioniaceae (Group I)
Group A
Fossombroniaceae
1 Plants aquatic or semi-aquatic; thallus erect,
up to 30 mm tall Austrofossombronia australis
Plants not aquatic or semiaquatic (but may be on drying mud);
thallus prostrate, < 10 mm tall 2
2 Rhizoids hyaline or brown, never crimson; Thallus ± as long as wide, ruffled and
lamellate on dorsal surface Petalophyllum preissii
Rhizoids usually crimson; thallus usually much longer than wide,
not lamellate Fossombronia
Group B
Anthocerophyta
1 Chloroplasts 2 or more per cell; capsule with spirally thickened
and unsegmented elaters 2
Chloroplasts usually 1 per cell; capsule with irregular segmented pseudo-elaters 3
2 Thallus < 25 mm long Megacer os gracilis
Thallus 35-50 mm long Megaceros pellucidus
3 Thallus with a rough and cavernous surface, usually pale green
with crisped margins; spores blackish Anthoceros punctatus
Thallus with smooth upper surface, usually dark green
with margins rarely crisped; spores yellowish 4
4 Plants dioecious Phaeoceros laevis
Plants monoecious Anthoceros broth eri
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
249
Bryophyte special issue
Group C
Hymenophytaceae and Pallavicinaceae
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Plants with sex organs 2
Sex organs lacking or not visible .. 8
Sex organs on specialised short branches at base or on underside of frond 3
Sex organs on upper side of frond, not on specialised branches 4
Sexual branches at base of frond; thallus simple or sparsely branched.
not palmate Podomitrium phyllanthus
Sexual branches on underside of frond; thallus palmately
divided above Hymenophyton flabellatum
Sporophyte base encased in a thick, fleshy tube bearing archegonta near apex;
male plants with scales overlapping midrib dorsally 5
Sporophyte base surrounded by a long tubular pseudoperianth, not fleshy;
male plants with scales in 2 rows down each side of midrib 6
Thallus branched, margins coarsely toothed Symphyogyna podophylla
Thallus unbranched, consisting of broad and narrow sections,
margins entire Symphyogyna interrupta
Margins strongly toothed with conspicuous teeth,
several cells long Pallavicinia xiphoides
Margins generally entire or with teeth of only 1 or 2 cells 7
Thallus ± flat, the margins rarely if ever flexed upwards* Pallavicinia lyelli
Thallus commonly concave, the margins flexed upwards Pallavicinia ruhristipa
Frond margins toothed, at least near apex 9
Frond margins entire or nearly so 10
Margins with teeth of only 1 or 2 cells** Pallavicinia lyelli
Margins with teeth several cells long P. lyelli / S. interrupta (inseparable)
Thallus, commonly concave, the margins flexed upwards Pallavicinia ruhristipa
Thallus ± flat, the margins rarely if ever flexed upwards 11
Fronds borne on erect stalks; plant completely green Hymenophyton flabellatum
Fronds prostrate; plant may have a rose-pink tinge 12
Stalk rose-pink, at least near base Pallavicinia lyelli
Stalk completely green Podomitrium phyllanthus
* Schuster (1991) gave the name Pallavicinia pseudo/yellii to Australasian material of
lyelli r and gave a Latin diagnosis, but did not validate the name by nominating a
type.
** Jensenia connivens , discounted from the Australian flora by Schaumann et al. (2004),
would key to couplet 9; it has fronds borne on erect stalks but is tinged rose red below.
250
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Group D
Sphaerocarpales
1 Thallus ± circular, usually almost covered by inflated, bottle-like involucres 2
Thallus elongated, consisting of a stem with a wing along one side,
spore-bearing involucres at the edge and tip 3
2 Thallus bubble-like, with a single pore on top;
in saline habitats Monocarp us sphaerocarpus
Thallus flat, with several involucres together;
not in saline habitats Sphaerocarpos texanus
3 Monoicous; on freshwater mud; spines on spores 12 pm long Riella spiculata
Dioicous; on saline mud; spines on spores 4-5 pm long Riella halophila
Group E
Metzgeriaceae
1 Thallus with hairs on both dorsal and ventral surfaces* Metzgeria sp. A
Thallus without hairs on dorsal surface 2
2 Thallus lobed and saccate Metzgeria saccata
Thallus flat, not lobed or saccate 3
3 Hairs weakly to distinctly falcate, mostly paired; midrib covered
by 2-3 cells on dorsal side Metzgeria leptoneura
Hairs not falcate, paired and/or single; midrib covered by 2-4 cells on dorsal side ... 4
4 Thallus tapered to a narrow apex on most lobes Metzgeria consanguinea
Thallus rarely if at all tapered, most lobes with an obtuse, rounded apex 5
5 Midrib covered by 3(-4) cells on dorsal side, 4-6 on ventral side Metzgeria rigida
Midrib covered by 2(-3) cells on dorsal side, 2-4 on ventral side 6
6 Midrib covered by 2 cells on ventral side** Metzgeria decipiens
Midrib covered by (3-)4 cells on ventral side Metzgeria furcata
Notes:
Cells covering the costa should be counted about half way between one thallus branch
and the next.
* Metzgeria sp. A from Carlisle State Park seems closest to M. follicola of
Melanesia.
** So (2002) followed Grolle (2002) in reducing M. decipiens to a synonym of
M. furcata , based on the variability in the number of cells covering the midrib
on the dorsal side of the thallus. However, the number of cells on the ventral
side seems to distinguish the two clearly. Until a full assessment of the two
taxa is made, 1 prefer to maintain them as separate entities.
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
251
Bryophyte special issue
Group F
Aneuraceae
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Thallus U-shaped in cross-section, at least near lobe tips 2
Thallus flat or slightly curved in cross-section, never U-shaped 4
Thallus margins plane; lobe apices spoon-shaped, often yellowish
and bearing gemmae Riccardia cochleata
Thallus lobes flexuose to crispate; lobe apices not as above 3
Thallus > 7 mm wide; margins strongly crisped; aquatic plant of alpine
or subalpine streams Aneura sp. A
Thallus < 6 mm wide; margins flexuose to slightly crisped;
not aquatic . Aneura rodwayi
Apex of thallus not dissected 5
Apex of thallus dissected 8
Plant dendroid or semi-dendroid; thallus differentiated into a central
stem and branches; lateral branches with evident central strands;
cuticle papillose Riccardia eriocaula
Thallus without an erect stem; lateral branches without a central strand;
cuticle smooth 6
Thallus branches with awing I cell thick; mucilage papillae lateral
and ventral only, persisting; shoot calyptra smooth Riccardia minima
Thallus branches not winged; mucilage papillae dorsal as well as lateral
and ventral, not persisting; shoot calyptra crowned with hyaline hairs 7
Thallus lens-shaped in cross-section Riccardia aequicellutaris
Thallus circular in cross-section Riccardia alcicornis
Cuticle striolate or papillose 9
Cuticle smooth 10
Cuticle striolate Riccardia crassa
Cuticle papillose Riccardia colensoi
Thallus mean width > 2 mm (usually 3-6 mm);
apex deeply dissected Aneura alterniloba
Thallus mean width < 2 mm; apex shallowly divided 11
Thallus mean width < 1 mm; often with prostrate main branches
and erect, pinnately branched (almost palmate) secondary branches;
monoecious Riccardia watts iana
Thallus mean width > 1 mm; branches prostrate; dioecious 12
Branching often appearing palmate; mucilage papillae not persisting;
stolons present Riccardia rupicola
Branching always clearly pinnate; mucilage papillae persisting;
stolons absent Riccardia bipinnatifida
Note:
Aneura sp. A is an undescribed species known from the Bogong High Plains, Baw Baw
Plateau and Kosciuszko National Park. It is probably also present in New Zealand.
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The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Group G
Marchantiaceae
1 Gemma cups (if present) crescent-shaped; pores on upper surface
of thallus not surrounded by polygonal shapes Lunularia cruciata
Gemma cups (if present) circular; pores on upper surface
surrounded by polygonal shapes 2
2 Ventral scales forming a narrow crimson stripe down the centre of the
underside of the thallus; archegoniophore lobes flat,
rectangular Marchantia foliacea
Ventral scales colourless, covering underside of thallus;
archegoniophore lobes rod-like 3
3 Colour of upper surface of thallus evenly green; surface with a glossy sheen;
marginal scales not projecting beyond thallus edge Marchantia berteroana
Colour of upper surface of thallus uneven, with a dark zone
down the middle; surface without a glossy sheen; marginal scales
projecting slightly beyond thallus edge Marchantia polymorpha var. aquatica
Group H
Ricciaceae
1 Plants free-floating 2
Plants on soil or mud 3
2 Ventral scales conspicuous, purplish Ricciocarpos natans
Ventral scales not evident, not coloured Riccia duplex var. duplex
3 Thallus heart-shaped; on drying mud; ventral scales purplish,
in bunches Ricciocarpos natans
Thallus heart-shaped or not; on various substrates;
ventral scales variously coloured but not in bunches 4
4 Dorsal surface of thallus with compact tissues forming
narrow veitical air chambers, without specialised pores;
epidermal cells hyaline Riccia subgenus Riccia
Dorsal surface of thallus with loosely arranged (often spongy)
tissues forming polyhedral or large and irregular air chambers
with well-defined pores; epidermal cells chlorophyllose
except around pores Riccia subgenus Ricciella
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
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Bryophyte special issue
Group I
Avtoniaceae and Targioniaceae
1 Side branches originating from underside of thallus; capsules formed
in black spherical pouches beneath apices of thallus Targionia hypophylla
Side branches originating from margin or upper surface of thallus;
capsules formed in umbrella-like streutures (archegoniophores) ... (Aytoniaceae) 2
2 Sex organs always present, in 2 or more receptacles down the
midline of the thallus Plagiochasma rupestre
Sex organs absent, or scattered receptacles usually on the margin
or apex of the thallus 3
3 Epidermal pores surrounded by 4 or more rings of cells; perianth (involucre)
hemispherical, with one slit beneath Reboiilia queenslandica
Epidermal pores surrounded by 1-3 rings of cells; perianth conical,
opening with numerous vertical slits Asterella 4
4 Thallus crimson underneath, generally 5-7 mm wide;
perianth with 12-14 slits* Asterella drummondii
Thallus green underneath, generally 3-4 mm wide;
perianth with about 8 slits Asterella tenera
* Asterella co no cep ha la, A. tasmanica and A. whiteteggeana are almost certainly
conspccific with A. drummondii or A. tenera.
Acknowledgements
Many thanks are due to two anonymous referees
who pointed out errors in the manuscript and
made some valuable comments and suggestions.
References
Grolle R (2002) Typifications of three old names of
Metzgeria species (Hepaiicae): Jungermannia furca-
ta L. 1753. ./. linearis Sw. 1788 and J. puhescens
Schrank 1792. Crypt ogamie Bryologic 23: 1 19-121.
Malcolm B and Malcolm. N (2000) Mosses and Other
Bryophytes: An Illustrated Glossary. (Micro-Optics
Press: Nelson. NZ)
McCarthy PM (2006) Checklist of Australian
Liverworts and Hornwnrts. Version 6 April 2006
(www.anbg.gov.au/abrs). (ABRS: Canberra)
Meagher D and Fuhrer B (2003) A Field Guide to the
Mosses and Allied Plants of Southern Australia.
flora of Australia Supplementary Series No. 20.
(ABRS and FNGV: Canberra and Blackburn)
Schuster RM (1991) Diagnoses of new taxa of
Hepaiicae. I. Jungcnnanniidac. Journal of the Hatton
Botanical Laboratory H): 143 150.
Scott GAM (1985) Southern Australian Liverworts.
Australian Flora and Fauna Series No. 2. (AGPS:
Canberra)
Schaumann F, Pfeiffer T and Frey W (2004) Molecular
divergence patterns within the Gondwanan liverwort
genus Jcnsenia ( Palluvicmiaccae, Hepatieopbytina,
Bryophyta). Studies in Austral temperate rain forest
bryophytes 25. Journal of the Hatton Botanical
Laboratory 96: 231 244.
So ML (2002). Metzgeria (Hepaticae) in Australasia
and the Pacific, New Zealand Journal of Botany 40:
603-627.
Received 13 April 2006; accepted I June 2006
One hundred and nineteen years ago
MOSSES OF VICTORIA, WITH BRIEF NOTES
BY D. SULLIVAN
c Where to look for them. On and in the crevices of rocks, on logs, about the bases and roots of
trees, on banks of watercourses, lakes, lagoons, and waterholes, on the ground, from the low
lands to the summits of our highest mountains - both in wet and dry localities, but more especial-
ly in the former. ... I would recommend Melbourne collectors to search well about the Yarra,
Dandcnong, You Yangs, Mount Macedon, Riddle’s Creek, Lancefield (Deep Creek), Sunbury,
Gisborne, etc. September, October, and November are the best months for the dry localities, and
December, January, and February for the higher mountains and moist forest country. Mosses
may he found in certain localities throughout the year, but in winter, except in rare cases, they are
not in a fit state for detailed examination, having lost both the calyptras and operculums parts,
which are sometimes of great value in dec iding specific distinctions.’
From The Victorian Naturalist IV (1887-8), pp. 109-1 10
254
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Bryophyte distribution in Blackwood forests
of the Otway Ranges, Victoria
Matthew Dell and John Jenkin
School of Life and Environmental Sciences
Deakin University, 221 Burvvood Highway, Burwood, Victoria 3125
Abstract.
Tracheophyte and bryophyte distribution was surveyed in nineteen Blackwood— dominated sites of
two different origins in the Otway Ranges. Nine sites were placed in sheltered gullies and ten sites
were placed in upslope stands. Filty-one tracheophyte taxa, 49 moss taxa and 39 liverwort (including
homwort) taxa were recorded in total. Bryophyte species richness was significantly higher in gully
sites. The most frequent bryophyte taxa varied between gully and upslope sites. The percentage
occurrence of certain substrates was shown to be an important determinant of bryophyte species
richness and composition. Decaying wood and soil supported the greatest number of bryophyte taxa
compared with all other substrates. {The Victorian Naturalist 123 (4), 2006, 255-268)
Introduction
Bryophytes are a visually dominant com-
ponent of forests dominated by Blackwood
Acacia melanoxylon R.Br. in the Otway
Ranges in southwest Victoria. Despite this,
however, bryological research in these
forests has been minimal. Although still in
its early stages, investigation of bryophyte
distribution with regard to forest type (e.g.
Pharo and Beattie 2002) and substrate vari-
ables is proceeding for south-eastern
Australian forests. Most research to date
examines bryophyte dependence on a
range of spatial and habitat variables with-
in eucalypt forest and/or rainforest. Many
bryophyte taxa show preferences for some
substrate types over others (Jarman and
Kantvilas 2001b; Turner and Pharo 2005)
with species richness (Pharo and Beattie
2002) and composition (Ashton 1986;
Kantvilas and Jarman 1993; Pharo el aL
2004) shown to be dependent on substrate
type. Accordingly, some species of host
tree support particular bryophyte commu-
nities (Jarman and Kantvilas 1994), with
species richness shown to be associated
with trunk girth (Ashton and McCrae
1970) and species richness and composi-
tion associated with trunk height (Milne
and Louwhoff 1999; Jarman and Kantvilas
1995) and aspect (Franks and Bergstrom
2000). Bryophytes show significant small-
scale spatial distribution patterns even on a
single substrate, for example stream rocks
(Carrigan and Gibson 2004).
The state of decomposition in coarse
woody substrates has been shown to sig-
nificantly affect bryophyte composition in
some forest types (Rambo and Muir
1998a), but not others (Pharo and Beattie
2002). Rather, Pharo and Beattie (2002)
found that level of decomposition
explained low but significant bryophyte
species richness. Some soil chemical and
soil texture variables have been associated
with the distribution of bryophytes in
semi-arid eastern Australia (Eidridge and
Tozer 1997). Brasell and Mattay (1984)
demonstrated that time since lire affects
soil bryophyte presence and dominance
with significant changes in the first three
years of succession. Time since major dis-
turbance and the associated effects on
bryophyte substrate relationships are fur-
ther explored by Turner and Pharo (2005).
Pharo et a/. (2004) examined landscape
context classes alongside substrate vari-
ables of which the latter were found to be
more important in explaining species rich-
ness and composition in remnant eucalypt
forests and Pi mis radial a D. Don planta-
tions. Bryophyte composition and relative
frequency was shown by Franks (2000) to
be significantly different between isolated
sites, despite sampling being undertaken
on the same species of tree. There is much
scope for further investigation of landscape
effects on bryophyte distribution in south-
eastern Australia. Research on bryophyte
distribution with regard to substrate vari-
ables has a longer history in the Northern
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
255
Bryophyte special issue
Hemisphere with many of the same causal
factors proposed at various taxonomic lev-
els (e.g. Shacklette 1961; McAlister 1995;
Peck et al. 1995; Reese 2001 ).
The broad aim of this research was to
provide a description of bryophyte distrib-
ution within Otway Blackwood forests, in
turn contributing to a greater understand-
ing of bryophyte ecology within south-
eastern Australian forests. The results pre-
sented in this paper are not intended to be
exhaustive and there is much opportunity
for further bryophyte research within the
study area.
Methods
Study area
The study area was confined to the Great
Otway National Park and adjacent Aire
Valley Softwood Plantation between Cape
Otway in the south and the Otway Main
Ridge between Wyelangta, Beech Forest
and Olangolah in the north, 140-170 km
southwest of Melbourne. Mean monthly
rainfall at Forrest State Forest is lowest in
January (44 mm) and highest in August
(128.7 mm). Mean daily maximum tem-
perature is lowest in July (1 1.7°C) and
highest in January (24.5°C) (Bureau of
Meteorology 2004)
Vegetation
Acacia melanoxylon is one of the widest
ranging tree species in eastern Australia
(Entwisle et al. 1996). In the Otway
Ranges, A. melanoxylon occurs as a domi-
nant canopy tree forming mostly closed
forest. General floristics of Otway
Blackwood forests are discussed by
Howard and Ashton (1973), Parsons et al.
(1975), Earl and Bennett (1986) and
Cameron ( 1 992).
Parsons et al. (1975) noted ‘secondary
scrub' dominated by A. melanoxylon on
slopes where Mountain Ash Eucalyptus
regnans F.Muell. had been cleared. This
community was described and mapped by
Roberts (1988) along w'ith a gully
Blackwood community of a different ori-
gin. Gully stands are found from 130-320 m
above sea level and generally occur where
natural lire disturbance precludes the full
development of mature Cool Temperate
Rainforest (Peel 1999) dominated by
Myrtle Beech Nothofagus cunninghamii
(Hook.) Oerst. Panned (1992) described
Blackwood Swamp Forest in northwestern
Tasmania with close structural and floristic
affinity to the Otway gully community.
Naturally-occurring gully stands intergrade
with mature stands of Otway Cool
Temperate Rainforest (in the sense of Peel
1999) where A. melanoxylon co-dominates
w'ith, or is replaced by. A’, cunninghamii.
The secondary scrub occupies higher
slopes generally >300 m above sea level
where A. melanoxylon may co-dominate
with Satinwood Nematolepis squamea
(Labill.) Paul G. Wilson subsp. squamea .
The secondary scrub community is a prod-
uct of extensive land clearing in the late
1800s and. associated w ith this, frequent
bush fires were reported from 1886-1939
(Williams 1977; Mortlock and Dargavel
1989). Fire and/or mechanical soil distur-
bance may stimulate mass germination of
soil- stored A. melanoxylon seed (Harris
1989; Jenning and Dawson 1998) which,
unlike eucalypt seed, retains its viability
for many decades. These factors have no
doubt contributed to the exclusion of euca-
lypts in the secondary scrub community.
Tracheophyte (vascular plant) nomencla-
ture follows Ross and Walsh (2003).
Bryophyte nomenclature follows Streimann
and Klazenga (2002) and McCarthy (2003).
The term liverwort is used hereafter to
include hornworts. Authorship for each
taxon recorded within a quadrat is provided
within Appendix 1 and 2.
Sampling
Forty candidate survey sites were select-
ed using unpublished Hardwood Stand
Class and Rainforest Dominant Structural
Overstorey maps (Victorian Department of
Conservation, Forests and Lands e. 1981,
1988). No sites were selected south of 38°
48" 30" due to limited access within the
national park and the increasing patchiness
of the target plant communities. A random
number generator was used to select 19
sites comprising 16 within the Great
Otway National Park and three within the
Aire Valley Softwood Plantation. The 19
sites were examined to ensure they did not
contain the dominant trees of Wet Forest
(E. regnans) or Cool Temperate Rainforest
(N. cunninghamii). Of the 19 sites, 10 were
256
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
selected within gullies and the remainder
on upper slopes. Gully sites were included
in the study only if they lacked evidence of
recent logging or lire (e.g. snig tracks, cut
eucalypt trunks or charcoal). Upslope sites
were selected away from major drainage
lines and often contained younger
Blackwoods with small crowns on top of
tall slender trunks (a low crown / stem
ratio). Larger Blackwood stands were sam-
pled in preference to smaller patches
where possible.
Sampling was undertaken in November
2002 and was confined to 20 m x 20 m
quadrats at each site (following Cameron
and Turner 1996). Quadrats were placed in
the centre of a selected gully site and at
least 30 m from any obvious edge, such as
adjoining eucalypt forest, in upslope sites.
All tracheophytes recorded within each
quadrat were assigned to an estimated pro-
jective foliage cover/abundance interval
using the Braun-Blanquet (1965) scale. In
addition, nine 2 m x 2 m sub-plots were
placed within each quadrat to sample
bryophyte, tracheophyte and substrate
presence, with one sub-plot in each corner,
one half way along each side and one at
the centre of the quadrat. Sub-plots were
used to obtain a measure of the frequency
of occurrence of each plant taxon and sub-
strate type. They were also used to esti-
mate average percentage cover of bare soil
to the nearest 10% (negligible cover was
recorded as 1 %). Bryophytes were separat-
ed during collection according to the 1 1
substrate types on which they were found:
eight vascular plant taxa (up to 2 m from
the ground), soil, rock and decaying wood.
The number of bryophyte samples was no
less than 45 for any one substrate across all
sites. Decaying wood included any species
that developed stems greater than three
centimetres in diameter which were in a
sufficient state of decomposition that the
characteristic surface texture of that
species was lost. The presence of sub-
strates was recorded in each sub-plot
regardless of bryophyte occupancy.
Recently fallen branches from the tree
canopy were not sampled. Large
Blackwood trunks on the ground were
included as decaying wood where there
was evidence that they had not recently
fallen. Other environmental data were col-
lected for each quadrat including projec-
tive canopy cover (to the nearest 10%),
slope and aspect. Aspect was assigned to
22.5 degree intervals weighted in favour of
east (east 2, north and south 1 , west 0) and
south (south 2, east and west 1 , north 0).
Data Analysis
T-tests or Mann-Whitney U tests were
used to compare means of percentage
occurrence (frequency) for plant taxa, sub-
strates and other environmental variables
in each forest type. Data were arcsine
transformed where necessary for the for-
mer. Ordination of sites was performed on
percentage occurrence of plant taxa using
Multidimensional Scaling of log trans-
formed data using the Bray-Curtis coeffi-
cient. Analysis of Similarity was used to
test differences in the percentage occur-
rence of plant taxa between forest types.
Similarity Percentages were generated to
identify important floristic differences
between each forest type. Multiple
Regression Analysis was used to determine
any significant relationship between
bryophyte species richness and a number
of predictor variables. Following examina-
tion of the data, including predictor vari-
ables and their linearity with bryophyte
species richness, a selection of variables
was chosen to be included in the model.
These were slope, vascular species rich-
ness, number of substrates and the inci-
dence of A. melanoxylon, Soft Tree-fern
Dickson ia antarctica , decaying wood and
soil with predictor variables added using
the forward method. Examination of the
spread of regression residuals indicated
that a linear model was appropriate for the
data. Cluster Analysis was performed on
presence/absence data for bryophyte taxa
on each substrate using the Bray-Curtis
coefficient. Multiple Regression Analysis
and univariate analyses were undertaken
using SPSS version 14.0.1. Other multi-
variate analyses were undertaken using
PRIMER version 5.2.0.
Results
A total of 88 bryophyte taxa was record-
ed across all sites compared with 51 tra-
cheophyte taxa. The bryophyte taxa repre-
sent 66 genera and 40 families (Appendix
1). The most commonly represented moss
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
257
Bryophyte special issue
family was Hookeriaceae and the most
commonly represented liverwort family
was Lepidoziaceae. Seven laxa (7.7%)
found in upslope sites were not found in
gully sites compared with 20 taxa (22%)
found exclusively in gully sites. Sub-plots
were not used for replication of samples,
as within-sub-plot group similarity of
bryophyte presence was considered too
strong (Global R - 0.329,/? - 0.01). Gully
sites had a greater mean species richness,
for all taxa, than upslope sites (l = 3.645,
df = 17, p - 0.002). This pattern was also
demonstrated for bryophytes alone (t -
3.226, df 17, p = 0.005) but not for tra-
cheophytes (U = 27, p = 0.138).
Tracheophyte species richness was signifi-
cantly lower than bryophyte species rich-
ness in gully (U - 0. p = <0.01) and ups-
lope sites (t - 8.548. df = 18, p = <0.001)
(Table 1). Moss species richness was sig-
nificantly higher in gully sites than upslope
sites (t = 2.595, df - 17 ,p = 0.019), as was
liverwort species richness (t = 2.615, df =■
1 7, p =0.015).
Table 1. Plant species richness in each forest
type. Values = mean (standard deviation).
Gully
Upslope
4m2
36m2
4m2
36m 2
Total flora 20.3
56.3
17.4
44.8
(4.12)
(8.2)
(3.68)
(5.96)
Bryophyte 13.2
38.6
10.8
30.1
(3.6)
(6.06)
(3.13)
(5.36)
Tracheophyte 7.1
17.7
6.6
14.7
(2.23)
(3.16)
(1.68)
(3.4)
Decaying wood supported a total of 72
bryophyte taxa throughout the study area
(Fig. 1). This was the highest number
recorded for any substrate, followed by
soil (54). D. antarctica (50) and A.
melanoxylon (42). The total number of
bryophyte taxa recorded for any other sub-
strate was less than 35. For each substrate
type, more species of moss were recorded
than liverworts.
Analysis of Similarity based on the per-
centage occurrence of tracheophyte taxa
showed some discrimination between for-
est sites (Global R = 0.367. p - 0.02) with
bryophytes contributing further towards
explaining floristic differences (Global R =
Substrate
Fig. 1. Total number of moss and liverwort taxa
recorded on each substrate for all sites. DW -
Decaying Wood, S - Soil, Da - Dicksonia
antarctica, Am Acacia melanoxylon, Ha -
Hedycarya angustifolia, Oa Olearia argophyl-
la, R - Rock, Ns Ncmatolcpis squamea , Pa
Pomaderris aspera. Ci| Copras ma quadrifida,
Pb - Pittosporum hicnlor,
0.497,/? = 0.001). Combining both groups
resulted in the clearest separation of sites
according to forest type (Global R = 0.544,
p = 0.001 ) as illustrated in Fig. 2.
An analysis of Similarity Percentages of
bryophyte species frequency in each forest
type revealed ten moss taxa and eight liv-
erwort taxa that contributed to 50% of the
cumulative percentage dissimilarity (Table
2). Greater than 90% of these taxa were
present in more than 20% of all subplots.
The equivalent analysis on tracheophytes
revealed 11 taxa of which five were ferns
and the remainder flowering plants. An
analysis of Similarity Percentages of tra-
cheophyte species cover/abundance with
Sucks 0.1 5:
U7 U10
U4 G5
,j1 U5 G4
US G1
Fig. 2. Multidimensional Scaling of sites based
on percentage occurrence of all plant taxa. G -
Gully, U - Upslope.
258
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
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Vol. 123 (4) 2006
259
Bryophyte special issue
the same cumulative cut-off identified the
same species (with one exception)
although they were ordered differently.
The three most frequently occurring
bryophyte tax a were different in each for-
est type (Fig. 3). These taxa contribute to
50% of the cumulative percentage
dissimilarity in Table 2 except for
Rhciphidorrhynchium amoenum which had
very similar percentage occurrence in each
forest type.
The mean number of substrates did not
vary between forest types (t = -0.901, df =
17, p = 0.38). Substrate composition was
relatively consistent across forest types
although results were not significant
(Global R 0.071, p- 0. 141 ). Analysis of
Similarity between the percentage occur-
rence of substrate types indicated some
significant variation between forest types
(Global R = 0.324, p - 0.002). Percentage
occurrence was significantly higher for
three substrates, decaying wood (t - 3.319,
df = 17, p = 0.004). D. antarctica
(t - 2.994, df = 17,/) = 0.008) and soil
(t = 2.1788, df - 17. p — 0.044), in gully
sites. Estimated cover of soil was signifi-
cantly higher in gully sites (t = 4.669,
df = 1 7, /?<0.00 1 ). The percentage occur-
rence of A. melcmoxylon was significantly
higher in upslope sites (U = 14.5, p =
100
80
I 60
8
5 40
20
0
Gully Upslope
Fig. 3. The three most frequently occurring
bryophyte taxa in each forest type (error bars
show l SE). Lc - I.opidwm concitmum, Pf
Plagiochila fasciculata. Rb Rad it l a buc-
cinifera, Ra - Rhaphidorrhynchium amoenum ,
We - Wijkia extenuata, Ad - Achrophvllum den -
tatum. Percentage occurrence in each forest type
was significantly different for each except Ra
and We(p< 0.05) reported relationships.
Lc
Pf
Rb
Ra
w©
Ad
0.01 1). Two substrates in upslope sites, N.
squamea and Pittosporum bicolor , were
not recorded in any gully sub-plots.
Percentage occurrence of remaining sub-
strate types was not significantly different
between forest types (p>0.05). Canopy
cover was not significantly different
between forest types (t - -1.973, df = 17
p = 0.065).
Multiple Regression Analysis revealed
the percentage occurrence of soil (Fig. 4)
and decaying wood substrates as signifi-
cant predictors of species richness for
bryophytes (adjusted r = 0.739, F] ,7 =
21 .238, /?<0.()0I - Standardised Beta
Coefficient for soil 0.558, p - 0.002,
Standardised Beta Coefficient for decaying
wood 0.466, p 0.006). All other predictor
variables were removed from the model.
Table 3 compares mean percentage
occurrence of substrates between sites
where the listed bryophyte taxa are present
and sites where they are absent. Bryophyte
taxa were chosen from a SIMPER analysis
of presence/absence data between forest
types and are sorted in descending order of
contribution to dissimilarity (down to
50%). Those with <6 replicates were dis-
carded. Analysis of Similarity between for-
est types based on bryophyte
presence/absence data revealed at least
some significant composition differences
(Global R = 0.28, p = 0.006). Greater than
so
in
<B «■
S ,
8 - «
CL ,.r"
oj ^
W 30
j=
c_
R ,
^26-
co
20
0 20 40 50 .30 fCO
Pfirnentar}* oocurervofi of soil
Fig. 4. Relationship between species richness
and the percentage occurrence of soil at the
quadrat (400 nr) level. Outer lines show 95%
confidence intervals.
260
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Classification of substrates (Fig. 5),
based on the composition of bryophyte
taxa, revealed the greatest dissimilarity
between rock and all other substrate types.
Flowering plant substrates showed clear
separation from all other substrate types at
approximately 60% similarity.
Discussion
At First sight, Otway Blackwood forests
are relatively homogeneous in species
richness and composition of understorey
tracheophytes. Understorey composition of
gully stands, in particular, has close affini-
ties with Otway Cool Temperate
Rainforest (Cameron 1992; Peel 1999).
The Analysis of Similarity results for tra-
cheophyte percentage occurrence provide
independent corroboration of these reported
relationships.
The overwhelming contribution of
bryophytes and other non-vascular cryp-
togams to species richness in rainforest has
been reported from lloristically and phys-
iognomically similar vegetation within
Victoria (Cameron and Turner 1996;
Milne and Louwhoff 1999). Significant
differences between tracheophyte and
bryophyte species richness might therefore
4G
-i 60 ■
CD
100 ■
fy ? M (f; c re SO. re r TO
g QO0-ZCLI5O
Fig. 5. Classification of substrates based on the
composition of bryophyte taxa. R - Rock, DW
Decaying Wood, S Soil, Da - Dicksonia
antarctica. Cq - Coprosma quadrifida . Pa -
Pomaderris as per a. Ns - Nematolepis septa me a.
Pb - Pittosporum bicolor. Ha Hedy c ary a
angustifolia , Am - Acacia melanoxylon, Oa -
Olearia argophylla.
be anticipated in the Blackwood forests of
the Otways. The present study revealed
that species richness for bryophytes was
almost twice that for tracheophytes.
Differences observed in bryophyte species
richness between forest types parallel
those of Ford el al (2000) for lichens in
the Otway Ranges. These authors reported
greater species richness in Cool Temperate
Rainforest gullies with N. cmminghamii
than in A. melanoxylon- dominated forest,
although the difference was not statistically
significant. Lichens share similar substrate
types to bryophytes. Bryophyte species
composition is difficult to assess visually
in the field but becomes apparent through
the analysis of subplot data. For example,
rock bryophytes were well separated in the
Cluster Analysis of substrates based on
bryophyte presence across all sites. This is
explained by the predominance of
pluriverous taxa and the relative absence
of species demonstrating a high fidelity to
rock substrates.
The number of substrate types was not
identified as an important predictor for
bryophyte species richness. Pharo et al.
(2004) found that there was significantly
higher bryophyte species richness where
there were more substrate types in drier
forests of southern New South Wales. The
importance of decaying wood as habitat
for bryophytes and other cryptogams is
well documented (Lindenmaver et al.
1999: Grove and Meggs 2002). In this
study, we found that decaying wood pro-
vides suitable habitat for the great majority
of taxa observed although, for some rare
taxa, the association is based on very few
samples. The range of decomposition states
in decaying wood may explain the high
species richness observed, particularly
where decomposition is well advanced and
the woody debris is developing the proper-
ties of soil. As a consequence, differences
in lignicolous communities were not well
defined. Soil was an important substrate for
bryophytes, supporting over half of all taxa
recorded. Percentage occurrence of soil
was identified as the most significant pre-
dictor of bryophyte species richness.
Humieolous bryophytes often extended
onto the lower caudex of D. antarctica.
These three substrates accounted for all but
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
261
Bryophyte special issue
Table 3. Substrate distribution within sites based on the presence of selected bryophyte species.
Absence of a symbol = the species was not found on that substrate, 0 = no significant difference, + =
significantly more frequent in sites where the species was present, - - significantly less frequent in
sites where the species was present (/?<0.05).
Goniobryum subbasilare
G
78
0
+
+
0
Aneura ahenuloba
G
67
+
0
0
0
Hypnodendron vi dense
G
67
0
+
+
Heteroscyphus argutus
G
100
+
0
0
0
0
Rhizogonium distichum
G
89
+
0
0
0
0
Calyptrochaeta otwavensis
G
67
+
0
0
0
0
0
Calyptrochaeta brown ii
U
60
0
0
0
0
0
0
Zoopsis argentea
G
67
+
+
-
+
0
Chiloscvph us Semite res
U
80
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Hypnum cupressiforme
u
60
0
0
0
Leucobrvum candidum
G
56
0
-
0
0
0
0
Paracromastigum
longiscyphvum
G
56
0
0
0
Rosulabrvum billarderi
G
56
0
0
0
0
Rh vnchostegium tenui folium
G
67
0
0
0
+
0
0
0
0
Trachyloma plcmifoliuin
G
33
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Megac.eros gracilis
G
78
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Podomilrium ph yl Ian thus
G
78
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Bazzcmia involuta
G
44
0
0
0
0
0
Cheilolejeimea mimosa
U
40
0
0
0
0
Fissidens pallidas
U
40
0
a few taxa that were recorded in only a small
number of samples. While this result sug-
gests a parallel overlap in the habitat prefer-
ences of corticolous and humieolous species,
it is likely to reflect the unique morphology*
and hence physico-chemical properties, of
the Dicksonia eaudex. Variation in the per-
centage occurrence of any of these three
substrate types has a significant influence on
bryophyte species richness and composition.
Soil availability has been identified as an
important determinant of bryophyte species
richness and composition elsewhere (Pharo
and Beattie 2002). Ashton (1986) noted well
developed soil bryophyte communities in
Cool Temperate Rainforests of the Victorian
Central Highlands.
Landscape variables associated with
bryophyte distribution often include para-
meters such as mean annual rainfall
(Fensham and Streimann 1997). Bryophyte
distribution is also affected by site vari-
ables including canopy characteristics
(Rambo and Muir 1998b). The two
Blackwood forest types in the Otways are,
by definition, separated topographically
and by their contrasting disturbance histo-
ries. Canopy trees in upslope sites
belonged to a single readily identifiable
age class. Canopy trees in gully sites were
lower branching, appeared older and there
was more evidence of tree fall (possibly
due to the swampy conditions). Natural
disturbance caused by tree fall may con-
tribute to the greater percentage occurrence
of bare soil and decaying wood and the
inferred microclimatic variability within
the gully sites. It may also contribute to the
262
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
quantitative reduction in the percentage
occurrence of A. melanoxylon. Further
investigation of the effects of middlestorey
structure on bryophyte distribution may be
useful in these forests. We found that mid-
dlestorey cover (from observation and
cover/abundance values of relevant taxa)
varied considerably between sites. In some
sites where A. melanoxylon cover was rela-
tively low, Austral Mulberry Hedycarya
august ifolia. Musk Daisy-bush Olearia
argophylla and D. antarctica compensated
to provide almost complete shade for
bryophyte habitats near the ground.
A significant proportion of the bryophyte
taxa encountered can be regarded as truly
pluriverous with samples taken from more
than half the available substrate types. The
three most frequently recorded taxa in each
forest type are, not surprisingly, pluriver-
ous. They are also ubiquitous geographi-
cally, with one or more of these taxa often
reported as common or ubiquitous in a
range of wet forests of southe-astern
Australia (Scott and Stone 1976; Scott
1985; Jarman and Kantvilas 2001a, 2001b;
Meagher and Fuhrer 2003). Despite being
ubiquitous, the percentage occurrences of
four of these taxa are significantly affected
by habitat variation or microclimatic dif-
ferences (or both) between the two forest
types. The rarer bryophyte taxa include
those less likely to tolerate major habitat
disturbance as well as those with a narrow'
environmental amplitude. These include
species listed in Table 3. The eight species
with the highest contribution to composi-
tional dissimilarity in Table 3 are present
wherever the percentage occurrence of cer-
tain substrate types is significantly differ-
ent from those sites where each species is
absent. The substrates contributing to this
pattern were also those with a significantly
different percentage occurrence in each
forest type.
There is convincing evidence to conclude
that the two Blackwood forests are signifi-
cantly different in their bryofloras. The
percentage occurrences of soil, decaying
wood, D. antarctica and A. melanoxylon
were shown to be important factors influ-
encing bryophyte distribution in the
Blackwood forests of the Otways. More
detailed investigation of the relationship
between forest structure, microclimatic
variables and habitat variables in Otway
Blackwood forests is recommended fol-
lowing this preliminary study.
Acknowledgements
Linda Bcster assisted with all fieldwork. The
late Dr David Ashton, Dr Andrew Bennett,
David Cameron, Angie Haslero. Dr Graeme
Lorimer and Ian Roberts assisted with other
aspects of the project including methodology.
Referee comments were gratefully accepted to
improve the manuscript. Parks Victoria and the
Department of Sustainability and Environment
gave permission to carry out work within the
national park and collect specimens lor identifi-
cation (Permit Number 10002243).
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77-88.
Peek JE, Hong WS and McC'une B ( 1995) Diversity of
epiphytic bryophytes on three host tree species,
Thermal Meadow, Hotsprings Island, Queen
Charlotte Islands, Canada. The Bryologist 98
123-128,
Peel B (1999) Rainforests and Cool Temperate Mixed
Forests of Victoria. (Victorian Department of Natural
Resources and Environment* East Melbourne)
Pharo EJ and Beattie AJ (2002) 1 he association
between substrate variability and bryophyte and
lichen diversity in eastern Australian forests. The
Bryologist 1 05. 1 1 - 26.
Pharo EJ, Lindenmayer DB and Taws N (2004) The
effects of landscape fragmentation on bryophytes in
temperate forests. Journal of Applied Ecology 41,
910-921.
Rambo TR and Muir PS (1998a) Bryophyte species
associations with coarse woody debris and stand ages
in Oregon. The Bryologist 101. 366-376.
Rambo TR and Muir PS (1998b) Forest floor
bryophytes of Pscudotsuga mcnzicsii-Tsuga hetero-
phylla stands in Oregon: Influence of substrate and
overstorey. The Bryologist 101.1 16-130.
Reese WD (2001) Substrate preference in
Calymperaeeae: Calvmperes, Mitthyridium, and
Syrrhopodon. The Bryologist 104(4), 582-592.
Roberts I (1988) Interim report Structural characteris-
tics of the rainforest community in the Otway
Ranges. Flora Survey. Department of Conservation,
Forests and Lands (Unpubl.).
Ross .III and Walsh NG (2003) A census of the vascu-
lar plants of Victoria. 7 Ed. (Royal Botanic Gardens
and National Herbarium of Victoria: South Yarra).
Scott GAM (1985) Southern Australian Liverworts.
Australian Flora and Fauna Series No. 2. (Australian
Government Publishing Service: Canberra).
Scott GAM and Slone !G (1976) The Mosses of
Southern Australia. (Academic Press: London).
Shacklette HT (1961) Substrate relationship of some
bryophyte communities on Latouche Island, Alaska.
The Bryologist 64, I 16.
Streimann FI and Klazcnga N (2002) Catalogue of
Australian Mosses, f lora of Australia Supplementary
Series number 1 7. (Australian Biological Resources
Study. Canberra).
Turner PAM and Pharo EJ (2005) Influence of sub-
strate type and forest age on bryophyte species distri-
bution in Tasmanian mixed forest. The Bryologist
108,67-85.
Williams LB (1977) Timber production in the Otway
Region. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria
89, 89-98.
Received 16 June 2006; accepted 10 August 2006
264
The Victorian Naturalist
Appendix 1.. Bryophyte census of Otway Blackwood Forests indicating distribution according to substrate types.
Bryophyte special issue
Hedycarya angustifolia
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
Pittospovum bicolor
+
+
+
+
+
Pomaderris aspera
+
+
+
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+
+
+
+
+
Nematolepis squamea
+
+ +
+
Dicksonia antarctica
+
+ +
+ +
+
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+ +
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+
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+
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Appendix 1.. (cont.) Bryophyte census of Otway Blackwood Forests indicating distribution according to substrate types .
Bryophyte special issue
266
H ed\ ’ccirya august ifoli a
Pittosponun bicolor
Pomadenis aspera
Coprosnia quadrifida
Nematolepis sqaamea
Dicksonia antarctica
Olearia argophylla
Acacia melanoxylon
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Vol. 123 (4) 2006
267
Bryophyte special issue
Appendix 2. Tracheophyte census of Otway Blackwood Forests.
Pteridophyta (Ferns)
Aspleniaceae
Asplenium bulbiferum subsp. gracillimum (Colenso) Brownsey
Asplenium flabeUifolium C'av.
Asplenium flaccidum G. Forst. subsp. jlaccidum
Blechnaceae
B lech num carti/agineum Sw.
Blechnnm chambers ii Tindale
Blechnumfluviatile ( R. Br.) E. J. Lowe ex Saloman
Blechnnm nudum (Labi II.) Mett. ex Luerss.
Blechmmi waff sir Tindale
Cyatheaceac
Cyathea australis (R. Br. ) Domin
Dennstaedtiaceae
Histiopteris incisa (Thunb.) J. Sm.
Dicksoniaceac
Dickson ia anturctica Labill.
Dryopteridaceae
Polys tichutn prolifentm (R. Br.)C. Presl
Rumohra adiuntiformis (G. Forst.) Ching
Grammitidaceae
Ctenopteris heterophylla (Labill.) Tindale
Grammitis billardierei Willd.
Hymenophyllaceae
Crepidomanes venosum (R. Br.) Bostock
Hymenophyll um australe Willd.
Hymenophyllum cupress iforme Labi 1 1 .
Hymenophyllum Jlabellatum Labi 1 1 .
Hymenophyllum rarum R. Br.
Polypodiaceae
Microsonun pustulatum (G. Forst.) Copel. subsp. pustulatum
Magnoliophyta (Flowering plants)
Liliopsida (Monocotyledons)
Cyperaceae
Carex appressa R. Br.
Lepidosperma elatius Labill.
Uncinia tenella R. Br.
Orchidaceae
Pterostylis pedunculate! R. Br.
Sarcochilus australis (Lindl.) Rchb. f.
Chiloglottis cornuta Hook f.
Poaceae
Tetrarrhena juncea R. Br.
Magnoliopsida (Dicotyledons)
Apiaceae
Hydrocotvle hirta A. Rich.
Apocynaceae
Parsonsia hrownii (Britten) Pichon
Araliaceae
Polvscias sambucifolia (Sieber ex DC.) Harms
Asteraceae
Bedfordia arborescens Hochr.
Olearia argophylla (Labill.) Benth.
Olearia liraia (Sims) Hutch.
Caprifoliaceae
Sambucus gcmdichaudkma DC.
Mimosaceae
Acacia mclanoxvlon R. Br.
Monimiaceae
Hedycatya angustifolia R. Cunn.
Oleaceae
Notelaea ligustnna Vent.
Pittosporaceae
Pittosporum bicolor Hook.
Proteaceae
Lomatia fraseri R. Br.
Ranunculaccae
Clematis oris fata R. Br. ex Ker Gawd
Rhamnaceac
Pomaderris aspera Sieber ex DC.
Rosaccae
*Rubus polyanthemus Lin deb.
Rubiaceae
Coprosma quadrifula (Labill.) B.L. Rob.
Rutaceae
Correa lawrenceana var. latrobeana (F. Muell.ex Hannaford) Paul G. Wilson
Nematolepis scpuimea (Labill.) Paul. G. Wilson subsp. squamea
Solanaceae
Solatium laciniatum Aiton
Thymelaeaceae
Pimelea axiflom F. Mucll. ex Meisn. subsp. axiflora
Urticaceae
Australina pitsilla subsp. muelleri ( Wedd.) Friss & Wilmot-Dear
Urtica incisa Poir. in Lam.
Winteraceae
Tasmannia lanceolate i (Poir.) Bail 1 .
268
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Plagiochila strombifolia is a common epiphytic liverwort of wet forests and other damp habitats.
The leaves are fan-shaped as the lower edge of each is rolled under. They smell like parsnip when
crushed. This species is mentioned in the papers by Dell and Jenkins, and Carrigan. Photograph by
Matthew Dell.
Dicranoloma h March' ri is a moss characteristic of wet forests. The long, slender leaves characteristi-
cally curve to one side. Sporophytes are common. Phis species is mentioned in several papers in this
issue: by Carrigan, Dell and Jenkins, and Ployed and Gibson. Photograph by Matthew Dell.
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
269
Bryophyte special issue
The sexual reproduction and phenology of
Atrichum androgynum (MulLHal.) A.Jaeger
Louise Biggs1’2 and Maria Gibson2
'University of Western Australia, Nedlands, 6907
'Plant Ecology Research Unit, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University,
221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, Victoria, 3125
Abstract
Two populations of Atrichum androgynum (Mull. Hal.) A.Jaeger from differing habitats were investi-
gated. Within both populations perichaetia were observed more frequently than perigonia, although
the number of antheridia was greater than the number of archegonia. A clear seasonality in the
sequence and timing of sexual reproduction Occurred, w ith little variation due to habitat. Antheridia
began development in spring, after sporophytes had reached maturity. Initiation of archegonial
development occurred approximately one month later. Spores w;ere isosporic and 3 pm in diameter.
Release of mature spores peaked in spring. The sporophyte maturation cycle of A. androgynum was
12 months. (The Victorian Naturalist 123 (4). 2006, 270-278)
Introduction
There was little quantitative research on
the developmental stages of gametangia
and sporophyte production (Forman 1965;
Mishler 1988) until Greene (1960) pro-
duced the concept of the Maturation Index,
which was later modified by Longton and
Greene (1969a). This provided a single
means of comparison for the sequence and
timing of developmental stages for both
gametangia and sporophyte production
(Forman 1965; Greene 1960), making
assessment of the reproductive cycle of
mosses easier. A number of studies have
used Greene’s Maturation Index or a modi-
fied version of it (Hancock and Brassard
1974; Imura 1994; Longton and Greene
1969a and b; Mishler 1991). Modification
can be necessary depending on the nature
of the moss under investigation. The
Maturation Index also provides ways to
compare species from selected geographi-
cal areas (Greene 1960; Longton and
Greene 1969a and b) and within single
habitats, allowing detailed examination of
environmental factors affecting popula-
tions and individual gametophytes under
field or laboratory conditions (Longton and
Greene 1969a).
Atrichum androgynum is a cosmopolitan
moss found in south-east Australia, New
Zealand, South Africa and Central and
South America (Nyholm 1971; Scott and
Stone 1976). It grows on shaded forest
floors and moist embankments in Wet
Sclerophyll Forest and Cool Temperate
Rainforest (Beever et al. 1992; Nyholm
1971) although it occasionally occurs in
more open areas such as along creek mar-
gins and in canopy gaps (Jarman and
Fuhrer 1995). Atrichum androgynum is an
erect moss ranging from four to eight cen-
timetres in height. It is polysetous with an
average of one to five sporophytes
(Nyholm 1971; Scott and Stone 1976).
Atrichum androgynum belongs to the
family Polytrichaceae, which has 24 genera
and approximately .300 species world wide.
In Australia there are eight genera and 23
species, 10 of which are endemic
(Streimann and Klazenga 2002).
In this study the reproductive biology and
phenology of A. androgynum was investi-
gated within a Cool Temperate Rainforest
in Victoria. The aims of the study were to
investigate the sequence and timing of the
sexual reproductive cycle and to determine
the male to female stem ratio.
Methods
Two populations were investigated at
Cement Creek Turntable, situated in the
Yarra Ranges National Park, 69 km north-
east of Melbourne. The park consists of
about 75 000 hectares of relatively unmod-
ified bushland and is surrounded by state
forest. The creek transects the park and
contains Wet Sclerophyll Forest with
pockets of Cool Temperate Rainforest,
dominated by Eucalyptus regnans F.Muell.
and Nothofagus cunninghamii (Hook.)
270
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Oerst. Dicksonia antarctica Labi 11. and
Cyathea australis R.Br. make up the
understorey, while ground cover principal-
ly consists of Blechnum wa/sii Tindale and
various species of I (ypolep is Bernhardi.
Site one was within a canopy gap of
mature rainforest and consisted of three
loosely connected colonies of A. androgy-
num , with one colony prone to flooding
after rain. Site two was a single but excep-
tionally large and dense colony beneath a
closed canopy. The colony occurred at the
base of a small embankment and stayed
moist through seepage.
Climatic conditions in the Yarra Ranges
National Park are influenced by topogra-
phy and altitude: 652.8 mm of rain wras
experienced from the beginning of 2002
until September 2002. The highest rainfall
recorded wras in July 2002, at 126.7 mm,
with the lowest rainfall occurring in March
2002. However, there was a significant
decrease in rainfall from 2001 to 2002.
Within the Yarra Ranges National Park
summers are often dry, and the danger of
fire is common with irregular north-westerly
winds (Maxwell 1997). Mean summer tem-
peratures in 2002 were approximately 21 °C
with the highest temperature occurring dur-
ing summer at 2 1 .9 °C. Snow often falls dur-
ing winter, although it does not last long
(Maxwell 1997). The lowest w inter temper-
ature recorded was 5 °C (August 2002).
Sixty stems from each site were sampled
randomly at fortnightly intervals beginning
21 March 2002 until 27 February 2003.
Specimens from each site were placed into
labelled envelopes and stored in a refriger-
ator at 4 °C for one to four days until
examined.
Each stem was examined for the presence
of perichaetia (groups of specialized leaves
surrounding the female reproductive
organs) and perigonia (groups of special-
ized leaves surrounding the male reproduc-
tive organs). If present they were counted
and excised, and archegonia (female repro-
ductive organs) and antheridia (male repro-
ductive organs) dissected from them. The
number of archegonia and antheridia per
perichaetium and perigonium respectively
were counted and assigned a maturation
stage and index value using a modified
version of Longton and Greene’s (1969b)
Maturation Index for gametangia and
sporophytes (Table 1 and Fig. 1). From
this a population average maturation index
value was determined each fortnight for
both the antheridia and archegonia.
Antheridia and archegonia that were abort-
ed or from a previous cycle were noted but
not included in the population average.
When present, sporophytes also were
assigned a maturity index value and a pop-
ulation average was determined. Sporo-
phytes that were aborted or persistent from
the previous cycle also were recorded but
not included in the population average.
Stems were examined for any specialized
asexual propagules, for example gemmae,
rhizoidal gemmae, brood bodies and frag-
ments from stems or caducous leaves.
Results
Stems normally exhibited either the male
or female sexual state (Fig. 2), however,
four out of nearly 3000 stems were bisexu-
al. Male and female stems wrere identical
in form and therefore could not be distin-
guished unless they were fertile. Male and
female stems occurred at both populations;
however, female stems were dominant.
Within site one, 664 female stems were
observed compared to only 1 16 male
stems. 703 stems were of unknown sexual-
ity as they were not fertile. At site two, the
number of female stems was slightly lower
than at site one, with 603 female stems.
The number of male stems in site two was
similar to site one with 120 stems, a differ-
ence of only four stems. At site two 713
stems were of unknown sex.
The number of antheridia per perigonium
ranged from one to 100 in site one and one
to 80 in site two (Table 2). At site one,
21-30 antheridia per perigonium were
common, compared to 1 1-20 antheridia
per perigonium at site two. Site one had a
higher number of perigonia with a total of
118, while site two had 83 perigonia.
Perigonia had been noted since the begin-
ning of the study but these were from a
previous cycle and were empty except on
one occasion in August 2002. The
antheridium present was brown with a rup-
tured apex. Antheridia in the Juvenile stage
were first observed in September 2002.
Progression of the initial stage was rapid
(Fig. 3) and Immature antheridia were
observed within two weeks at both site one
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
271
Bryophyte special issue
Table 1. Stages of gametangial and sporophyte development (Modified version of Longton and
Greene 1969b).
Phenostage value
Gametangia
Index
Description
(J) Juvenile
1
Gametangia become visible
(I) Immature
2
Gametangia reach half length of dehisced gametangia
(M) Mature
3
Apices of gametangia rupture. Archegonia become
receptive for fertilisation and liberation of
antherozoids begins
(D) Dehisced
4
Development of brown colouration begins in
gametangia at ruptured apices
(A) Aborted
Sporophytes
#
Development of brown or hyaline colouration begins
in gametangia with unruptured apices in J or I stages
(SV) Swollen venter
1
Venter of archegonium begins to swell
(ESV) Elongated swollen venter
2
Venter is elongated with apex still attached
(ECP) Early calyptra in perichaetium
3
Calyptra visible within perichaetium bracts
(LCP) Late calyptra in perichaetium
4
Calyptra becomes half exserted from perichaetial
bracts
(EC I) Early calyptra intact
5
Calyptra becomes fully exserted from perichaetial
bracts
(LCI) Late calyptra intact
6
Swelling of capsule begins
(EOI) Early operculum intact
7
Operculum green in colour
(OI) Operculum intact
8
Operculum becomes brown in colour
(LOI) Late operculum intact
9
Capsule becomes brown in colour
(OF) Operculum fallen
10
Operculum falls
(EF) Empty and fresh
1 1
75% of spores have been shed
(A) Aborted
#
Apex of sporophyte withers prior to spore formation
usually in ECP, LCP or EC'l
and two (October 2002). Development
slowed for a period of two and a half
months at site two and three months at site
one (October to December 2002), until
maturity was reached. Antheridia took
approximately five months to mature.
The number of archegonia per
perichaetium was much lower than that of
antheridia per perigonium. The range of
archegonia per perichaetium was from one
to 34, although one archegonium per
perichaetium was more common. Fertile
perichaetia of site one had considerably
more archegonia than those at site two,
where one to seven archegonia per
perichaetium was common, compared to
one to four for site two (Table 3).
Archegonial development began later
than antheridial development, with
Juvenile and Immature archegonia first
recorded in October 2002, at both site one
and site two. Mature archegonia were first
recorded in site two in early December
2002, approximately six weeks after
Immature archegonia were first observed.
At site one, Mature archegonia occurred
two months (late December 2002) after the
initiation of Immature archegonia.
Maturation of archegonia took approxi-
mately four months, from late spring to
summer (Fig. 4).
Fifty-five percent of stems bore sporo-
phytes in site one. as opposed to 45% in
site two. Polysety was common within
both populations but occurred to a greater
extent at site one, where one to 32 sporo-
phytes per perichaetium occurred although
only one to six was common (Table 4).
Site two had only one to six sporophytes
per perichaetium but only one to three was
common (Table 4). The occurrence of a
single sporophyte per perichaetium, how-
ever. was more common than polysety in
either site. Site one had 174 gametophytes
with one sporophyte, while in site two 290
gametophytes were observed with one
sporophyte (Table 4).
The sequence and timing of sporophyte
development was similar for each site
(Table 5). At the beginning of the study,
sporophytes at the young phenostages
(Early Calyptra Intact, Late Calyptra
Intact, Early Operculum Intact and
Operculum Intact) were observed. In site
272
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Gametop bytes
Male
Female
y
Juvenile Immature Mature Dehisced
Spare phytes
Swollen E long sled Early calyptra
venter swollen venter in perichaetium
Late calyptra
n perichaetium
Early calyptra
intact
Late calyptra
intact
Early operculum Operculum Lats opercu'um Operculum fallen Empiy and fresh
intact intact intact
Fig. 1. Diagrammatic version of gametangial and sporophytic maturation table (based on the concept
of Longton and Greene, 1969b).
Fig. 2. a. Perigonial leaves (arrowed) and b. perichaetial leaves (arrowed) of Atrichum androgynum.
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
273
Bryophyte special issue
I able 2. Variation in the number of antheridia per perigonium in Atrichum androgynum Cement
Creek, Victoria.
Number of antheridia per perigonium
1-10
1 1-20
21-30
31-40
41-50
Site 1
12
20
22
20
15
Site 2
14
25
21
12
5
Total
26
45
43
32
20
51-60
61-70 71-80
81-90
91-100 Total
10
9 7
2
1 118
5
1
83
15
9 8
2
1
-site 1
s ite 2
Fig. 3. Antheridial development in Atrichum androgynum at Cement Creek, Victoria, 2002-2003.
— sir— Site 1 — Site 2
Fig. 4. Archegonial development in Atrichum androgynum at Cement Creek, Victoria, 2002-2003.
274
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Table 3. Variation in the number of archegonia per perichaetium in Atrichum androgynum , Cement
Creek, Victoria.
Number of archegonia per perichaetium
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34Total
Site 1
72 72 62 51 61 45 35 23 17 11 8 9 3 4 1 3 1 478
Site 2
117 83 53 28 13 13 10 6 2 4 11 1 332
Total
189 155 115 79 74 58 45 29 19 15 8 10 4 4 2 3 1 810
Table 4. Variation in the number of sporophytes per perichaetium in Atrichum androgynum , Cement
Creek, Victoria.
Number of sporophytes per perichaetium
1 2
3
4
5
6
7 8
9
10
11
12 13
14 15
16 17 32Total
Site 1
174 139
76
56
39
26
16 10
4
8
3
3 1
2
1 1 1 560
Site 2
290 152
Total
40
17
7
7
513
464 291
116
73
46
33
16 10
4
8
3
3 1
2
1 1 1 1073
one, young sporophytes occurred during
autumn, while in site two, young sporo-
phytes occurred from late summer -
autumn (2002). Mature sporophytes (Late
Operculum Intact, Operculum Fallen and
Empty and Fresh) were observed from win-
ter to early summer at site one and late
autumn to early summer (2002) at site two.
Immature sporophytes (Early Swollen
Venter, Early Calyptra in Perichaetium and
Late Calyptra in Perichaetium) were not
present until 2003; development occurred
during the summer months. Progress of one
phenostage to the next slowed with devel-
opment. For example. Early Calyptra Intact
and Late Calyptra Intact lasted for only two
weeks. Early Operculum Intact lasted for
two to four weeks, Operculum Intact lasted
for four to six weeks and Late Operculum
Intact lasted for ten weeks. Overall, sporo-
phyte development took 12 months.
Only one spore size occurred. These
spores were approximately 3 pm in size
and had wart-like protruberances (Fig. 5).
Spore release occurred via the peristome
teeth and epiphragm (see Fig. 3 in Tyshing
and Gibson, this issue), which slow down
dispersal, allowing spore release over a
longer period of time compared to spore
release en masse via explosive expulsion.
Spore release in A. androgynum began in
winter and ended in spring, lasting approx-
imately three months.
No specialised form of asexual reproduc-
tion was observed within either population.
Discussion
It is not surprising that Atrichum androg-
ynum showed seasonality in the sequence
and timing of gametangial and sporophytic
development as this is known for many
mosses (Longton and Greene 1 969a and b;
Miles et al. 1989; Stark 1985). Even spec-
imens of a single species from two
extremely diverse environments, such as
polar (sub-arctic and sub-antarctic) and
temperate habitats, showed little variation
in the timing of events (Miles et al 1989).
Other Australian species also demonstrate
defined seasonal patterns of development
for gametangia and sporophytes, e.g.
Dicranotoma billardierei (Brid. ex Anon.)
Fig. 5. Spore of Atrichum androgynum with
wart-like protuberances.
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
275
Table 5. Seasonal events of the sexual reproductive cycle of Atrichum androgynum. I = initiation of antheridia/archegonia, M = mature antheridia/archegonia, YS
= young sporophytes, MS = mature sporophyles and SD = spore dispersal.
Bryophyte special issue
276
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Paris, D. platycaulon Dixon and D. men-
ziesii (Taylor) Renauld (Milne 2001), and
Wijkia extenuate i (Sinclair 1999; Sinclair
and Gibson 2000). In some species, e.g.
Grimmia pul v inala (Hedw.) Sin. and
Tor tula mural is Hedw., the sporophytic
cycle is seasonal, while the gametangial
cycle is not (Miles et al. 1989). In these
species, Juvenile, Immature and Dehisced
stages of gametangia occur throughout the
year, and although archegonia are fertilised
throughout the year, sporophyte develop-
ment is strictly seasonal (Miles et al.
1989). Other species such as Funaria
hygro metric a Hedw. show no seasonality
in either gametangial or sporophytic devel-
opment (Longton 1976; B Sinclair and M
Gibson pers. obs.), but this is a fugitive
species and can produce sporophytes at
any time of the year (B Sinclair and M
Gibson pers. obs.).
In A. androgynum, antheridial develop-
ment was seasonal with no antheridia
noted until spring, when they occurred at
the juvenile and immature stages in large
numbers. In many species, archegonia
begin development after antheridia (Miles
et al. 1989), with antheridial development
taking considerably longer. This also was
the case with A. androgynum.
The reasons that antheridia often develop
over considerably longer periods than
archegonia are twofold. Firstly, perigonia
often produce larger numbers of antheridia
compared to the numbers of archegonia
produced by perichaetia, especially in
species with separate male and female
stems (Longton and Greene 1969a and b;
Stark 1997; Stark et al. 2000). This is not
surprising as perichaetial leaves are usually
smaller than perigonial leaves (Wyatt
1977), thus cannot contain as many
archegonia compared to antheridia in
perigonia. The higher number of antheridia
per perigonium would result in higher
sperm numbers and so would aid in maxi-
mizing the number of archegonia fertilised
within a colony. The reverse, however,
does occur. Milne (2001 ) found that D. bil-
larderi and D. menziesii produced more
archegonia per perichaetium than
antheridia per perigonium and attributed
this to the absence of specialised struc-
tures, such as splash cups, to aid in sperm
transfer. Atrichum androgynum does not
have the well-developed splash cups of
Poly trichum juniperum Hedw., for exam-
ple, but the perigonial leaves are arranged
in such a way that they provide a good fac-
simile of a splash cup, and facilitate sperm
transfer in the same manner. The second
reason that antheridia often take longer to
develop than archegonia is that there is a
greater number of cells produced within
antheridia than within archegonia (Stark
1997), i.e. many sperm occur within
antheridia and the sperm cell is quite
complex (Jmura 1994).
Sporophytic development of A. androgy-
num showed seasonal trends. This was not
unusual as other species also have shown
seasonal patterns of sporophyte develop-
ment (e.g. Imura 1994; Miles et al. 1989;
Milne 2001), The sporophyte develop-
ment of A. androgynum occurred over a 12
month period. There is much variation in
length of time required for sporophyte
development from a matter of months to
years so, again, this is not unusual.
Dicranoloma bi Harden takes 20 months
for sporophytes to mature, Pleurozium
schreberi (Brid.) Mitt. 13 months (Longton
and Greene 1969a), D. menziesii 10-12
months (Milne 2001), Wijkia. extenuata
(Brid.) Crum, nine months (Sinclair 1999),
and F. hygrometrica less than two months
(B Sinclair and M Gibson pers. obs.).
Many species produce large numbers of
archegonia within each perichaetium, and
although many can be fertilised, usually
only one sporophyte reaches maturity
(Stark and Castetter 1995). Similarly,
although A. androgynum is polysetous, the
majority of sporophytes at the swollen
venter stage abort. Further loss of sporo-
phytes occurs with subsequent develop-
ment. This is common in many polysetous
mosses (Stark 1983).
Spore dispersal can occur over a long peri-
od of time. In Syntrichia inennis Brid.,
spores were dispersed over a one-year peri-
od (Stark 1997). In Dicranoloma species it
continued for several months (Milne 2001).
In A. androgynum spore release began in
winter and peaked in late spring.
Often, studies do not indicate whether
specialised forms of vegetative propagation
have occurred, and those that do simply
state the form of asexual reproduction but
not how it varies with time and/or season.
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
277
Bryophyte special issue
This study examined each stem of A.
androgynum collected to determine whether
any specialised forms of asexual reproduc-
tion occurred, but none was found. Asexual
reproduction is important for colony expan-
sion and gap-filling within colonies
(Kimmerer 1991). The latter is particularly
important as gaps within colonies can result
in the death of the colony.
Phenological studies on bryophytes are
few, especially within Australia.
Knowledge of the reproduction of
bryophytes aids in understanding their sur-
vival strategies in environments that are
continually changing and becoming more
fragmented, a constant problem in
Australia and elsewhere. Knowledge of the
reproductive biology of bryophytes aids in
correct conservation management and the
long-term sustainability of a species.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Chris Tyshing for
the scanning electron microscope image of a spore
of A. androgynum , and Parks Victoria and the
Department of Sustainability and Environment for
permission to conduct research and collect speci-
mens at Cement Creek. Thanks also to the anony-
mous referee for helpful comments.
References
Beever J, Allison KW and Child J (1992) The Mosses
of New Zealand. 2 ed .(University of Otago Press:
Dunedin)
Forman R (1965) A system for studying moss phenolo-
gy. The Bryologisi 68, 289-300,
Greene SW (1960) The maturation cycle, or the stage
of development of gametangia and capsules in moss-
es. British Biyological Society 3, 736-754.
Hancock JA and Brassard GR (1974) Phenology,
sporophyte production and life history of Buxbaumia
aphvlla in Newfoundland, Canada. The Bryologisi
77, 501-513.
Imura S (1994) Phenological study in two dioicous
mosses Atrichum rhystophyllunr (C. Mull) Par. and
Pogonatum inflexion (Lindb.) Lae. Journal of the
Hatton Botanical Laboratory 76, 105-114,
Jarman S and l'uhrer B (1995) Mosses and liverworts
of rainforests in Tasmania and south-eastern
Australia. (CSIRO and Forestry Tasmania:
Melbourne)
Kimmerer RW (1991) Reproductive ecology of
Tetraphis pellucida. I. Population density and repro-
ductive mode. The Bryologist 94. 255-260.
Longton RE (1976) Reproductive biology and evolu-
tionary potential in bryophytes. Journal of the
Hattori Botanical Laboratory 4 1 , 205-223.
Longton RE and Greene SW (1969a) Relationship
between sex distribution and sporophyte production
in Pleurozium schreberi iBrid.) Mitt. Annals of
Botany 33, 107-126.
Longton RE and Greene SW (1969b) The growth and
reproductive cycle of Pleurozium schreberi (Brid.)
Mitt. Annals of Botany 33, 83-105.
Maxwell A (1997) Old Growth Access Program
Cement Creek, Yarra Ranges National Park:
Environmental Impact Statement. (Parks Victoria:
Melbourne)
Miles CJ, Odu LA and Longton RE (1989)
Phenological studies on British mosses. Journal of
Bryology 15,607-621.
Milne .1 (2001) Reproductive biology of three
Australian species of Dicranuloma (Bryopsida,
Dieranaceae): Sexual reproduction and phenology.
The Bryologist 104, 440-452.
Mishlcr BD (1988) Reproductive ecology of
bryophytes. In Plant Reproductive Ecology: Patterns
and Strategies. (Oxford University Press: New York)
Mishlcr BD (1991) Gametophyte phenology of Tortula
rural is, a desiccation tolerant moss, in the Organ
Mountains of southern New Mexico. The Bryologist
94, 143-153.
Nyholm E (1971) Studies in the genus Atrichum
P.Beauv. A short survey of the genus and species.
Lindbergia I. 1-13.
Scott G and Stone I (1976) The Mo sses pf Southern
Australia. (Academic Press: London)
Sinclair B (1999) The reproductive biology of Wijkia
exienuata (Brid.) Crum. (Unpublished Hons thesis,
Deakin University)
Sinclair B and Gibson M (2000) Sexuality of Wijkia
extenuata (Brid.) Crum, in wet Victorian forests. The
Victorian Naturalist 1 1 7. 1 66- 171.
Stark LR (1983) Reproductive biology of Entodon
cladunhizans (Bryopsida, Entodontaeeae). I.
Reproductive cycle and frequency of fertilization.
Systematic Botany 8, 381-388,
Stark LR (1985) Phenology and species concepts: a
case study. The Bryologist 88, 190-198.
Stark LR and Castettcr R( (1995) Phenology of
Trirhnstomum perUigulatum (Pottiaceue, Bryopsida)
in the Chihuahuan Desert. The Bryologist 98. 389-
397.
Stark LR (1997) Phenology and reproductive biology
of Syntrichia inennis (Bryopsida, Pottiaceae) in the
Mojave Desert. The Bryologist 100, 13-23.
Stark LR. Mishlcr BD and McLetchie DN (2000) The
cost of realised sexual reproduction: assessing the
patterns of reproductive allocation and sporophyte
abortion in a desert moss. American Journal of
Botany 87. 1599-1608.
Streimann (I and Kla/enga N (2002) Catalogue of
Australian mosses. Flora of Australia Supplementary
Series 17 : (Australian Biological Resources Study:
Canberra)
Wyatt R (1977) Spatial pattern and gamete dispersal
distances in Atrichum angustatum, a dioicous moss.
The Biyologist 80. 284-291 .
Received 13 April 2006; accepted 29 June 2006
278
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Stream bryophytes in Victorian rainforest streams
Stream bryophytes potentially constitute
a major part of the autotrophic biomass in
stream ecosystems. They are generally
more abundant in cool streams with a
strong current as many require carbon
dioxide, which is available in an adequate
supply due to turbulence, for photosynthe-
sis. Bryophyte abundance is higher in
streams that have a uniform and stable sub-
stratum. On stream rocks, bryophyte
species richness is variable, with areas sub-
merged having quite low species richness.
The area at and just above the water line
has a sharp increase in bryophyte species
richness and consists mainly of facultative-
ly aquatic species.
Stream bryophytes are common in
Victorian rainforest streams (Fig. 1),
occurring on rocks, logs and sediment.
However, research into stream bryophytes
is limited compared to the amount of
research dealing with their terrestrial coun-
terparts. This is surprising considering
their abundance and diversity, especially in
Table 1. Preliminary list of bryophyte species identified in Victorian rainforest streams.
Bryophyta
Achrophyllum dentatum (Hook.f. & Wilson)
Vitt & Crosby
Atrichum androgynum (Mull. I lal.) A Jaeger
Camptochaete arbuscula (Sm.) Reichardt var.
arbuscula
Catagonium nitens (Brjd.) Cardot subsp .nitens
Cyathophorwn bulbosum (Hedw.) Mull. Hal.
Dicrano/oma billarderi (Brid. Ex AnonJParis
Dicranoloma menziesii ('fay lor) Renauld var.
menziesii
FallacieMa gracilis (Hook.f. & Wilson) H.A.
Crum
Fissidens dietrichiae Mull. Hal.
Fissidens rigidulus Hook.f. & Wilson var.
rigidulus
Fissidens taylorii Mull. Hal.
Fissidens tenellns Hook.f. & Wilson
Hypnodendron cotnosum (Labi II.) Mitt. var.
sieberi (MU II. I lal.) Touw
Hypnodendron spininervium (Hook.) A.Jaeger
& Sauerb. subsp. archer i (Mitt.) Touw
Hypnodendron vitiense Mitt, subsp. aiistrale
Touw
Hypopterygium tamarisci (Sw.) Brjd. ex Mull.
Hal.
Mesochaele undidata Lindb.
Pseudoleskiopsis irnbricaia (Hook.f. & Wilson)
Th£r.
Ptychomnion aciculare (Brid.) Mitt.
Pyrrhobiyum mnioides (Hook.) Manuel subsp.
con tor turn (Wilson) Fife
Racopilum cnspidigerum (Sehwagr.) Angstr.
var. convolnlaceum (Mull. Hal.) Zanten &
Dijkstra
Rosulabryum billarderi (Sehwagr.) J.R. Spence
SematophyUum homomallum (Hampe) Broth.
Thamnobryum pumilum (Hook.f. & Wilson)
Nieuwl.
Thuidiopsis furfurosa (Hook.f. & Wilson)
M.Fleisch.
Wijkia extenuata (Brid.) H.A. Crum
Hepatophyta
Anenra alterniloba (Hook.f. & Taylor) Taylor &
Hook.f.
Bazzania adnexa (Lehm. & Lindenb.) Trevis.
Chiloscyphus semiieres (Lehm. & Lindenb.)
Lehm. & Lindenb. var. semi feres
Geocalyx caledonicus Steph.
Heteroscyphus coalilus (Flook.) Sehiffn.
Heteroscyphus fissistipus (Hook.f. & Taylor)
Sehiffn.
Heteroscyphus planiusculiis (Hook.f. & Taylor)
J.J. Engel
Hymenophy ton /label latum (Labi II.) Dumort. ex
Trevis.
Lepidozia laevifolia (Hook.f. & Taylor) Taylor
ex Gottsehe, Lindenb. & Nees var. laevifolia
Lepidozia ulolhrix (Schwaegr.) Lindenb.
Lunularia cruciata (L.) Dumort.
Marchantia berteroana Lehm. & Lindenb.
Marchanlia foliacea M ill.
Metzgeria fur cat a (L.) Dumort.
Plagiochila fasciculata Li ndenb.
Ptaghchila retrospectans Nees
Plagiochila strombifolia Taylor ex Lehm.
Podomitrium phylhmthus (Hook.) Mitt.
Radii la buccinifera (Hook.f. & Taylor) Taylor
ex Gottsehe, Lindenb. & Nees
Riccardia aequicellu laris (Steph.) Hewson
Riccardia crassa (Schwaegr.) Carrington &
Pearson
Schistochila lehtnamiiana (Lindenb.) Steph.
Symphyogyma podophylla (Thunb.) Mont. &
Nees
Anthocerophyta
Megaceros gracilis (Rchdt.) Steph.
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
279
Bryophyte special issue
mountain streams. As part of my PhD 1 am
looking into the ecology, reproduction and
genetics of stream bryophytes in Victorian
rainforest streams, encompassing Cool
Temperate, Warm Temperate and Gallery
Rainforest pockets. So far. a total of 18
streams have been investigated and 50
species identified. This preliminary list of
stream bryophytes is presented in Table 1 .
Mosses were more abundant than both
liverworts and hornworts, with 26, 23 and
one species identified respectively. Among
the species identified. Achrophyllum den -
tatum . Hypnodendron spin inerviurn ,
Hypnodendran vitiense, Wijkia extenuaia,
Heteroscyp h us coal it us , H etcroscyph us
plan iuscu lus and Riccardia aeqnicellularis
were most commonly represented. These
species also are common in wet forest and
rainforest on substrata such as soil, tree
bases, rock and tree-ferns. Achrophyllum
dentatum and W. extenuata are among the
most common species in this habitat, and
this is reflected in the streams. Species
such as Catagonium nitens, Fallaciella
gracil is . Hyp n o de n d ro n c o m o s it m ,
Mesochaete undid at a, Pseudoleskiopsis
imhricata, Geo calyx Caledonians and
Lunularia cruciata were least commonly
represented, with examples being identified
in only one or two streams. However, some
of these species are common elsewhere; for
example, L. cruciata is extremely common
in areas that are disturbed or man-made, P.
imhricata is fairly common on dry, exposed
boulders and Catagonium nitens is a com-
mon terrestrial species in wet forest.
Hypnodendron comosum , although not a
rare species in rainforest, is much less abun-
dant than either H, vitiense or H. spininervi-
um. This, again, is reflected in streams, with
H. comosum occurring in only one stream
but H. spininervium and //. vitiense occur-
ring in most streams. In the case of G. Cale-
donians and F. gracilis it is presumed that
they are more common than thought (Scott
and Stone 1976; Scott 1985; Meagher and
Fuhrer 2003), but are seldom collected due
to G. Caledonians bearing a strong resem-
blance to some Chiloscyphus species and F.
gracilis having a rather nondescript appear-
ance.
Acknowledgements
I wish to thank Dr Maria Gibson for help in all
aspects of the project. Gemma Williams, Glen
Dudajek, Brian Carrigan, Tahleith Carrigan and
Anna Wakefield were extremely helpful in the
field and I thank them immensely. I also wish to
Fig. 1. Stream Bryophytes in a Victorian Cool Temperate Rainforest.
280
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
thank David Meagher for help in identification.
Lastly, I would like to thank all of the people at
DSE and Parks Victoria who have helped me
find sites in quite remote areas. Collections were
made under DSE permit 10002309.
References
Meagher D and Fuhrer B (2003) A field guide to the
mosses and allied plants of southern Australia. Flora
of Australia Supplementary Series Number 20.
(Australian Biological Resources Study and The
Field Naturalists Club of Victoria: Canberra)
Scott GAM (1985) Southern Australian liverworts.
Australian Flora and Fauna Series Number 2.
(Australian Government Publishing Service:
Canberra)
Scott GAM and Stone 1 ( 1 976) The mosses of southern
Australia. (Academic Press: London)
Chantal Carrigan
Plant Ecology Research Unit
School of Life and Environmental Sciences
Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway
Burwood, Victoria 3125
Fissidens oblongifolius is a moss with leaves that lie in one plane. Species of Fissidens are distin-
guished easily in the field as they have a 'hand-like' appearance. Fissidens oblongifolius is mentioned
in the paper by Dell and Jenkins. Photograph by Matthew Dell.
FruUania falciloba is an epiphytic liverwort commonly found in the canopy of forests. Leaves occur
in three rows. Leaves of the lateral rows consist of a lobe and smaller lobule. FruUania is one of the
genera included in Meagher's key to leafy liverworts. Dell and Jenkins mention the species in their
paper. Photograph by Matthew Dell.
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
281
Bryophyte special issue
Glossary
This glossary defines some of the terms used throughout this issue. Definitions are sim-
plified and based on Malcolm and Malcolm (2000) and Scott and Stone (1976), to which
readers are referred for more detailed definitions.
Acuminate tapering to a long narrow
point.
Alar cells specialized cells at the comers
of moss leaf bases. These are different
from other leaf cells in size, shape,
colour, thickness or wall ornamentation.
Anticlinal perpendicular to the surface.
Antheridium (plural antheridia) male
reproductive organ containing sperm
(antherozooids).
Apiculus (plural apiculi) an abrupt, short
point at a tip or apex.
Archegonium (plural archegonia) flask-
shaped female reproductive organ con-
sisting of an elongated neck and swollen
basal region (the venter) supported on a
stalk. The venter contains an egg.
Bracts modified leaves surrounding the
reproductive organs
Brood bodies any structures that function
as vegetative propagules
Caducous falling off readily, deciduous
Calyptra a membranous or hairy cap
formed from the wall of the archegonium
after fertilization of the egg by a sperm.
It protects the embryonic sporophyte and
aids in control of its development.
Capsule the spore-bearing component of
the sporophyte, i.e. the sporangium, con-
sisting of a sterile base, a fertile spore
case and usually, in mosses, a sterile lid,
the operculum. The capsule is simpler in
liverworts than mosses.
Cilium (plural cilia) a delicate hair or
tooth-like structure at a margin or on a
surface, or alternating with the endos-
tomal teeth.
Conical cone shaped
Costa (plural costae) the thickened
midrib or nerve of a leaf
Cryptogam plants that do not produce
flowers or seeds and have their repro-
ductive parts in what once were consid-
ered hidden structures. Cryptogams
include the mosses, liverworts, horn-
worts, fungi and algae, as well as ferns
and fern-allies.
Dentate having unicellular or multicellu-
lar teeth that are outward facing.
Dorsal said of the upper surface of a
prostrate stem, the outer surface of a
peristome tooth, the lower surface of a
leaf, and the upper surface of a thallose
liverwort or horn wort
Endostome found in many mosses, the
inner peristome, normally arising from
a basal membrane and consisting of seg-
ments alternating with cilia
Epiphragm (plural epiphragmata) a cir-
cular membrane attached to the tips of
the peristome teeth, and partially closing
the capsule mouth after the operculum
has fallen off
Exostome the outer peristome of mosses
consisting of one or more rows of teeth
that usually are split in two towards the
tip.
Fascicles a bundle or cluster of struc-
tures, e.g. leaves, branches, propagules.
Gametophyte the haploid multicellular
gamete producing generation.
Gemma (plural gemmae) a type of vege-
tative propagule composed of only a few
cells.
Hairpoint a hair-like leaf tip in mosses
formed by a costa projecting well
beyond the end of the leaf blade, or by a
protracted tapering of the blade tip.
Hyaline colourless and transparent or
nearly so.
Hygroscopic readily absorbing moisture,
said of moss peristome teeth that bend in
and out in response to humidity.
Marsupium (plural marsupial) a swollen
and elongated pouch-like structure
enclosing the sporophyte.
Obtuse blunt with the sides making an
angle of more than 90°.
Operculum (plural opercula) in mosses,
the lid that covers the capsule mouth; in
liverworts, the apical portion of the spo-
rangium which opens during dehiscence.
Ovate egg-shaped.
Papilla (plural papillae) a local thickening
of the cell wall or a mucilage-secreting
cell in some liverworts.
282
The Victorian Naturalist
Bryophyte special issue
Perichaetium (plural perichaetia) a clus-
ter of bracts surrounding the archegoni-
um and later the base of the seta.
Periclinal parallel orientation to the
surface.
Perigonium (plural perigonia) a cluster
of bracts surrounding the antheridium.
Peristome the ring or rings of teeth inside
the mouth of the capsule.
Pluriverous able to occur on a wide vari-
ety of subtrates.
Polysetous a state in mosses where more
than one sporophyte at the apex of a sin-
gle branch each with its own calyptra.
Protonema (plural protonemata)
branched algal-like filaments or plate-
like growths arising from the spores and
from which erect shoots form.
Recurved curved backward or down-
ward, as in leaves.
Rhomboid of cells, quadrilateral in sur-
face view or nearly so, with the lateral
angles obtuse.
Seta the stalk or structure of the sporo-
phyte carrying the capsule.
Sigmoid relating to cell outlines tht have
a slight s-twist; curved in opposite direc-
tions at the two ends of the cells.
Sporophyte the diploid multicellular
spore producing generation.
Soil crust crust-like covering on the soil
that maintains landscape stability.
Usually comprised of bryophytes,
lichens, algae and fungi.
Spiral arranged in the pattern of a snail
shell or corkscrew
Thallus a plant body formed as a flat
plateor sheet of tissue.
Trabeculae cross bars or projections on
the back of a tooth of the exostome or
the slender support strands that prevent
air-chambers from collapsing in a num-
ber of thalloid liverworts.
Tracheophyte vascular plant.
Venter swollen basal structure of the
archegonium, contains the egg.
Warty having small protuberances
References
Malcolm B and Malcolm N (2000) Mosses and other
bryophytes, an illustrated glossary. (Micro-optics
Press: Nelson, New Zealand)
Scot GAM and Stone IG (1976) The Mosses of
Southern Australia, (Academic Press: New York)
One hundred and fourteen years ago
DESCRIPTION, COLLECTION, AND PRESERVATION OF MOSSES
BY R.A. BASTOW
\..The great natural order of mosses is ever at our side. On almost every wall lop these tiny
plants rear their capsules, holding them aloft to inhale the passing bree/.e or to reap the benefit of
the maturing sun-ray; as we wander through the fields they are under our feet, forming a carpet
far more luxurious than that of any Oriental loom; they are over our heads as we thread our way
through the bush; they throw a gentle mantle over their brethren of larger grow th, and w ho have
succumbed to the stormy blast, that none may mock the dead; they enlighten the storm-beaten
cliff of sombre grey; they glisten on the sides and roof of the cavern; they twirl in the purling
stream; and form a glad luxuriance of humble beauty in niche, on bank, on rock, and every-
where.’
‘COLLECTION OF MOSSES. - In the autumn and winter months the mosses in low-lying
localities will generally be found in their greatest perfection, whilst in the spring and summer
months those growing in more or less mountainous districts are at their best, and it is probable
that Victoria is as highly favoured as any country in the w^orld for its vast profusion of mosses.
Extensive plains, alpine and sub-alpine heights, damp forests, and fern-tree gullies are character-
istic of the colony; there is, therefore, every inducement to make a closer acquaintance with such
delightful forms. A necessary equipment for such excursions consists of a good pocket lens, a
large knife, capacious pockets, a piece of carpet or oilcloth, and some papers cut in squares to
wrap each specimen in.’
From The Victorian Naturalist IX (1892-3), pp. 123-124
Vol. 123 (4) 2006
283
-
The
Victorian
Naturalist
Published by The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria since 1884
From the Editors
In a number of respects, this issue of The Victorian Naturalist can be seen to focus atten-
tion in several directions. In the concluding half of the paper by Mansergh, Anderson and
Amos, the view is clearly to the future; at the same time, the article by Hewish looks at
something from the past. This diversity is continued in the other papers presented here,
with articles on the ecology of particular areas of vegetation, reptiles, and mammals. The
numerous book reviews published here also encompass a wide range of topics of interest
to naturalists.
This diversity of subject matter points to one of the more interesting and, perhaps,
appealing aspects of this journal the practice that has developed over many years, of
publishing papers that focus not only on natural science but also on the history of natural
science, including that of its practitioners. This is not a common feature of many journals
but it is one that has long been a feature of The Victorian Naturalist. Readers may be
comfited to know that this practice will continue indefinitely.
Given the range of material in this issue, the Editors feel certain that readers will find
much to enjoy in the following pages.
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is published six times per year by the
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October
The
Victorian
Naturalist
Volume 123 (5) 2006
Editors: Anne Morton, Gary Presland, Maria Gibson
From the Editors 286
History Victoria’s living natural capital — decline and replenishment
Symposium 1 800-2050 Part 2. The new millennium: replenishment,
by Ian Mansergh, Heather Anderson and Nevil Amos 288
Research Report Ecological review of the Koo-Wce-Rup Swamp
and associated grasslands by Jeff' Yugovic and Sally Mitchell 323
Contributions Historical notes on Charles and Thomas Brittlebank,
pioneer naturalists in the Wcrribec Gorge district,
west of Melbourne, by Marilyn I Jewish 314
New locality records for reptiles, including the
vulnerable Swamp Skink Egernia Coventry i,
in South Gippsland, 200 1 2005, by Peter Iioman 335
Naturalist Notes A record of the Common Dunnart Sminthopsis murina using
artificial habitat, by Peter Homan 317
Book Reviews Butterflies of the Solomon Islands: systematics and
biogeography, by John Tennent, reviewed by Kelvyn L Dunn 319
Climate change:turning up the heat by A Barrie Pittock,
reviewed by Peter Beech 321
Birds of South-eastern Australia ‘Susan Mclnnes
commemorative edition,’ Illustrations by Susan Mclnnes .
revised by Alan Reid, reviewed by Virgil Hubregtse 339
Tasmanian Devil: a Unique and Threatened Animal, by
David Owen and David Pemberton, reviewed by Sarah Bouma ... 341
Spiders of Australia: an introduction to their classification,
biology and distribution, by Trevor J Hawkeswood, reviewed
by Kelvyn L Dunn 342
Rhythms of the Tarkine: a natural history adventure. Book by
Sarah Lloyd; CD by Ron Nagorcka , reviewed by
Virgil Hubregtse 344
The Gilded Canopy. Botanical Ceiling Panels of the Natural
History Museum by Sandra Knapp and Bob Press,
reviewed by Eve Almond 345
Backyard Insects, by Paul Horne and Denis Crawford ,
reviewed by John Wainer 347
Legislation Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 318
ISSN 0042-5184
Front cover: Common Dunnart Sminthopsis murina. Photo by Alicia McCormack. See
article on p 317.
Back cover: Huntsman spider Delena cancerides. Photo by Wendy Clark. See book
review on p 342.
History Symposium
Victoria s living Natural Capital — decline and replenishment
1800-2050
Part 2. The new millennium: replenishment
Ian Mansergh, Heather Anderson and Nevil Amos
Department of Sustainability and Environment
PO Box 500, East Melbourne 3002, Victoria
Abstract
Colonial and post-colonial views of 'europeanising' the landscape have evolved to a new sense of
place which embraces native biodiversity. Victoria's economy has diversified and new drivers of
change ill land use not based on the primacy of intensive agricultural production, are apparent
across large areas of Victoria. Past science and technology (agronomy and engineering) is being
challenged by emerging sciences, and new concepts such as ecosystem services can be combined to
replenish the natural capital. The inevitability of global warming and the necessity to maximise the
capacity of our biodiversity to adapt will be important drivers. Replenishment will happen through
changing community values; the availability of adequate space and habitat; and the increase in perti-
nent and applied knowledge. {The Victorian Naturalist 123 (5), 2006, 288-313)
Introduction
A history of land use and environmental
effects (pre-1800 to present) was presented
in Mansergh et al. (2006)1. Over the last 30
years, a range of factors have deepened our
understanding of the ways we have man-
aged land and water use. These include the
progressive appreciation of our climate, the
uniqueness of our natural capital (and its
decline), a diversifying economy based less
on agricultural production, and our afflu-
ence. In addition to such factors, emergent
global imperatives, a new sense of place,
new knowledge and tools, and opportunities
provided by socio-economic trends, will
affect the trajectories of land use changes. It
is by getting the right mix of these factors
working in the direction of improved biodi-
versity conservation, that Victoria’s natural
capital will achieve some replenishment.
Although .some problems remain intractable,
there is reason for hope because many posi-
tive trends are already evident. Much pur-
poseful work remains to be done. As we
envisage landscapes inherited by the next
generations it is useful to reflect upon the
positive changes over the last generation
(see Box 1 ).
Of necessity , the general large-scale view
of Victoria’s environment (landscape,
ecosystem, modelling etc.) offered in this
paper does not detail the particular (i.e.
individual species). However, increasing
understanding of the particular is a vital
component of ecology. Before examining
socio-economic trends and new develop-
ments in science it is important to examine
changes in the underlying value society
places on indigenous natural capital and
landscapes. It is the ‘sense of place’ that
determines the context in which these and
other drivers operate and evolve.
Sense of place
In contrast to a history of ‘europeanising’
the landscape (Part 1) our ‘sense of place’
is increasingly based on the natural envi-
ronments, with value placed on the assets
bequeathed to future generations. Christian
views of ‘nature’ held by pioneers (Part 1)
were challenged by Roberts (1986) who
suggested a Christian Land Stewardship
Ethic for Australia. Twenty years later, an
international body of the Anglican Church
‘declared the wilful destruction of the
environment to be a sin’ (Sydney Morning
Herald , 2 July 2005, p 8; Falvey 2005).
Tangible expressions of such evolution in
community values include the dramatic
increase in the area of the reserve system,
and >130 000 ha of conserved habitat on
private land (Part 1 Fig. 6). Native flora
and fauna are integral to this new sense of
place. Ethics of increased respect and
recognition of existence rights for native
species have replaced acclimatisation, con-
sumption and destruction. This can be seen
in legislation (quarantine regulations, Flora
288
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
Fig. 1. Socio-economic trajectories of landscapes of Victoria - amenity, transitional and production.
Public land is shown as white (Source: Barr 2005).
Box 1
In 1970 who would have thought:
• the LCC would be initiated and the conservation estate would subsequently rise from 1.2% in
1975 to 17% in 2005, including a series of marine parks (5% of the marine area);
• the campaigns to preserve Lake Pedder (1970s) and the Franklin River (early 1980s) would
become national issues;
• in 1987, the Brundtland Commission would promote the concepts of ecologically sustainable
development and intergenerational equity). In 20 years, the world community would produce an
‘Earth Summit’ and produce a Convention on the Conservation of Biodiversity — having a more
rapid take up of signatory nations of than any prior Convention;
• El Nino - La Nina would be found to be a major climatic driver bringing periodic droughts, and
science would be much clearer on greenhouse global warming and its effects (IPCC 2001a,
2001b). [we use global warming rather than climate change as this more accurately reflects the
phenomena];
• Victoria’s sheep flock would shrink from 35 million in 1970 to 21.3 million in 2002 (ABS 2002).
• the High Court, in the 1992 Mabo case, would determine that Australia was not terra nullius
when European settlers arrived;
•the water catchments of Melbourne would be conservatively valued at
$0.5 - 1 billion (Young 2003);
• commitments to restore an environmental flow to Snowy River would be made;
• cattle grazing would be removed from the Alpine National Park in 2005-6;
• it would become possible to use a computer at home or work to view a high-resolution satellite
image of any place on the globe, (http://worldwind.arc.nasa.gov/; http://earth.google.com/).
and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988), policies
(e.g. national ban on whaling) and on-
going community debates over issues such
as old growth forest, duck hunting, river
health, native vegetation and biodiversity.
We do not suggest that attitudes to biodi-
versity and this new sense of place are uni-
versally held, but they are certainly held by
both urban and rural Victorians, as shown
by the success of Land For Wildlife (5500
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
289
H istory Symposi urn
properties), Landcare (900 groups) and
Coastcare (20 000 volunteers) (DSE
2005a). Volunteers alone contributed
working hours to the value of SI 80 million
in 2001 to selected natural resource man-
agement programs (DSE 2005a). This does
not include the work of community-based
organisations such as Field Naturalists
Club of Victoria (FNCV), Victorian
National Parks Association (VNPA), Taist
for Nature (TfN) etc.
The High Court Mabo decision of 1992
showed that a fundamental premise of
European settlement ( terra null ins) was
erroneous'. This prompts, if not necessi-
tates, a new and more inclusive paradigm
than the one that had underpinned treatment
of the land, its people and their knowledge.
Re-evaluations arc already occurring, with
works such as Lie of the Land (Carter 1 996)
and This Whisper in Our Hearts (Reynolds
1998). In Sunshine or in Shadow provides
an excellent example of how Victorian
Koori elders and experiences influence the
appreciation of the European past and world
view of the present and future (Flanagan
2002). A new ‘sense of place1 and ‘treat-
ment of place’ have replaced colonial views
where the natural environment was unlimit-
ed. William Deane, former Governor-
General, believes we must open ourselves
to this land and ‘live in harmony and recon-
ciliation with the land and its original inhab-
itants’ (quoted in McKernan 2005). Our
shared home is here, without dreaming of,
or recreating, Devon (see Part 1 ).
Whilst the ‘greenhouse debate1 compels
a global view on climate, Australians now
realise that we live on the driest inhabited
continent on earth. Historically droughts
(and our responses) have had major effects
on Victorians, and lessons of land and
water use have been slowly learnt (Keating
1992; McKernan 2005). ‘Drought denial’
and ‘drought proofing’ are being replaced
by an appreciation of water as a limiting
factor of the environment. In 1983, the
year the last major dam was finished (Part
1), dust storms brought the Tnallee’ to
Melbourne as a result of inappropriate land
use, soil erosion and drought (Keating
1992). Drought preparedness is now recog-
nised as an economic message to adopt
appropriate land use (Productivity
Commission 2004). Further, as knowledge
of the ‘El Nino’ phenomenon and drought
prediction increases, ‘exceptional circum-
stances’ prompting drought relief should
be less frequent and ethical questions as to
magnitude of ‘foreseeable1 stock death
from starvation and thirst could be
addressed (McKernan 2005). Future avail-
ability of water and allocations for people
and the environment have become major
national issues (Wentworth Group 2003),
with the Murray and Snowy River debates
related to water, rivers and land use (Miller
2005; Close 1990). Global warming is
likely to exacerbate water availability as a
societal imperative (Howe et al 2005;
Pittock 2003) and our sense of place will
condition adaptation and future land use.
Changing drivers of land use change in
agricultural areas
Policies
From the viewpoint of the values that
drove it, the consumption of natural capital
to gain wealth from forestry, mining and
agriculture has been successful. It has
helped make us affluent, urbanised and
well fed. It also has led to the develop-
ment of a capital base for broader develop-
ment (e.g. manufacturing, services).
However, the relative economic impor-
tance of agriculture has declined.
Australian agriculture is most profitable
over a relatively small percentage of the
area allocated to it5, and has left a legacy of
natural resource degradation problems and
over-allocation (NLWRA 2002). Over the
past 20 years, governments have initiated,
with varying success, a multitude of pro-
grams and strategies to address the decline
in parts of the natural capital, for example
One Billion Trees, Natural Heritage Trust
(NHT). In the case of NHT,Viblic
financial capital accumulated over genera-
tions (Telstra) was used in an attempt to
restore components of natural capital,
including biodiversity (http://www.nht.
gov.au/index.html). The point here is not
success or otherwise of these initial pro-
grams, but the national change to valuing
and endeavouring to restore natural capital.
A series of ‘policy visions1 directly relat-
ed to Victoria’s future natural capital have
been published (see www.dse.vic.gov.au).
These include: Victoria's Biodiversity
(Government of Victoria 1997) ‘net gain in
290
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
Table 1 Land use and native vegetation in Victoria, the past and future scenarios.
Period
Direction
%of
Victoria
Source
1899-1974
Permanent clearing of tree cover
@ 1050 km’ p.a.
60%
Gilbee 1999
1975-2005
Permanent clearing of tree cover
@>70 km2 p.a.
1-2%
Woodgate and Black
NRE 2002
1989; Gilbee 1999;
2006
Victorian Planning Provisions
- zone Groups
Total
Business, residential, industrial,
special purpose
1.86%
Victorian Planning Provisions
Commonwealth land
0.24%
Environmental
1.50%
Green wedge
1.35%
Public land
33.88%
Rural \ Fanning
61.17%
Grand Total
100.00%
Future trends
Amenity landscapes
c.25% of agricultural land
Transitional landscapes
15%
Barr 2005
c.32% of agricultural landscapes
20%
early 2000s
Production and irrigation
c.44% of agricultural landscapes
‘net gain in the extent and condition
c. 30%
of native vegetation’
Statewide
NRE 1997
by 2015
Re vegetation of recharge zones (40-60%)
NRE 2000
by 2020
Agricultural production uses
30% less land
c. 18%
Kefford 2002; ORL 2002
Mosaic landscape accommodates
a 40% coverage of native vegetation
Revegetation along rivers and streams
*
VCMC 2002
(90%), health of remnants, revegetation
and biolinks
NRE 1997; VCMC 2002
* Of Victoria’s 10 CM As, the following have less than 40% native vegetation coverage: North
Central 12%, Wiminera 16%, Glenelg Hopkins 20%, Corangamite 23%, Port Phillip and
Westemport 29%, Goulburn Broken 30% and Mallee 34%. Currently Victoria has 36% native vege-
tation coverage. (Source: DSE GIS corporate library 2006)
condition and extent of native vegetation';
in 2020 agricultural production will require
‘30% less land and 20% less water’
(Kefford 2002; ORL 2002); ‘the mosaic
landscape accommodates 40% native veg-
etation coverage’ in catchments in 2020
(Victorian Catchment Management
Council (VCMC 2002); and the statewide
salinity plan (NRE 2000) seeking ‘40 to
60 percent’ of ‘critical recharge areas
revegetated by 2015’. These visions, per-
haps cognisant of socio-economic drivers,
have quantified some areas available for
replenishment.
Socio-economic
The agricultural sector and its landscapes
are changing. In the colourful but insight-
ful words of Barr (2005), traditional farm-
ers face several new realities: ‘Get big or
get out’ and ‘There’s only so much more a
consumer can eat’. The mean age of farm-
ers is increasing (Barr 2005), populations
in parts of rural Victoria are predicted to
decline by 2020 (DOI 1996), and in other
parts the land value exceeds its value for
agricultural products (Part 1 Fig. 15).
These economic and demographic trends
indicate that changes in land ownership
and land use patterns can be envisaged in
the next years. Through extensive analysis
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
291
History Symposium
Fig. 2. Two scenes visualising scenarios for red gum forest and surrounding landscapes along the
Murray near Cobram. Tree positions and heights are based on laser altimetry data. (Courtesy Alex
Lau, DSE).
of current trends. Barr (2005) concluded
that the future trajectory of Victorian rural
landscapes can be differentiated into zones
of rural amenity, rural transitional, agricul-
tural production and irrigation (Fig. 1). In
the first two (55%), intensification for
commodity production will have a lessen-
ing effect, and new landscapes will evolve.
Analysis of Land for Wildlife (LFW) data
(number of properties, area of habitat by
292
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
Fig. 3. Visualising future landscapes: virtual reality of Mt Buller showing (upper) ‘actual’ view
reconstructed from laser altimetry and other data showing existing forest; (lower) a view with forests
converted to farmland, a further scenario not recommended. (Courtesy Alex Lau, DSE).
zone) strongly support this analysis. Rural
amenity zones cover c.23% of private land,
yet have 58% of LFW properties and 33%
of habitat area. Production zones (c.45% of
private land) have 13% of LFW properties
and 18% of habitat (A^=4608. 6 p<.001).
Rural amenity and transitional land-
scapes
The percentage of ‘agricultural - private
land’ in rural amenity zones and the rural
transitional zones is substantial (c. 55%)
and approximates the current area of public
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
293
History Symposium
Box 2
Landscape preferencing (modelling)*
A new area of endeavour is landscape preferencing, which combines technology (G1S, computers)
with ecological knowledge (Wilson ct at. 2005). Functioning models now exist (and will doubtless be
improved) in which priority is given to restoration, improving patch size and connectivity. Ecological
algorithms such as home range, forage range, serai stage, habitat condition and resilience can be
added to incorporate and maximise conservation outcomes at any scale.
Habitat reconstruction and revegetation in the existing and future landscape can now be purpose-
fully designed, using transparent assumptions. Careful consideration can be given not only to the
proportion of the landscape, but also the specific parts of the landscape that are required and are
most resilient. Restoration of the natural capital can be optimised, for itself, or in concert with a
range of other socio-economic variables where trade-offs can be made. Victorian models and
experiments are already looking at optimising a range of outcomes (e.g. salinity, water quality, bio-
diversity outcomes) for public investment (DSF and DPI 2005).
Victoria needs to achieve landscape results that do not unconsciously and adversely affect other
natural capital (e.g. plantations or revegetation affecting water flows and budgets). Areas that
become available (e.g. retirement from agriculture) might not be an optimum use, nor even a mod-
erately efficient use, in landscape restoration for biodiversity conservation. Wise use of preferenc-
ing models and planning is essential.
* Spatially explicit models for prioritising landscape restoration (biodiversity perspective)
land (Fig. 1). Replenishment of natural
capital in 25% of the area of these zones
provides an equivalent to half the area of
the current reserve system. Apart from the
extent of these zones their position is
important for adaptation to global wanning
(see Global warming - page 304).
For rural amenity zones, Barr (2005)
concluded that
the bright future depends on the protection
of the amenity features and landscapes that
attract migrants. The management of public
lands and planning schemes that embrace
amenity values will be crucial for the future,
lest the migrants it attracts help destroy the
very features that draw them ...
(our emphasis). For rural transitional land-
scapes, he found that ‘aspirations varied
from niche production to bush renovation’.
Current biodiversity assets are a crucial
part of the amenity of these landscapes,
and their enhancement will increase
amenity value. Natural revegetation of
recharge areas increases amenity whilst
resource degradation (e.g. salinisation)
lowers amenity and other values (NRE
2000). Further, some ecological resilience
(e.g. potential for natural regeneration of
native tree cover) persists, but the window
of opportunity for this restoration regener-
ation is limited (Dorrough and Moxham
2005). It appears that ‘space’ and capacity
is becoming available for the restoration of
natural capital in pails of these zones.
Production and irrigated landscapes
In the production and irrigation landscapes
of the future, further industrialisation of
294
agriculture can be expected (high capital,
energy and external inputs, concentration
of production, specialisation and tendency
to monoculture; for examples see Part 1
Fig. 13 ). If inappropriately managed, this
will take its toll on localised and regional
natural capital. However, there is an emerg-
ing community trend for ecologically sus-
tainable rural industries (House of
Representatives Standing Committee on
Environment and Heritage 2001; ORE
2002). Consumer and industry awareness,
along with the potential for a clearer
definition of ‘duty of care’, of landholders
Present
habitats
Modified
habitats
CO i
i V— |
! CT)1
, A variability
\ (Landusc) //
Eatncbon vofUrt
<pttrwv««ao d
SOT*** MMI
Natural or landuse
discontinuity
BiOhnks
(MTCMB otbc jnd
drtrrofy y habJUO
Future
habitats
? _
Fig. 4. Idealised view of population bottlenecks
under changing distribution of habitat.
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
Box 3
An Emerging biolink?
Some of the above themes can be demonstrated in an area west of Benalla (North central Central
Victoria) which was originally part of the inland grassy woodlands, an ecosystem and related biota now
threatened (Robinson and Traill 1996; l ord et al. 2001). This area is within an amenity landscape and a
biolink zone (Fig. I ; Fig. 5) and parts are emerging from the binary production / other landscapes of the
past. Of the > 6,000 dryland fanning properties in the Goulburn Broken catchment 84% are classified
as sub-economic (< 250 ha) (Goulburn Broken Catchment and Land Protection Board 1997) and
almost all of the catchment is zoned rural.
The area around Lpotipotpon was originally cleared for sheep and intensive grazing (alienated in late
19"’ century) and pastures were improved during the wool boom (Fig. 6). Tree cover within a 10 km
radius (320 km2) has been reduced to about 7.5% and now persists in small blocks (< 50 ha) and road-
sides (Fig. 6; Fig. 7). Over the last decade, a series of corridors to augment roadside woodland vegeta-
tion for the threatened Grey-crowned Babbler Pomatostomus temporalis have been established (> 30
kin concentrated around Benalla - Violet Town). A 128 ha former sheep property (Fig. 6; Fig. 7) has
been part of that network and approximately 7 years after fencing planting / a new serai stage and
additional micro habitats have been created. Initially the reservoir tree cover on the property was about
45% but the current owners, mainly through natural regeneration are increasing this to 85% (Kate
Stothers and Lance Williams 2006 pers. comm.). Over 137 native fauna species have been recorded on
the property (Appendix I), including the Yellow- looted Antechinus Aruechinus flavipes. Of the bird
species, 13 % are regarded as threatened woodland taxa (Appendix I ) and the increase in habitat should
benefit a range of species (Radford et al. 2004, 2005). This property will be a connected node with
additional micro habitats and serai stages developing over the decades, some of which will be available
to incoming species. As part of a revolving fund (purchase, convenant, resale) TfN has purchased a 146
ha property in close proximity (D. Robinson, pers. comm. August 2006),
Such activities across the biolink zone provide habitat and living space: for biota; native vegetation
regeneration; and, potential colonisation of species in response to changing climate. Naturally regener-
ating eucalypt will be selected to survive in a climate 0.7°C wanner than their centruy-old parents.
Fig. 5. Greenhouse refugia and Biolinks. (Modified from DCE 1992; Brereton et al. 1995)
(Raff 2004), should ameliorate environ-
mentally adverse effects.
Markets for products influence produc-
tion. Consumer demand promotes mecha-
nisms that ensure quality standards (e.g.
pesticide residues, GM-frce food) leading
to the development of accreditation and
quality control mechanisms (e.g.
Environmental Management Systems
(EMS))T
Anderson et al. (2001 ) demonstrated how
biodiversity can be incorporated into an
EMS at the farm scale, and this is being
investigated at the national level (NRMMC
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
295
History Symposium
A
Fig. 6. Aerial photographs of property at Upotipotpon (west of Benalla); (upper) 1941: predominant-
ly cleared; native tree cover remnants and public roadsides, clearing (across drainage lines) and non
ploughing of paddocks, predominantly native pasture; (lower) 1971: peak of area under sheep in
Victoria - pasture 'improved', farm dams, less trees, recent clearing and windrowed trees (x). Point A
is the same as in Fig. 7. (Photos courtesy DSE Benalla).
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The Victorian Naturalist
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Fig. 7. An emerging biolink - aerial photograph (1995) of property at Upotipotpon, Victorian
distribution of Grey-crowned Babbler habitat and on-ground corridor. Point A is the same as in Fig.
6. (Aerial photo/map DSE; landscape photograph - Kate Stothers).
2002). Some agricultural groups arc pro-
moting improved biodiversity outcomes as
an active part of their enterprises within a
landscape approach (e.g. Birchip Cropping
Group, www.bcg.org.au).
Loss of vegetation through the intensifi-
cation of agriculture is visually obvious at
the site level (Part 1 Fig. 4, Fig. 13). Other
ramifications also have depleted natural
capital both on- and off-site. Excess phos-
phorus and nitrogen changes soil chemistry
on site and contributes to off-site eutrophi-
cation of rivers and wetlands, the biota and
function of which are already stressed, past
erosion effects 10 000 km of w aterways in
the Murray Darling Basin (Koehn and
O’Connor 1990; NLWRA 2001). Nutrient
management (soils and water), is a critical
concern of Australian agriculture, and
externalities (soils and rivers) must be
addressed to reach emerging community
standards of ecological sustainability5.
Acidification degrades our soils at an
economic cost estimated in 2000 to be
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History Symposi urn
> SI billion, >5 times that of lost agricul-
tural production from salinity (Goldie and
Furnass 2005).
Private and public land dichotomy
The vast majority of Victoria’s private
land was historically alienated (66%) and
cleared (62%) for agricultural production
with the conservation reserve system
essentially arising from what remained
(Part I Fig. 6), and a range of private ver-
sus licenses on public land. The starkness
of this dichotomy is changing (Mansergh
and Anderson 2006). Rights and responsi-
bilities of property ownership change over
time, as does government allocation of
property rights (Part 1; Bromley 1991;
Raff 1998, 2004). Industry’s ‘licence to
operate’ changes and is qualified over
time. Examples include: pollution controls;
cessation of alpine grazing; scallop dredg-
ing in Port Phillip Bay and logging in the
Otways. Local government planning
schemes, through democratic processes
reflecting community values, are able to
plan land use zones and development and
protection overlays, e.g. environmental
significance. The large area of the rural
zone (Table 1) reflects past land use.
Current and emergent trends are provided
in (Pail 1 Fig. 15), (Fig. 2).
The area of private land managed for
conservation is increasing (Part 1). In
1997, Birds Australia (formerly the
RAOU) directly purchased ‘Gluepot’ sta-
tion in South Australia through community
and business donations, and implemented
the idea of conservation organisations
owning and managing large and strategi-
cally important properties. Trust for Nature
purchased Ned’s Comer, the largest single
property in Victoria (29 800 ha). More
recently. Bush Heritage also purchased
properties for conservation. In a study of
conservation on the private estate
Fitzsimmons (2004) concluded that multi-
tenure reserve networks can make a contri-
bution to biodiversity conservation:
...The high level of enthusiasm from private
landowners to participate in a national
reserve system provides an important stimu-
lus to strengthen the co-ordination of activi-
ties between public and private conservation
lands at a national level.
Public land
Public land remains after the primary
alienation (allocation) of the Crown to pri-
vate property (Part 1, Table 1). Over the
last 30 years there has been a trend toward
the allocation of uses and management of
broad areas of public land (predominantly
parks and forests in the terrestrial land-
scapes) toward more conservation-orientat-
ed uses (Part 1 ). The development of man-
agement planning and codes of practice
complement this allocation. Recent deci-
sions suggest that this trend will continue.
Examples include creation of marine
parks, cessation of logging in the Otways
(in 2008) and removal of cattle grazing
from the Alpine National Park. Some com-
modities traditionally harvested from the
public estate are increasingly being
produced privately, e.g. forest products
(Part 1) and emerging aquaculture. Some
landscape-scale threatening processes arc
being addressed. Examples include:
removal of scallop dredging in Port Phillip
Bay; lessening grazing pressure (rabbits
and kangaroos) and regeneration of vegeta-
tion communities (Hattah Lakes National
Park); fox predation (Southern Ark East
Gippsland) and fire regimes (Fire Ecology
Working Group 2004, see below). The
extent and condition of native vegetation
in the public estate will be a key environ-
mental attribute in future.
Outside these broad-acre areas, the public
estate includes vital areas for biodiversity
for linkages, reservoirs of genetic diversity
and critical resources (e.g. tree hollows,
see below). Such areas include: road and
rail easements (including unused); stream-
side and coastal reserves; and smaller
reserves (e.g. Flora and Fauna, cemeter-
ies). Apart from their intrinsic value, the
broad ecological significance of these
areas is that some traverse landscapes and
thus conserve reservoirs (even if depleted)
from a cross section of the original vegeta-
tion. Combined, the area of these is sub-
stantial, e.g. roadsides support an equiva-
lent area three times that of Wilsons
Promontory National Parks. In many land-
scapes a high proportion of existing mature
trees, which are vital ecological attributes
(see below) survive on roadsides (Matt
White, DSE pers. comm.). VicRoads
(2002) has developed a roadside conserva-
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The Victorian Naturalist
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tion strategy, the CMAs and local govern-
ments have developed codes and manage-
ment manuals to protect and manage
native vegetation on the roadsides. Many
of these features arc critical to the increas-
ing value, landscape amenity, and the
appropriate management is required and is
evolving. Crown river frontages are a sig-
nificant part of the public estate that has
been grossly degraded (Part 1). Willows
are no longer planted and are now actively
eradicated, and between 2002 and 2005
> 1457 km existing riparian vegetation has
been fenced, protecting an estimated 5835
ha of riparian vegetation with > 0.5 million
native plants established to enhance ripari-
an zones. Bank stabilisation works have
been undertaken along 80 kms (Rod
Taylor, DSE pers.comm.). The Mallee
CM A (undated) has Frontage Action Plans
for 733 km of Murray River frontage.
However, to attain a 90% restoration of
riparian vegetation by 2020 (NRE 1997)
much work needs to be done across
Victoria.
Systematic knowledge of the ecological
condition of the estate and thus key manage-
ment priorities for restoration (see
metric below) are critical and will assist in
quantifying the value of the natural capital
for the ecosystems services public lands pro-
vide. New and increased pressures (e.g. vari-
ous recreation pursuits) will require appro-
priate management. However, trends already
evident should lead to replenishment of the
natural capital over the next decades.
Changing economic value
B iodi versify assets
Biodiversity assets were initially protected
for their novelty or intrinsic worth but many
of Victoria’s natural assets have increasing
economic value, as the following two exam-
ples show. Firstly, the Fairy Penguin
( Eudyptulci minor) Parade at Phillip Island,
an important tourist site bringing economic
wealth to regional Victoria, could have been
destroyed by trampling in the 1960s. To be
maintained, knowledge and protection of
the penguins’ feeding grounds is required,
thus affecting management beyond Phillip
Island. Secondly, since the 1880s, various
catchments have been closed to protect
Melbourne’s water supply and now sup-
port old growth forests (e.g. Mountain Ash
Eucalyptus regnans). A treatment plant
following loss of the forests capacity to
produce high quality water would cost $
0.5-1 billion (Young 2003). This figure
does not include the loss of a quantity of
water to regrowth forests which consumes
much more water in transpiration than the
mature forest (O’Shaughnessy and
Jayasuriya 1987).
Ecosystem services
In contrast to the intrinsic, ethical or
scientific value, living natural capital is
being increasingly valued for the utilitarian
‘ecosystem services’ it provides (World
Commission on Environment and
Development 1987; Daily 1997; Cork
2001). Such services include water quality
and quantity, soil fertility and stability, pol-
lination, pest and salinity control, and
amenity. Important environmental initia-
tives in Victoria’s history such as the Soil
Conservation Authority (1940s),
Environment Protection Authority (1970s),
and Land Conservation Council (1980s) can
be seen as early attempts to protect aspects
of ecosystem services. However, historical-
ly the contribution of these services to well-
being and the economy was not costed into
production (‘free’ and limitless). Valuing
ecosystem services is a way to include the
costs of degradation of the assets and eco-
logical functions into the economy. A clas-
sic example of the value of ecosystem ser-
vices comes from the American state of
New York, where it was found to be signifi-
cantly cheaper and better to buy and restore
catchments than to build an ‘engineering’
solution to water quality issues (Cork and
Shelton 2000). Reconstituted surrogates for
natural wetlands arc examples in which nat-
ural processes may be cheaper and have
broader benefits than purely engineering
solutions. Our increased understanding of
salinity at the landscape scale shows how
past clearing of recharge areas has adverse-
ly effected discharge areas (NRE 2000).
Revegetation of recharge areas provides
ecosystem services elsewhere in the land-
scape whilst it may initially consume more
water.
Native biodiversity is a fundamental
ecosystem service, as well as the source
from which some others are derived. In
practical application (e.g. payments and
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History Symposium
Fig. 8. Land use decisions which we make now will determine future landscapes. Satellite images of
Victoria’s past, present, and future scenarios. Future scenarios are: continuation of past 30 year trend of
depletion (lower left), catchments with 40% mosaic coverage of native vegetation (lower right) and
revegetation of biolink areas (5% in production, 10% in transitional and 20% in amenity zones, see text).
transfers) it is important to take a balanced
and holistic view to ensure that sites ‘pro-
viding’ some ecosystem services are not
also contributing to on-going dis-services
to other elements (e.g. fertiliser leakage).
Exotic species may also provide some
ecosystem services; however. Victoria has
numerous examples of exotic species that
rapidly provided ‘ecosystem dis-services’
(rabbits, blackberries, willows, Phalaris) at
great environmental and economic cost. As
a concept, ecosystem service provides new
perspectives and opportunities for biodi-
versity conservation as the ‘stocks and
flows’ of environmental assets would be
quantified. Ecosystem services must be
quantifiable and thus the extent and condi-
tion of the natural assets (and their contri-
bution to services) measurable.
Existing and emerging science and
technology
En vironmental metrics
‘Habitat hectares’ provides a method for
measuring (a metric) the condition of
native vegetation, including fragmentation
status, based on variance from a bench-
mark (Parkes ei al. 2003; also see Part 1
Fig. 4). (Ecological Vegetation Class
(EVC) benchmarks by bioregion, and
benchmarks for wetlands, are available at
www.dse.vic.gov.au.) This metric allows a
robust ecological measure of the condition
of native vegetation and, by inference,
what management actions are needed for
improvement or offsets (NRE 2002). The
same logic is being used in metrics for
wetlands, and improvements to the Index
of Stream Condition (Ladson et al. 1999;
DSE 2005b).
Vegetation condition throughout Victoria
is being mapped and modelled using this
metric (ARIER et al. 2004; David Parkes
2005 pers. comm.). This will allow vegeta-
tion condition and its improvement to be
related to other ecosystem attributes and
services, e.g. water quality and quantity.
Appropriate environmental metrics pro-
vides for better accounting and investment
(from national to local scale) and a means
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for incorporating biodiversity and other
elements into the economic and land use
decision making. The first national attempt
by Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS
2002) at ‘Triple bottom line’ (economic,
social, environmental) reporting indicated
the need for environmental metrics. The
power of metrics and thresholds in public
debate is discussed below (Miller 2005).
Knowledge base — species and landscape
Both the science and questions asked of
science are reflected in The Victorian
Naturalist (Watkins 1984; Archer 2005)
and a few themes relevant to Victoria will
be discussed here from this broad field.
Knowledge of species and genetics has
expanded exponentially, assisted by the
legislative focus of the Victorian Flora
and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 and the
national Environment Protection and
Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. The
pace of change may not be as fast as some
would like, but the trend is impressive. The
expanded knowledge base erodes one of
the fundamental drivers- of past degrada-
tion — ignorance. It has taken generations
to appreciate droughts as an environmental
feature (Keating 1992; McKcrnan 2005;
see Box 1) as early settlers had no
meteorological records and did not avail
themselves of Koori knowledge.
Ecological studies following the 2003
alpine fires (summarised in DSE 2005c)
indicate that opportunities are now taken to
expand our knowledge base following sig-
nificant environmental events (cf. 1939
and 1983 fires).
Beyond studies of specific species, the
rise of landscape ecology and restoration
ecology as disciplines is significant
(Archer 2005), as this allows issues and
processes to be viewed at an appropriate
scale for landscape change, restoration and
conservation (Templeton et al. 2004).
Important ecological issues can be scientif-
ically identified and investigated; these
include connectivity (Soule et al. 2004)
and ecological thresholds (Huggett 2005;
Lindenmayer et al. 2005; Lindenmayer
and Luck 2005; Radford et al. 2004,
2005). There is a trend from describing
problems (e.g. ‘fragmentation’) to formu-
lating solutions; for example, Radford et
al. (2004) asked, ‘How much habitat is
enough?’ This knowledge can be integrat-
ed with other disciplines at the landscape
level to achieve a more holistic view of
future desirable landscapes. Importantly
these questions of science are qualitively
different from the engineering (civil,
water) and agronomy issues that dominat-
ed landscape change in the 20lh century
(Funtowicz 1991 ).
There still remain large neglected areas
of investigation, some of which are critical
to ecological processes. Soil biodiversity
and invertebrates (which in combination
support the majority of terrestrial species)
and, perhaps the related and emerging
understanding of resilience (Dorrough and
Moxhatu 2005; Dorrough et al. 2006)
stand out as major gaps. The FNCV and
The Victorian Naturalist have an important
role in some of these areas, for example
the study of fungi (May 2005).
Remote sensing and computers
Remote sensing (satellite imagery and
laser altimetry), geographic information
systems and related computer modelling
allow more sophisticated and accurate
monitoring of our living natural capital at a
variety of scales (Graetz et al. 1993;
Gilbee 1999). Recent advances in remote
sensing technology, especially the combi-
nation of laser scanning and high-resolu-
tion multi-spectral images, open new pos-
sibilities in capturing, monitoring and
modelling changes in landscapes. Laser
scanning makes it possible to map terrain
under tree canopies with an accuracy pre-
viously unattainable (Hyyppa et al. 2001).
Laser altimetry also can be used to define
individual tree height, crown shape and
trunk location (Lim et al. 2001; Pyysalo
and Hyyppa 2002; Watt et al. 2003).
These novel techniques enable us to visu-
alise the structure of a forest in three
dimensions (Fig. 2). Repeating these mea-
surements over time enables us to model
spatial growth of a tree, a stand or a land-
scape. This could eventually underpin
multi-scale landscape planning, allowing
us to sec future ‘virtual landscapes’ under
various management regimes (Lau et al.
2001; Fig. 3). These techniques could
allow us to model the appearance and
function of future landscapes that will be
the result of our conscious management
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H istory Symposi am
decisions, and could therefore inform and
drive debate about implications of the
choices made. Remote sensing and spatial
modelling also can be used to assess frag-
mentation status (Ferwerda 2003) and,
most significantly, vegetation condition as
shown by ARILR et al. (2004) in model-
ling and mapping parts of northern
Victoria. This will be completed statewide
in 2008 (Matt White. DSE pers. comm.).
New programs
Although in their infancy, new biodiver-
sity enhancement programs are combining
economic and ecological theory to invest
in ecological improvements. Through
information exchange between landholders
and governments, programs such as
BushTendcr have sought to create a market
for improvement in native vegetation while
obtaining the best price for the service
(BushTendcr, on DSE web site). The habi-
tat hectare assessment, referred to above,
has been critical for such programs. The
model has nurtured several hybrids, such
as PlainsTender (Western Basalt Plains
grasslands) and Carbon fender (carbon
credits for restoration of native vegetation,
‘storing carbon' at sites that will assist bio-
diversity to adapt to global warming). This
concept has recently been combined with
other environmental outcomes to provide
multiple-benefit results [EcoTcnder (DSE
and DPI 2005)].
In future the scope of such auction-based
tools and associated metrics could provide
an alternative income stream for novel
management practices, while allowing
scarce funds to be directed to areas that
will produce the greatest environmental
benefits. What is common and important in
all these programs is the ability to quantify
environmental gains that should result
from changes to site management.
Investment is made on improved function-
ing of assets rather than activity. Such pro-
grams improve ecological outcomes, trans-
parency and landholder satisfaction.
Ecological resilience
Resilience is the capacity to recover from
disturbance. The capacity for natural
regeneration of vegetation at a site is relat-
ed to the history of land use and manage-
ment (e.g. time since clearing, cropping.
fertiliser regime and proximity to remain-
ing vegetation). Natural regeneration is
probably the most cost-effective mecha-
nism for replenishment and realisation of
the resilience (Greening Australia 2003). A
survey in grazing properties in central
Victoria (Dorrough and Moxham 2005)
found that
under current patterns of tree cover (2.7%),
40% of the total area has high probability of
supporting natural regeneration in the
absence of livestock grazing ... reduced to
18% ... if no action is taken in next 30 years
Such research work is of vital importance
for the insights into both ecosystem
resilience and the ‘natural' window of
opportunity within which the community
can promote cost-effective land use and
management change. Conversely, the
restoration of landscapes with little natural
resilience (high resistance) would require
additional resources and may prove futile
in the end. Availability of genetic capacity
(e.g. seeds) is important. However, it is
probable that the health / resilience of soils
will be a fundamental functional constraint
resistance due to compaction, chemistry
and most importantly biological activity
(sec Part 1 Fig. 4: Dorrough et al. 2006).
The depletion of mature forest (and trees)
has been a feature of our historic land use
(Part I). Tree hollows occur in older age
trees (> 100-150 years) and are critical for
persistence and resilience of many species
(Vesk and McNally 2006). Bat species rep-
resent > 25% of Australia’s mammalian
fauna and are important for pollination,
seed dispersal and predation of inverte-
brates. Verpcrtilionid bats are the domi-
nant group in South-eastern Australia
where no bat species is yet known to have
become extinct (Lumsden and Bennett
2000). In fragmented woodland and forest
environments bats utilise paddocks with
scattered trees and appear to have a higher
capacity to persist (Lumsden and Bennett
2000, Lumsden and Bennett 2003), relative
to other mammals and some birds
(Robinson and Trail 1996), However, the
bats' continued persistence and resilience
is dependent on long-term availability of
roosting and maternity sites (hollow bear-
ing trees). Lumsden et al. (2002a, 2002b)
found in the Murray floodplain forests that
Lesser Long-eared Bat Nyctophilus geof-
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The Victorian Naturalist
History ; Symposium
froyi and Gould’s Wattled Bat Chalinlobus
gouldi required (respectively) both dead
and living large-diameter trees for roosting
and maternity sites. The suite of hollow-
dependent arboreal mammals and birds
may face a bottleneck (of supply) in rural
areas (Vesk and McNally 2006; see also
Fig. 4) around 2050. Lessening the bottle-
neck requires revegetation to begin as soon
as possible (Vesk and McNally 2006).
Large old trees are products of the past,
and future availability of tree hollows
requires conscious nurturing of a range of
age classes across the landscapes, for this
critical feature to remain resilient for hol-
low-dependent species and invertebrates
utilising differently aged trees.
Species and habitat resilience also is
facilitated by understanding variations of
habitat quality and identification of land-
scape refugia, such as mesic gullies in
fragmented dry forest landscapes (e.g.
Sodcrquist and Mac Nally 2000). In other
more "intact’ landscapes better understand-
ing of ecological inter-relationships facili-
tates better management for resilience and
persistence. The role of mycophageous
marsupials in dispersing mycorrhizal fungi
is now better appreciated (Claridge 1992).
The endangered Long-footed Potoroo
Potorous longipes feeds on over 30 species
of fungi (sporocarps, hypogeal and sub-
hypogeal) many of which are thought to
have symbiotic relationships with forest
trees and shrubs and thus vegetation health
(DSL 2003b). Knowledge of specific sym-
biotic relationships of a range of orchids
with fungi and pollinators has been used to
replenish populations (A Pritchard 2006
pers. comm.).
Practical techniques for restoration and
enhancement
Increased empirical and theoretical
knowledge is being practically applied to
restoration and amelioration for threaten-
ing processes. Extensive guidelines for re-
establishing native vegetation in Victoria
arc readily available (Greening Australia
2003), as is information to assist landhold-
ers on specific issues, for example tree hol-
lows and bats (Lumsden and Bennett
2003). Research suggests there is "consid-
erable potential for the large scale restora-
tion of herbaceous plant communities
using direct seeding’ (UniNews 2005)
which could facilitate replenishment of
depleted lowland grasslands. Practical
amelioration techniques for threatening
processes to the rivers are being used and
developed (Koehn and O’Connor 1990),
[for example establishment of ecological
flow regimes for rivers and streams]. The
fish passage at Dights Falls, on the Yarra
River at Collingwood, restored access to c.
2000 kms of waterways for 80 % of the
diadromous freshwater species (migrating
between fresh and estuarine/marine) that
had been inhibited for over a century
(Zampatti et at. 2003). Over the last
decade > 5000 kms of river length has
been re-opened for fish passage on about
40 rivers at approximately 80 sites (P
Bennett 2005 pers. comm.). Conversely,
exclusion barriers and removal of trout
upstream has conserved populations of the
endangered Barred Galaxias Galaxias
Jus cus from predation ( Raadik 2002).
These installations require periodic main-
tenance to provide ongoing benefits. De-
snagging our rivers has rightly declined
and re-snagging for fish habitat and breed-
ing is now a proven and active technique
in river management (Koehn 2004; Nicol
et al. 2002; MDBC 2004) assisting threat-
ened species such as the Murray Cod
MaccullocheUa peelii peelii.
Threatened species can be recovered.
With the Koala recovery, Victoria led the
world in species restoration from
early- mid 20"1 century (Part 1). In Victoria,
endangered populations have been suc-
cessfully replenished through captive
breeding - release, e.g. the Helmeted
Honeyeater Lichenostomus melanops cas-
sidix at Yellingbo (Smales et al. 1999), or
relocation, e.g. Black-eared Miner
Manor ina melanotis into Murray Sunset
National Park from Bookmark Biosphere
reserve (Clarke et al. 2002) and the
Eastern Barred Bandicoot Peranwles gunni
(Clark et al. 1995). Macquarie Perch
Macquarie australasica were released
(outside their range) into the Yarra River
from 1912 to the 1940s and this popula-
tion, following the rapid decline of the
species in the Murray Darling Basin (from
the 1970s), is highly significant (e.g.
potential for restocking) for this nationally
endangered fish (Minister for Water 2006).
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H i story Symposi am
A population of the Eastern Quoll
Dasyurus viverinnus presumed extinct on
the mainland (last Victorian record in
1950s) has been established from
Tasmanian stock within a fox-proof fenced
area near the You Vangs (Richard Woods
2005 pers. comm.). Although these animals
may not be genetically appropriate to re-
establish a free-ranging population, the
knowledge from husbanding will assist
future efforts. Habitats and social organisa-
tion of the threatened species can be
restored, e.g. endangered Mountain Pygmy-
possum Burramys parvus and a tunnel
corridor (Mansergh and Scotts 1989).
Restoration, even of some species ‘extinct1
to Victoria, can now be realistically envis-
aged (Mansergh and Seebeck 1992). Many
successful efforts integrate science within
the broader socio-economic context, an
important concept brought to the fore in
Victoria by Clark et al. ( 1995).
Major threatening processes to biodiversi-
ty are addressed at the landscape scale.
Under a predator control program over the
last decade. Western Shield, Western
Australian populations of 18 mammals,
three birds, two reptiles and one amphibian,
have been translocated (= introductions, rc-
introductions and re-stocking (1UCN 1987))
with the success rate twice that of failure
(Mawson 2004). Preliminary results from
Southern Ark, a landscape-scale fox control
program in East Gippsland. suggests that
recovery of small to medium sized mam-
mals (e.g. Long-nosed Potoroo Poforous
tric/actylus ) can be expected (DSE 2003a).
A major potential pest in the marine envi-
ronment, the Northern Pacific Sea Star
Aster ias amurensis. has been eradicated
from Venus Bay. Inverloch, by a communi-
ty-based program (Ingrid Holiday, DSE
pers. com.). Management of fire regimes
across public land in Victoria now seeks
improved ecological outcomes including the
provision of "conditions necessary for the
persistence of biota' (Fire Ecology Working
Group 2004). Key life history features of
the flora which determine how a species
lives and reproduces, its vital attributes, are
used to inform ecological burning regimes,
thus actively using fire to achieve
ecological outcomes.
Major 21st century threat — global
warming
Accelerated global warming caused by the
human-induced increase in atmospheric car-
bon dioxide and other ‘greenhouse gases' is
the major threatening process to global bio-
diversity in the 21st century (IPC'C 2001a,
2001b). A ‘globally coherent fingerprint of
global warming impacts across natural sys-
tems’ (Parmesan and Yohe 2003), and 15 to
37% of species are 'committed to extinc-
tion' (Thomas et al. 2004; Brcreton et al.
1995). Changes in clinal genetic variation in
an eastern Australian fruit fly Drosophila
melanogaster over the last 30 years, have
been recorded, and are equivalent to a shift
of 4° latitude southward in response to
global warming (Umina et al. 2005). The
theoretical risks of global wanning as set
out by Peters and Darling ( 1986) were pre-
sented in The Victorian Naturalist by
Mansergh and Bennett ( 1 989). Subsequent
modelling of distributions (bioelimatic
envelopes) and future climatic scenarios
have supported the theoretical predictions
(Bennett et al. 1992). Global wanning will
induce changes in the distribution and abun-
dance of biota at an unprecedented rate
across eastern Australian landscapes where
habitats have been eliminated, fragmented
and modified (Mansergh et al. 2005a,
2005b). Current species distribution reflects
survival from past climate change and
migration and adaptation to ‘recent’ cli-
mate. Modified environments have con-
stricted habitat availability (in terms of both
quality and quantity) that will produce
genetic/population bottlenecks, or extinc-
tion of populations that are unable to persist
as the current distribution of habitat is
altered through climate change (Fig. 4;
Opdam and Wascher 2004). Water budgets
and weeds also are predicted to be affected
by global warming (Pittock 2003), with pre-
dictions of increased fire-weather risks and
a shifting and narrowing of the time win-
dow available for prescribed burning in
south-eastern Australia (Hennessy et al.
2005). In the context of global warming,
recent works by influential authors indicate
that environmental problems, including the
loss of biodiversity and our living capital,
are not only critical but urgent and demand
action at all levels of community (Flannery
2005; Lowe 2005).
304
The Victorian Naturalist
His tory Symposi urn
Amelioration (lessening greenhouse gas
emissions) was the primary debate of the
1990s. However, with the 1PCC report
(2001a, 2001b) indicating that global
warming is happening, adaptation must be
included within a rational response.
Biodiversity was the first sector to develop
a national adaptation action plan
(NRMMC 2004). Key responses include:
an increase and refinement of knowledge
and predictive capacity: making existing
native vegetation (including expanded
reserves) as resilient as possible (to use
biological inertia of systems); and to estab-
lish ecologically viable connections
between areas that will maximise evolu-
tionary potential for movement. These
connecting zones have been termed
‘biolinks’ (Bennett et al. 1992; DCE 1992)
and are much broader than traditional
wildlife corridors (Mansergh et al. 2005b).
Biolinks aim to ameliorate the effects of
population bottlenecks induced by global
warming (Fig. 4). From early modelling,
Bennett et al. (1992) identified both cli-
matic refugia and biolinks for Victoria and
this achieved policy recognition (DCE
1992; Fig. 5). There is a high co-incidence
of biolinks (Fig. 5) and amenity/transition-
al zone (Fig. 1) although each was derived
independently from different data sources.
Within these zones some landholders are
already managing land that will assist
these efforts (see Box 3). It has been sug-
gested, perhaps optimistically (Mansergh
et al, 2005a, 2005b), that ‘the production
metric’ in these landscapes may evolve
from DSE (Dry Sheep Equivalent - see
Part I ) to habitat hectares.
Refugia for flora and fauna exist across
the landscape and operate at different
spatial and temporal scales under different
environmental changes or events (fire,
drought, climate change). Future studies
will refine our knowledge.
Refugia are associated with the availabil-
ity of critical resources (e.g. water) and
microhabitat diversity (e.g. elevated areas,
high fertility). The Grampians, Great
Dividing Range and environments associ-
ated with the Murray River are Victorian
examples that also will be important under
global warming scenarios (Emison 1982;
Brereton et al. 1995). Planning for biolinks
needs to be cognisant of this at the macro
scale (of what they were linking) and the
micro scale, i.e. diversity of habitats (fertil-
ity and topography) (Soderquist and
Mac Nally 2000). In Victoria, crown land
along water frontages, locality of recharge
areas, the marginal ity of sleep hill country
for grazing (C'rosth waite et al. 2006), and
changes in socio-economic trajectories
(Fig. 1), indicate that opportunities exist
for innovative changes to land use and
management throughout Victoria. We sug-
gest that focusing additional resources in
biolink areas (progressively defined) is a
worthwhile approach.
The imperatives of adaptation to global
wanning will become increasingly apparent
and important to society and community
values (Lowe 2005; Flannery 2005). Part of
the adaptation for biodiversity conservation
will include ‘biolinks’ (NRMMC 2004),
within and through previous agricultural
landscapes. Although the importance of
connectivity is increasingly well known to
science (Soule et al. 2004) it is not widely
adopted in land use and management. As
society adapts to climate change, the con-
cept of biolinks provides a long-term ‘inter-
gcnerationaF purposefulness for restoration.
This reflects at least two (of the three) pil-
lars of ecologically sustainable development
(World Commission on Environment and
Development 1987). Our language should
change, as ‘remnants’ of pre-European veg-
etation become ‘reservoirs’ for future land-
scapes. As noted above, enlarging and eco-
logically linking through large scale revege-
tation should begin as soon as possible and
the legacy of old trees should be protected.
Visualising ‘sustainability’ in Victorian
landscapes
This paper and the original presentation
on which it is based use reconstructed
sequences of images and aerial photos to
visualise historic changes at a state- wide
scale, landscape and site level (Fig. 1, Fig. 2
Part 1) (Fig. 2; Fig. 3; Fig. 6; Fig. 7; Fig.
8). These techniques, at an appropriate
scale, offer a new and powerful tool for
understanding historic changes in the natur-
al environment and for exploring future
options for its replenishment.
Any form of sustainability must involve
restoration of landscape and ecosystem
function and services. Linking some of the
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
305
II istory Symposium
above evidence with the move toward a
‘sustainable state’, it seems logical to use
technology to ‘envision future landscapes’
(Mansergh and Parkes 2003). Given the
landscape debt, it is also imperative that
we can visualise from where we have
come (Part 1), and land use history is a
critical aspect of resilience - resistance
(Dorrough et al. 2006). The first compre-
hensive aerial photographic survey of
Victoria (RAAF in late 1930s and 40s) is
the earliest statewide photographic bench-
mark (Fig. 6). Vandersee (1988) used
some of the 1941 photo series to show
changes of Victorian saltmarsh communi-
ties and the potential effects of global
warming. Accurate time scries of land use
history maps/photographs for all areas of
the state would provide the ideal bench-
mark for better understanding the spatial
expression of some of the ecological issues
we have inherited and must confront /
resolve in future. This would provide a
basis from which future land use change
could be designed and debated. Policy
‘visions’ could be translated from their
current verbal form to a visual and spatial
form, giving clearer substance to land use
changes. Visualisation of these potential
changes will allow better appreciation of
future options, and may help to communi-
cate or decide the magnitude of the
changes. Continuation of the 30-year trend
in depletion may be contrasted to two
revegetation scenarios (from data in Table
1 ) and preference to biolinks in Figure 8. It
would be a significant tool for Catchment
Management Authorities, local govern-
ment, scientists and citizens to advance
biodiversity conservation and other issues
of land use change as we move toward sus-
tainability. Technologically we can visu-
alise future landscapes from the present.
We would argue that a benchmark from the
past provides the critical third point on any
Trajectory graph'. Absence of this perspec-
tive risks ignoring both the extinction debts
embedded in the landscape and the identifi-
cation of more potentially resilient areas.
The Snowy River: a recent issue
Elements of the recent Snowy River
debate demonstrate how some of the
emerging themes identified above are
expressed and combined in our society.
The Snowy Scheme was a national icon
that sought to ‘green’ the inland through
irrigation. Ninety-nine percent of the mon-
tane flows of the Snowy River were divert-
ed to inland irrigation and electricity pro-
duction (Part 1; Seddon 1994: Miller
2005). In the 1990s, community groups
along the Snowy River sought to restore
‘ecological flows', which were seen by
others as a threat to water entitlements in
the Murray and Murrumbidgee irrigation
areas.
At a public rally on the steps of Victoria’s
Parliament in April 1999, Lady Southey (of
the Mver Foundation) asserted that ‘science
is on the side of the river’ (Miller 2005).
This alludes to the Enlightenment belief of
science being ‘true’, but the science here
was the environmental flow study
(Pendlebury et al. 1996) that stated that
28% of the original flow was the minimum
required to restore river health: i.e. metrics
and thresholds had been set for the natural
capital (the river). This science was not
available a few years previously, and at the
time of the original decision to proceed
with the scheme (1949) it would have been
inconceivable to even contemplate the need
to measure the effects on the river ecosys-
tem. The dominant ‘sciences’ of that time
in relation to the use and allocation of land
and water were engineering and agronomy.
Tom Burlinson (the actor who played Jim
Craig in The Man From Snowy River) said
‘It was shameful legacy to leave to our
children and our grandchildren. Now is the
time to listen to the experts the Snowy
River must flow again’ (quoted in Miller
2005). In such expressions of public senti-
ment a new ‘sense of place’ is seen, sup-
ported by new science and metrics
(environmental flow), and pleas for inter-
generational equity in terms of living natur-
al capital. Diverting this from natural capi-
tal almost completely to irrigation and the
generation fo electricity had become unac-
ceptable to the community6 Our sense of
place is a more holistically-valued native
biodiversity.
The responses of several Aboriginal elders
who attended the initial re-instalment of part
of the Snowy River’s flow, were recorded as
significant. Ngarigo elder Aunty Rae
Stewart (quoted in Miller 2005):
The spirit of the elders of this area will be
free at last with the flowing of the river.
306
The Victorian Naturalist
History Symposium
Gunai elder Uncle Albert Mullet (quoted in
Miller 2005):
White people are beginning to learn to care
for country, and if its not too late, they might
learn something.
These perspectives (and increased flow,
possibly to 28% in the long term) indicate
that some fundamental perceptions and
values that have driven past land and water
use are changing in our society.
Conclusion
The legacy of our past land use is stark.
Victoria has the highest concentration on
the continent of bioregions under high
landscape stress (Part 1 Fig. 3). The con-
sciousness and valuing of the natural capi-
tal that has been lost, what remains, and
what may still be lost provide a major cul-
tural driver for future land use and man-
agement. Our sense of place has changed.
Business as usual is not an option, and
replenishment of our natural capital is a
prerequisite, if we are to become a ‘sus-
tainable state’.
The future cannot be predicted with any
certainty. However, a future can be envis-
aged in which the historical trend of broad-
scale, almost relentless, depletion of natur-
al capital and decline in ecological
processes and ecosystem services is
reversed. Attempts to change toward this
direction can be seen at the national, state
and local levels. In substantial Victorian
landscapes, socio-economic drivers of land
use change will assist this trend. The value
of environmental assets is increasing, as
are concepts and tools that incorporate
them into the modes of production. New
knowledge and ecological insights will,
perhaps inevitably, assist this process of
change and overcome some of the ‘igno-
rance’ over past use of our living natural
capital. The appreciation of past radical
depletion, of the new ‘sense of place’, of
how we confront and adapt to greenhouse
in the 21s' century, and of intergen erational
equity, are converging issues. These pro-
vide common ground to replenish our liv-
ing natural capital as a societal aspiration
that can be realised. The future landscapes
of Victoria will reflect our view of what is
important to us as a community. We can
and must learn from the past, in relation to
our living natural capital — ‘caring for
country’ demands replenishment.
Footnotes
1 Mansergh et al. 2006 will be referred to as Part I
from here on.
2 The negligible amount of Victorian land managed
by Koorics (Part I Table I: SAMLIV 2002)
requires redress. See also Aboriginal and Torres
Strail Islander Heritage Protection Act 1984
(Commonwealth). Recently, Justice Merkel
(Clarke v State of Victoria [2005] FCA 1795) in a
recent legal decision concerning the Wimmera
stated, ‘the tide of History has not washed away
all entitlements to native title in South-Eastern
pail of Australia’. The issue will not be discussed
here,
In the national context, Victorian agriculture
remains economically important (DPI 2005).
NLWRA (2001 and 2002) found that 26% of
Australia's agricultural production and 50% of
profits comes from irrigated land just 1% of the
landscape dedicated to agriculture. Eighty percent
of agricultural profits come from less than 1% of
the area used; and 10% of farm establishments
produce between 40 and 50% of Australia's gross
agricultural income (NLWRA 2002). The agricul-
tural industries have progressively moved away
from subsidies’ and Productivity Commission
(2004) suggests that ‘measured assistance to most
agricultural activities remains low’. There remains
a need to remove ‘perverse incentives' (Young el
dl 1996),
1 EMS monitor processes for improvement. It is cau-
tionary to note that the starting point or baseline is
important (see Figures in Part 1). Starting from a
vastly depleted system improvement may be mar-
ginal or at worst illusionary.
The ‘sub and super’ (l940-60s) period (Part 1) and
the doubling of nitrogenous fertilisers during the
1990s have resulted in soil acidification becoming
a major problem in agricultural landscapes
(NLWRA 2001).
' McCoy and Young (2005) discussed structural
changes, including environmental flows and buy-
back of water, for the Murray catchment that
would enable the majority of the Snowy water to
continue to flow.
Acknowledgements
The analysis and views expressed in Paris 1 and
2 of this paper are the auihors and arc not neces-
sarily those of the Department of Sustainability
and Environment. Many people gave most
freely of their time and expertise in producing
this paper. Thanks to Paul Barker for years of
‘archival’ inspiration. DSC staff, David Parkes
and Alex Lau for constructive conversations and
key illustrations; James Darraugh for access to
ABS statistics; Jim Crosth waite, Brian Coffey,
Matt White (access to vegetation condition map-
ping). Paul Bennett. David Cummings, Rod
Taylor and Mark Riley provided information
and comment. Kate Slot hers and Lance
Williams for photographs and information about
their property and Doug Robinson for TfN
activities around Benalla. Neil Barr (DPI), Josh
Dorrough (DSF CSIRO), Andrew Pritchard and
Richard Woods (F.SLink) for keeping us up to
dale with their findings. David Meagher, Anne
Morton and an anonymous reviewer critically
appraised, improved and edited the manuscript.
The warm reception by FNCV members at the
125"’ commemoration symposium (May 2005)
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
307
H istory Symposi um
and the October 2005 meeting, convinced us
that the words and analysis may find resonance
and have meaning to a wide readership.
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Part 1 Errata
Page 20. NRE 1997 established net gain in
condition and extent of native vegetation
as policy. NRE (2002) articulated the hier-
archy of avoid, mitigate, offset.
Page 22. Correctly referenced, however,
more accurate figures for Victoria are -
freehold 66%, public 34%.
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
311
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Vol. 123 (5) 2006
313
threatened in Victoria
species listed in the FFG Woodland Bird Community as woodland dependent
introduced
Contributions
Historical notes on Charles and Thomas Brittlebank,
pioneer naturalists in the Werribee Gorge district,
west of Melbourne
Marilyn Hewish
97 Grey Street, Bacchus Marsh, Victoria 3340
Abstract
Early FNC V members, the brothers Charles and Thomas Brittlebank pursued their varied interests in
natural history in the Werribee Gorge district in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. They com-
piled one of the first comprehensive bird lists for the area. Charles was a renowned artist and con-
tiibuted illustrations ot birds and their eggs, insects, fungi and mistletoes for pioneering works on
thoise subjects by AJ Cambpell, JA Leach, Charles French, Daniel McAlpine and himself. He pub-
lished widely and was considered an authority on the evidence for glacial action in Werribee Gorge.
Thomas was a skilled egg collector, bird observer, landscape artist and contributor to his brother’s
and AJ ( ampbell s studies. Together they helped to lay the foundations of natural history study in
Victoria. {The Victorian Naturalist 123 (5), 2006. 314 317)
Thomas ( 1 865 [?]— 1 948) and Charles
Brittlebank (1863 1945) were pioneers in
studying the natural history of the district
immediately west of Melbourne. Victoria.
They were brothers, born in the village of
Winston in Derbyshire, England. In the
1870s, the family moved to the New
Hebrides, and from there to Queensland,
where their father Andrew and another son
Louis died, probably of typhoid. The two
younger sons and their mother Ellen later
moved to Tasmania and then to Spring
Vale (location unknown). Ellen bought a
house and property, Dunbar, at Myrniong
near Bacchus Marsh, on the northern side
of Werribee Gorge. EE Pescott (1946)
gave the date of arrival at Myrniong as
1893, but it was probably considerably
earlier. A report in 1890 referred to an
FNCV excursion to Werribee Gorge and
stated that the Brittlebank brothers were
present and the party started from Dunbar
(Anon 1890). The previous owner of the
property, William Dunbar, died in 1884
(Bacchus Marsh and District Historical
Society 2003). When Charles married, he
continued to live at Dunbar, while Thomas
and his wife built a new house, Bonsall.
The property was used for mixed farming
until 1919 or 1920, when it was sold.
Charles then worked for the Department of
Agriculture. Thomas became the headmas-
ter of the Migrant Training Centre at Elcho
near Geelong, where migrants were trained
in Australian agricultural methods, and
was later involved in agricultural educa-
tion at Warrnambool (Anon 1945; Pescott
1946; Anon 1948; Whittell 1954; Bacchus
Marsh and District Historical Society
2003; Marion Taylor, pers. comm.).
While they were living near Werribee
Gorge, the brothers became interested in
the natural history of the area. They must
have been inspired by the beautiful setting
of Dunbar, overlooking the rugged
Werribee River valley, and with panoramic
views of Melbourne, the Dandenong
Ranges, the You Yangs and Mount
Blackwood. Charles leaned more towards
geology and Thomas towards ornithology,
but they both had wide interests. Charles
became the better known of the two,
because of his work as Plant Pathologist
and Bio legist- in-charge of Science at the
Department of Agriculture, his scientific
publications in geology, botany, mycolo-
gy, entomology and ornithology, and his
illustrations in pioneering works in
Australian natural history. However,
Thomas was also a talented artist and natu-
ralist (Pescott 1946; Anon 1948).
Charles and Thomas were active and
popular members of the Field Naturalists’
Club of Victoria. Naturally, they became
particularly associated with Werribee
Gorge, and many club excursions to the
area were led by one or both of the broth-
ers. Perhaps naturalists were also attracted
by the friendly welcome, the late break-
fasts and the sumptuous evening meals
prepared by Mrs Brittlebank at Dunbar
(Campbell 1891; Barnard 1894). In early
excursions, members were attracted by the
possibilities for bird-watching in the area.
314
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
A report published in The Victorian
Naturalist in 1890 was devoted mainly to
birds, and included a complete bird list
(Anon 1890). The gorge was famous for its
nesting Wedge-tailed Eagles. AJ
Campbell’s book. Nests and Eggs of
Australian Birds (1900), shows a photo-
graph (facing page 10) of an intrepid
climber standing in a rather casual attitude
beside an eagle’s nest in Werribee Gorge.
The tree appears to be projecting outwards
from a mountainside with the nest sus-
pended over an alarming void. Later in the
1890s, the focus gradually shifted to the
geology of Werribee Gorge, which became
famous for its evidence of glacial action
and a former ice-age, partly because of
work by George Sweet, Charles
Brittlebank and Professor Edgeworth
David. However, there was some confu-
sion over priority for the observations of
glacial rocks and a dispute over the inter-
pretation of the geological studies (Officer
and Balfour 1893; Sweet and Brittlebank
1893; Hall 1894).
Few illustrators have contributed so
much to so many fields of natural history
as Charles Brittlebank. He produced most
of the plates of insects for five volumes of
Charles French’s A Handbook of the
Destructive Insects of Victoria (1891-
1911); 14 plates for Volume I; 22 for
Volume II; 20 for Volume 111; 17 for
Volume IV; and 10 for Volume V. He pre-
pared the plates for Volume VI, but the
book was not issued. He painted six plates
for his own paper on the Harlequin
Mistletoe (1908), and produced dozens of
coloured plates and hundreds of micro-
photographs for books on fungi by Daniel
McAlpine (e.g. McAlpine 1899). Paintings
of orchids by Charles Brittlebank were
donated to Museum Victoria by his family.
He is best known by bird-watchers for his
detailed and exquisite watercolours of eggs
in AJ Campbell’s Nests and Eggs of
Australian Birds (1900), the first work to
delineate the eggs of more than 200
Australian species (pure-white eggs were
not illustrated). He used many eggs from
the collection of his brother Thomas as
models. There is a letter in the AJ
Campbell collection in Museum Victoria,
in which Charles Brittlebank agrees to
paint 202 eggs for AJ Campbell for a fee
of £27 (McEvey 1966). Charles was
described as an exacting artist. His work
became world-famous for its ‘beauty of
delineation and accuracy of detail’,
achieved with the aid of a large magnify-
ing lens (Pescott 1946).
Charles Brittlebank's paintings of birds
were not as successful as his renditions of
insects and eggs. In Allan McEvey’s opin-
ion (1966), the posture and the birds’ legs
were ‘often unconvincing’. However, the
paintings are of considerable historical
interest. Charles Brittlebank provided sev-
eral illustrations of insectivorous birds
with explanatory notes for Charles
French’s work on insects; birds were delin-
eated by him in eight plates in Volume III,
14 plates in Volume IV, and four plates in
Volume V. AJ Campbell’s book includes
one of his bird paintings, a pair of Rose
Robins at a lichen-covered nest containing
their pale-green spotted eggs (facing page
142); he provided five illustrations in JA
Leach’s An Australian Bird Book (1911);
and there are four original colour plates of
birds (petrels, Red-capped Robin, Flame
Robin, Eastern Yellow Robin) in the col-
lection of Museum Victoria. The plate of
the petrels was used, cither as a study or as
the final plate, for the illustrations of these
species in Leach’s book (McEvey 1966).
The Brittlebank brothers are especially
known for their work in Werribee Gorge.
However, they observed birds over a wide
area west of Melbourne. In AJ Campbell’s
book, they contributed many records from
Bacchus Marsh, Lcrderderg Gorge,
Yaloak, Mount Wallace, the Werribee
Plains, Mount Cottrell, Wyndham,
Werribee and the mouth of the Werribee
River. But perhaps their greatest contribu-
tion to local ornithological knowledge was
a paper on the birds of Myrniong published
in The Victorian Naturalist (Brittlebank
1899a). This paper, written by Charles,
listed every bird species which he and
Thomas had recorded in the district
between 1893 and 1899; 158 species in all.
108 of them with breeding records. Several
rarities, vagrants, and birds now' declining
or locally extinct were on the list, includ-
ing Square-tailed Kite, Letter-winged Kite,
Rainbow Lorikeet, Spangled Drongo,
Cicadabird, Hooded Robin, Black-faced
Monarch, White-browed and Grey-
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
315
Contributions
crowned Babbler, Regent Honeyeater and
Dollarbird. Lerderderg Gorge, Melton,
Mount Blackwood, the Moorabool River
and the northern Brisbane Ranges formed
the boundaries of the district covered in
this paper. An area of woodland now
known as Long Forest fell within these
limits. It contains an isolated occurrence of
Bull Mallee Eucalyptus behriana , unique
south of the Great Divide. The mallee
woodland is mentioned in the introductory
paragraph of the paper, and Thomas
Brittlebank visited the area (then known as
Melton) at least once. His discovery of a
nest of a White-fronted Chat there was the
subject of a short note in The Victorian
Naturalist (C Brittlebank 1899).
Unfortunately, however, no spec i tic loca-
tions were given for any of the birds on the
Myrniong list.
Charles Brittlebank’s versatility across
several disciplines in natural history, and
his talent with both pen and brush, were
astonishing, and yet his work was never
superficial. It was always supported by the
most careful observations and research,
and demonstrated his patience and atten-
tion to detail. We can picture him alone,
quietly working on his papers and paint-
ings over endless hours, and yet this pic-
ture appears to be incomplete. lie must
have been a sociable person. He was well
liked in the FNCV. An affectionate and
generous friend, his home was always
open and became the centre for Werrihec
Gorge excursions over many years. He
always enjoyed sharing his knowledge
(Pescott 1946). For his friend, Charles
French, he prepared as a gift a scries of
drawings of beetles, commemorating every
species that bore French’s name. These
covered seven large sheets of drawing
paper (Pescott 1946). To balance his
quieter pursuits, Charles Brittlebank was
very active and possessed great stamina.
EE Pescott, one of his obituarists, noted
that he was an amateur boxer in his youth.
Reports of Wcrribee Gorge excursions in
the 1890s spoke of scrambling down the
riverbed, scaling precipitous slopes, push-
ing through hilltop scrub, and negotiating
huge stones, fallen masses of rock and
thorny thickets. To traverse 16 kilometres
took up to 10 hours of walking over an
actual distance of 40-45 km. This was all
described as ‘rather violent exercise’
(Anon 1890; Barnard 1894). This difficult
country was Charles’ patch, and he knew
every inch of it.
Because Thomas left little published
work under his own name, he is a more
shadowy historical figure than Charles.
Like his brother, he was a talented artist,
producing many landscape paintings
(Marion Taylor, pers. comm.). His obser-
vational skills were at least the equal of
Charles’. He was a partner, sometimes a
silent one, in some of his brother's endeav-
ours. Many of the eggs delineated in AJ
Campbell's book and the records in
Charles' paper on the birds of Myrniong
originated with Thomas (T Brittlebank
1899; Campbell 1900). Like his brother,
Thomas was at home in rugged Werribee
Gorge, and took part in. and led, several
FNCV excursions there (c.g. Hall 1894).
He seemed to be the more adventurous of
the two, perhaps because Charles’ wife
suffered from poor health (Marion Taylor,
pers. comm.). In those days, all serious
egg-collectors were daring tree-climbers
and travellers. Thomas took part in egg-
collecting expeditions to remote parts of
Australia (Marion Taylor, pers. comm.),
and he was the first to describe and mea-
sure the eggs of the Little Kingfisher, from
a nest he found in the Cape York district of
Queensland (Brittlebank 1901). His egg-
collection is now at Museum Victoria.
Thomas and Charles were buried side-by-
side in Bacchus Marsh (Maddingley)
Cemetery, with their mother and their
wives. From the grave-sites, the ridge above
Werribee Gorge is visible in the distance.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Bob Reid, the Bacchus
Marsh and District Historical Society, and
Marion Taylor, grand-daughter of Thomas
Brittlebank, for information on the Brittlebank
family and their property. Dunbar. The librarian
and assistant librarian of the FNCV. the staff of
the State Library of Victoria, and Dean Hewish
assisted with the literature search.
References
Anon. (1890) Report of contingent of Mr Keartland’s
excursion. The Victorian Naturalist 7, 88-9 1 .
Anon. (1045) Scientist-farmer-artist: Mr Chas.
Brittlebank. Bacchus Marsh Express, 10 Nov. 1945
(obituary of Charles Brittlebank).
Anon. (1948) Myrniong. Bacchus Marsh Express, 11
Sept. 1948 (obituary of Thomas Brittlebank).
Bacchus Marsh and District Historical Society Inc.
316
The Victorian Naturalist
Naturalist Note
(2003) Bacchus Marsh Heritage Guide , 2nd edition
(history of Dunbar Homestead and its occupants,
pages 123-124).
Barnard FGA (1894) Excursion to Bacchus Marsh, The
Victorian Naturalist 1 1, 54-55.
Brilllebank C'C (1899) Birds of Myrniong and surround-
ing districts. The Victorian Naturalist 16, 59-61.
Brilllebank CC (1908) On the life-history of LoraMhus
exocarpi Belir. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of
New South H ales 33. 650-656.
Brilllebank TA (1899) h'arly nesting. The Victorian
Naturalist 16. 55.
Brittlebank TA (1901) The Little Kingfisher. The
Victorian Naturalist 18, 28.
Campbell AJ (189 1) The Wenibcc Gorge excursion, 3"'
October. 1891. The Victorian Naturalist 8, 99-100,
Campbell A.I ( 1900. reprinted 1974) Nests and Eggs of
Australian Birds. Volumes 1 and 2. Reprint (Wren
Publishing: Melbourne)
French CA (1891-191 1) Handbook of the Destructive
Insects of Victoria , Volumes 1-5. (Victorian
Department of Agriculture: Melbourne)
Hall TS (1894) F.xcursion to Werribee Gorge with a
note on ils geological literature. The Victorian
Naturalist 11, 125-127.
Leach JA (191 1) An Australian Bird Book. Is1 edition.
Whitcombc and Tombs, Melbourne (acknowledg-
ments for illustrations by Charles Brittlebank, verso
of title page).
McAlpine D (1899) Fungus Dis, eases of Citrus Trees in
Australia and their Treatment . (Victorian
Department of Agriculture: Melbourne)
Mchvey A (1966) I .iterary notes no. 2: some Brittlebank
bird paintings. Emu 66. 189-190 (paintings and other
material in the Museum Victoria collection).
Officer G and L Balfour (1893) Preliminary Account of
the Glacial Deposits of Bacchus Marsh. Proceedings
of the Royal Society of Victoria V (new series), 47-68.
Peseott I T! (1946) The late Charles C. Brittlebank. The
Victorian Naturalist 62, 189-191 (obituary of Charles
Brittlebank).
Sweet G and CC Brittlebank (1893) The glacial
deposits of the Bacchus Marsh district. Report of the
fn yie(*ijng of the Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science. Sept. 1893, 376-389
(Adelaide).
Whittell HM ( 1954) The Literature of Australian Birds:
A History and Bibliography of Australian
Ornithology. (Paterson Brokensha: Perth, WA)
(biographies and lists of published works, pages 390-
392).
Received 2 February 2006: accepted I June 2006
A record of the Common Dunnart Smintiiopsis muri/ia
using artificial habitat
The Common Dunnart Sminthopsis muri-
na inhabits mallee scrub, dry heath, dry
forest and woodland within Victoria, most-
ly in the north and west of the state (Atlas
of Victorian Wildlife). All areas where the
species is found have sparse shrub and
ground cover, but usually with a dense
cover of ground litter (Menkhorst 1995).
However, the species is no longer common
and is now classed as vulnerable in
Victoria. Records of the Common Dunnart
exist close to Melbourne, particularly to
the north east on dry slopes and ridges
south of the Kinglakc ranges, in the vicini-
ty of Watsons Creek.
Fig. 1. Concrete paver used to produce nesting
cavity.
In this district, the Watsons Creek Nature
Conservation Link is made up of remnant
habitat areas along Watsons Creek and
several Crown Conservation Reserves,
which join the Kinglakc ranges to the
north and the Yarra Valley to the south.
Within this link. One Tree Hill Reserve is
the largest area of reserved crown land and
provides important habitat for several rare
and threatened species, including the
Powerful Owl Ninox strenua , Brush-tailed
Phascogale Phascogalc tapoatafa and
Common Dunnart.
As part of a habitat enhancement pro-
gram, RMIT University, in conjunction
with Parks Victoria, positioned forty con-
crete pavers on several slopes in Dry
Grassy Woodland at One Tree Hill, in
habitat that was considered typical for the
Common Dunnart. Each paver measured
380 mm by 380 mm and had a thickness of
45 mm (Fig. 1). The forty pavers were
layed between October 2003 and March
2004. They were positioned in four fines of
ten, with about ten metres between pavers.
A nesting cavity was excavated under each
block and dry grass was provided for nest-
ing material.
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
317
Contributions
One Tree Hill Common Dunnart record,
March 2006
On 24/3/2006, staff and students from the
School of Life and Physical Sciences,
RMIT University, visited One Tree Hill
Reserve with Mr Campbell Beardsell of
Parks Victoria, principally to study the
techniques and results of ecological burn-
ing. Towards the end of the day. as we
were about to conclude the visit, we
realised that the track leading to the easiest
exit passed closely to one of the lines of
pavers. It was decided to show the students
some of the pavers and explain the reason
for their presence in the reserve. When the
second paver in the line was lifted, to our
surprise, a Common Dunnart was found
sheltering under the paver. The animal was
subsequently captured by hand (see cover
picture) and proved to be an adult male.
The dunnart was released hard against the
entrance to the paver, but ran directly to
the next paver in the line and disappeared
under it. It is interesting to note that the
area from which this record was obtained
was subjected to an ecological burn in
March 2005, and ground cover in March
2006, was particularly sparse.
Other records exist for the Common
Dunnart in this reserve which also involve
the species using artificial habitat. On the
25/5/1 968, the then Mammal Survey
Group (now Fauna Survey Group) of the
FNCV visited One Tree Hill and captured
two common Dunnarts that were found
under discarded galvanised iron (FNCV
unpubl. data). This was six years after
wildfire had burnt through the area in
1962. On 20 November 1988, Beardsell
(1997) carried out a detailed ten hectare
search of dense tussocks on slopes directly
below the site where the Common Dunnart
was found on 24/3/2006. During the search
two adult female Common Dunnarts were
found, both with pouched young, one in a
grass tussock and the other under discard-
ed galvanised iron.
Acknowledgements
Many thanks to Cam Beardsell, Parks Victoria,
whose idea it was to use concrete pavers as
habitat at One Tree Hill Reserve. Richard
Francis, formerly of RMIT University, organ-
ised and supervised the laying of the pavers and
numerous RMIT students helped carry the
pavers down sleep slopes. The specimen men-
tioned in this article was handled under the
terms of Research Permit No. 10002492 issued
by the Department of Sustainability and
Environment and by RMIT Animal Ethics
Committee Approval No. 315.
References
Atlas of Victorian Wildlife, database. Department of
Sustainability and Environment.
Beardsell (' (1997) The NEROC Report: Sites of
Faunal and Habitat Significance in North East
Melbourne , Dunmoochin Biological Surveys.
Unpublished report to Shire of Nillumbik.
Mcnkhorst PW (ed) (1995) Mammals of Victoria:
Distribuiton, Ecology and Conservation. (Oxford
University Press: South Melbourne)
Peter Homan
School of Life and Physical Sciences,
RMIT University.
GPO Box 2476V
Melbourne 3001
email: peter.homan@rmit.cdu.au
Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988
Final recommendations in regard to nominations for listing under the Flora and Fauna
Guarantee Act 1988. The nominations for the following taxa to be listed as threatened
are supported by the Scientific Advisory Committee July 2006.
Marsh Tree-moss Climacium dendroides
Oval Wedge-fern Lindsaea trichomanoides
318
The Victorian Naturalist
Butterflies of the Solomon Islands:
systematics and biogeography
by John Tennent
Book Reviews
Publisher: Storm Entomological Publications, Dereham, UK, 2002.
413 pages 84 plates. ISBN 0954204506. RRP c. $280.00
A vailable from the author. Email: jt@storment.freeserve.co.uk
It was a delight to read this definitive
work on the Solomon Islands butterflies,
particularly given my interest in the Pacific
region. The birdwing illustrations are eye-
catching, and I think most lepidopterists
delight in seeing these awe-inspiring crea-
tures in the wild. I, like the author, have
had the opportunity to see a number of
birdwing taxa during travels in the Asia-
Pacific region. In Guadalcanal, I gazed
upon both sexes of the localised blue bird-
wing, Ornithoptera priamus urvillianus as
they fed at red hibiscus in village gardens,
and patrolled and perched. beneath planta-
tion canopy during the heat of the after-
noon. In late afternoon, adjacent forest
margins, their massive forms could be seen
in silhouette, soaring above the canopy and
feeding amidst trcctop blossoms.
In the Solomons in recent years, butterfly
collecting can still be adventurous and dar-
ing. Tennent compares how Woodford, in
the 19"' century had ‘carried a butterfly net
in one hand and a pistol in the other.’ And,
how, he himself, some 120 years later,
required accompaniment by ‘a uniformed
soldier armed with a self-loading rifle’ (p
vii). Several years on from Tennent’s
expeditions, I loniara remains risky for col-
lectors venturing far outside the urban bor-
der protection zone. There is also little
tourist infrastructure, so few go there.
Tennent recognises at least 197 species
in the Solomons archipelago (excluding
Nissan, Buka, and Bouganville - adminis-
tered by PNG), with 145 species from
Guadalcanal alone. In compiling this
important work, Tennent spent some 1 8
months conducting fieldwork in the
Solomons, visiting 44 islands, and in the
process discovered a large number of taxa
later named in his technical papers, and
predicts that still more await discovery in
the inaccessible interiors of some islands.
This meticulously detailed book, by a
leading authority on the systematics and
biogeography of the Pacific Island butter-
flies, is obviously ‘a must have’ for any
butterfly enthusiast with an interest in the
species in the Australasian region. It is
attractively presented, hardbound, with a
glossy dust jacket depicting live adults. It
opens with a foreword by RI Vane- Wright,
followed by a single-page preface,
acknowledgement section, and clear struc-
ture diagrams of wings, with venation and
wing areas labelled. There is also a species
checklist that includes subspecies, and a
key to 22 important abbreviations. Four
large maps, covering the expanse of islands
of the Southwest Pacific, the Solomon
Islands chain, with enlargements of the
New Georgia group and Santa Cruz group,
are provided. The work then comprises the
two main sections: the Introduction and
Systematic Part. The twin columned text
contains bold headers and species titles,
enabling ease of finding information.
The introductory section commences
with informative short pieces on the archi-
pelago’s geological origins, climate, and
vegetation. It continues with an intriguing
account on historic European presence,
leading on to a focus on earlier butterfly
collectors of the region and their adven-
tures, as well as contemporary work.
Attention then directs towards the butter-
flies themselves, with discussion of mimic-
ry, local biogeography, generic and species
distributions and endemism in the islands.
Tabulations of generic and species tallies
and percentage of endemism for the major
islands arc inset within the regions under
discussion. Tabulated world generic distri-
butions are also provided: font modifica-
tion used in places for tighter fitting in
compartments and space saving may have
created a trade-off on aesthetics, but
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
319
Book Reviews
remains acceptable. A fifth map in this
section (p 20), details presumed faunal
movement between islands at an earlier
geological period and is useful in under-
standing areas of speciation and evolution
of local forms through long isolation.
Within the body text there are a few black
and white historical illustrations, many line
drawings of genitalia, and seven colour
pictures of habitat and scenery. For the far-
away naturalist, idyllic locality photos, like
the one of Tikopia, are always an entice-
ment. Perhaps more could have been
included, particularly showing the different
habitats in which the varied species are
usually encountered.
The systematic pail involves a thorough
appraisal of the genera, species and sub-
species of five butterfly families present in
the islands. Each valid name is given with
sources of descriptions, type localities, and
synonyms. The world range is provided at
species level, and finer distribution out-
lined at local level. Descriptions of species
pertain largely to characters used to sepa-
rate each from nearest others. Each family
is introduced by a table listing species and
islands occupied by each. Elost plants in
the Solomon Islands are largely unknown,
and the author draws from knowledge of
populations of Australia, New Guinea and
Fiji as to likely plant genera that may be
utilised. These reviewed host listings will
be useful guides for the visiting collector
or researcher hunting early stages of vari-
ous local taxa. Tennent also queries some
distribution and nomenclature concerns
and, where possible, resolves these or at
least proposes tentative solutions, explain-
ing any inadequacies where appropriate,
and giving earlier authors’ opinions.
The book concludes with a list of refer-
ences, a glossary, and two appendices, 84
colour plates of species and subspecies,
and an index of technical names. The illus-
trated adults have their island of collection
provided from their label data. Appendix A
is a complete database on all specimens
examined by the author, including label
data, from several museums in London,
Oxford. Elonolulu, Honiara, and Sydney.
This enormously valuable compilation
spanning 43 pages also includes observa-
tions by the author, who asserts that ‘only
records where identification is beyond
doubt are included’ (p 185). Appendix B is
a gazetteer of three pages, comprising an
alphabetically arranged list of localities,
with alternative or local names for islands
to prevent confusion. Both appendices are
essential tools in using the book, and visit-
ing observers/collectors will find the data-
base an important tool to find sites for
species sought after. Such a tool seems
unique to this book, but in countries like
Australia, the museum and collection
records, numbering in the hundreds of
thousands, are too numerous for listing in
faunal works. This label data catalogue is
foundational for a database on the local
species, which in the future, collectors
with a passion for this region may wish to
build on electronically.
As the work has been pragmatically
proofread, I found very lew typographical
errors, although an Australian butterfly
mentioned in passing, Phaedyma shepher-
ds has its specific epithet misspelled as
'sheperdi' (p 141). The reference section of
over 700 sources seems largely complete,
but random crosschecking found a couple
of citations had been omitted. The glossy
colour illustrations of more than 1 100 life-
size butterflies (including many primary
and secondary types) ease identification.
Indeed, some subspecies have never been
illustrated before, finally, perhaps illustra-
tions of live adult's in places (other than
those on the dust jacket) could have
enhanced the book; an added touch I
would have liked to see. Overall, John
Tennent is to be congratulated for the pro-
duction of a second faunal work of excel-
lent quality and scholarship, his first being
The Butterflies of Morocco , Algeria and
Tunisia (1996): and this one similarly dis-
plays a high standard of readability for
both expert and butterfly novice. I whole-
heartedly recommend it.
Kelvvn L Dunn
81 Scenic Drive. Beaconsfield, Victoria 3807
Email: kelvyn_dunn@yahoo.com
320
The Victorian Naturalist
Climate change:
turning up the heat
Book Reviews
by A Barrie Pittock
Publishers: CSIRO Publications,
Collingwood; Earthscan, London,
2005. 316 pages, paperback; ISBN.
RRP $39.95
Yes, there’s another book on climate
change - and no wonder, it's serious stuff.
Adding to the now hefty weight of literature
on the climate and our future is this outstand-
ing contribution from an expert in the field:
Barrie Pittock has been a leading researcher
of climate change with CSIRO and served on
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC). The author’s credentials
give this book a unique perspective on the
problems we face and how they might be
addressed. It stands out as a book that offers
lucid explanations of fact, uncertainty, risk
and climate science. Discussed are environ-
mental changes wrought by excessive con-
sumption and overpopulation, and how these
will affect the environment and we humans
that depend on it - probably in a very
inequitable way. This is also a solutions book
that speaks to you and me, and policymakers.
In the chapter k Learning from the past’, the
reasons for past climate changes (e.g. varia-
tions in Earth’s orbit, solar output, and vol-
canic eruptions) and the lessons we can
learn from them are discussed. These
changes are often cited as a reason for com-
placency {if people survived these in the
past, why not in the future?)* but the author
reminds us that this ignores our now very
different place in the environment. For
example, large populations are unable to
migrate across national boundaries, and we
have mass reliance on relatively few food
crops; also, the ‘climate change that we can
expect in the next 1 00 years has happened
before, but at a much slower rate and from a
cooler starting point’.
The chapter title, ‘Uncertainty is
inevitable, but risk is certain’, as noted in the
foreword, is an erudite comment on the
heart of the climate change debate; the chap-
ter itself details why we cannot ignore the
CLIMATE
CHANGE
TURNING UP THE HEAT
A. BAKJUE PlTfOCK
overwhelming, though to some extent
uncertain, evidence of anthropogenic cli-
mate change. We deal with uncertainty
every day and don’t generally ignore it: we
wear seatbelts to reduce the risk of serious
injury in the rare event of an accident. The
IPCC estimated that by 2100 global CO2
concentrations will be 75 - 350% higher
than pre-industrial values, leading to an
increase in temperature of 1.4 - 5.8 °C and
consequent sea-level rises of 9 88 cm.
Because these are broad ranges, and indeed
estimates, the author helpfully outlines how
we estimate risk and measure climate
change: e.g, how reliable are temperature
measurements from within cities compared
to those from satellites? The issue of uncer-
tainty is a strong theme of the book at two
levels: in science (how much climate
change will there be?) and in future human
and societal behaviour (how well will we
cope with reducing our emissions?).
‘Impacts: why be concerned?’ explains
why we should be deeply worried if even
only the minimum estimates of tempera-
ture increase are realised. Here, Pittock
quotes from the IPCC on: risks to threat-
ened environments and biodiversity (the
Great Barrier Reef already is showing
signs of its likely demise not only will
we lose a cherished soul-enriching habitat,
but we should remember that the reef also
enriches the Australian economy by $1 to
2 billion, each year); risks from extreme
weather events (damages to ecosystems,
crops [why are our North Queensland
bananas so expensive now?] and society);
inequitable distribution of impacts (the
poor [in low-latitude, developing coun-
tries] will suffer most as their lands
become too hot and dry for habitation);
risks from large-scale discontinuities such
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
321
Book Reviews
as melting of the Greenland and West
Antarctic Ice Sheets (many heavily popu-
lated coastal areas would be flooded).
'Living with climate change’ discusses the
many things we’ll have to do to adapt, and
highlights the inequity of these forced adap-
tations. 'There are equity issues... since
adaptation is necessary for people that are
affected by climate change, but not necessar-
ily for those who have caused it'. A familiar
example is the Pacific islanders who will
have to evacuate their submerged homelands
because of the changes caused by industri-
alised nations: who should pay for this?
As well as adaptation , we must practise
mitigation of climate change (‘Limiting cli-
mate change’, chapter 8) by reducing green-
house gas emissions. This need not be expen-
sive - huge savings can be made by being
more efficient. Mitigation is especially
important as, even with minimum estimates
of climate change (a global rise of 2 - 3 °C
before the end of this century), adaptation
will be extremely costly and often impossible
to implement. Most alarmingly, however,
without mitigation, irreversible changes will
be set in train that may not be apparent until
it is too late (if it isn't already); for example,
the thawing of the Arctic tundra would
release huge amounts of CO: and methane
leading to further, accelerated warming; as
would the melting of the ice sheets through
the consequent lack of solar reflection that
these white expanses now provide.
What can we do about it? The obvious
switch to non-fossil fuels is thoroughly
aired, with the advantages and disadvan-
tages of wind, nuclear, hydrogen, etc well
discussed. Pitlock notes that truly renewable
and essentially harmless means of energy
generation, such as wind power, are few;
and I note that Victorian naturalists should
not be quiet while dubious cases, such as
that of the orange-bellied parrot, are argued
against the erection of wind turbines.
Climate change is put in context with
other pressing problems of fresh water,
ozone, atmospheric pollution, overpopula-
tion and security issues, and the conclusion
is drawn that all are, of course, linked.
Pittock points out that greenhouse gas
emissions are essentially a problem of
overpopulation, but with the vast burden of
emissions coming from the developed
countries. Thus, ‘the population issue boils
down to one of sustainable development’;
322
‘population issues and climate policy need
to be linked’ - but, since populations gen-
erally decline over generations (long-term)
urgent reductions in emissions per person
(in the west) need to be enacted now.
A chapter on the politics of climate
change gives a fascinating glimpse into
negotiations in the 1PCC and deals with
much more besides, under headings such as
‘what about the uncertainty?', ‘how realistic
are the scenarios?’, ‘choosing emissions tar-
gets' and ‘how urgently do we need to
act? . It is noted that in choosing emissions
targets and how we adapt, we face huge eth-
ical issues around which people or fauna
and flora will survive increasing tempera-
tures, rising oceans, more intense storms
etc. The author also considers how climate
change will affect different countries and
what specific nations can do to mitigate
global greenhouse gas emissions; he looks
at Canberra’s reasons for not signing the
Kyoto protocol and provides well-reasoned
and fact-based counter arguments.
The author often quotes from literature and
IPCC reports. Useful headings and bulleted
summaries afford a quick grasp of the main
points, or the reader can spend time with
Pittock’s lucid, well-referenced discussions.
The ‘sources of information ’section cites
reports, texts, papers and, importantly, cate-
gorised websites (e.g. government agencies,
NGOs, renewables...). It’s a little repetitive
in parts, but this allows sections to be read in
isolation and it can act as a useful, well-
indexed reference book.
This is a disturbing book, but provides an
impetus for change, and tolerance in the light
of the changes we face. In the closing chap-
ter. ‘Accepting the challenge’, the author
adds a note of optimism; ’It is not about
doom and gloom ... but exciting technolo-
gies, creating new markets, opportunities for
investments ... solving several problems at
once . . . enjoying our relationship with nature
and creating a sustainable future. It is about
making life better? My view is that we’re
going to need strong, honest politicians to
make sure we have more than a short-term
view of what’s good for us, and what’s right
for the rest of Earth’s inhabitants.
Peter Beech
School of Life and Environmental Sciences
Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway,
Burwood, Victoria 3125
peter.beech@dcakin.edu.au
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Report
Ecological review of the Koo-Wee-Rup Swamp
and associated grasslands
Jeff Yugovic and Sally Mitchell
Biosis Research, PO Box 489, Port Melbourne 3207
Abstract
An understanding of the ecology of the Koo-Wee-Rup Swamp was obtained from historical surveys
and soil maps. The probable boundary of the former largest swath p in Victoria was determined. The
immense swamp had distinct zones formed by inner and outer swamps: the inner swamp was a per-
manently inundated reed and rush swamp with emergent sand ridges and possibly with lake-like
cells, while the fringing outer swamp was largely paperbark scrub subject to frequent flooding.
Grassland and acacia woodland were locally extensive adjacent to the swamp in areas of periodic
flooding. The inner swamp boundary was probably flood controlled while the outer boundary was
probably fire controlled on the plain and topographically controlled by hills to the east. Rare exam-
ples of swamp scrub and grassland remain. {The Victorian Naturalist 123 (5), 2006, 323-334)
Introduction
The Koo-Wee-Rup Swamp, also known
as the Great Swamp, the Great Marsh and
Kuwirap, was the largest swamp in
Victoria. Draining and clearing the
immense swamp for agriculture was a
major undertaking commencing in the
1870s and continuing in stages to the
1960s, imposing hardship on early settlers.
It took several attempts over nearly 90
years to drain the swamp, during which
time there were at least twelve floods, the
last in 1952 (Roberts 1985). The swamp
was destroyed without any detailed
account of its original condition (Hills
1942) so what is known of its ecology is
constructed from fragmentary and often
indirect evidence.
The Aboriginal name Kuwirap is said to
mean ‘blackfish swimming’, from kowe =
water and wirap or werup = blackfish
(Database of Aboriginal Placenames of
Victoria 2002). Surveyor William
Urquhart (1847) recorded the name of the
swamp. 1 lis field book states that the Great
Swamp was called ‘Cowirrip’ by the
‘Natives’. The name of the swamp is spelt
in several ways. Koo-Wcc-Rup and
Kooweerup are official historical place
names. The spelling Koo-Wee-Rup was
used for the swamp before and during the
time of drainage and is applied here, Koo
Wee Rup is now the official place name of
the town on the former edge of the swamp.
Kuwirap was effectively impassable and
formed part of the boundary between the
inland Woiwurrung and the coastal
Boonwurrung people. The northern edge
was inhabited by the Bulug willam clan,
meaning ‘swamp dwellers’ from buluk =
swamp and willam - dwelling place. The
southern edge was inhabited by the
Yallock balug clan of the Boonwurrung,
meaning ‘river people’ from yallock =
river and bull uk = people (Clark 1990,
1996).
In order to understand this unique
ecosystem and locate remnant vegetation,
historical data and information are used
here to map the outer boundary of the
swamp. Soil mapping allows a glimpse of
the inner swamp. Further analysis is in
Yugovic and Mitchell (2004, 2005).
Methods
Copies of early survey plans were
obtained from Land Victoria and the State
Library of Victoria. Mapping was under-
taken using GIS software and the Cardinia
Shire Council digital base map of roads
and watercourses. Plans were scanned and
registered as accurately as possible, using
reference points such as creek alignments,
land boundaries and, in the case of
Urquhart (1847), Mount Ararat and
Cannibal Hill, Swamp and grassland
boundaries were digitally traced and com-
bined on one composite map.
Map data and information sources were:
Sun’ey map of Urquhart (184 7)
Map of the western and northern edge of
the swamp and adjacent open plains from
Tooradin to Garfield, remarkable detail
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
323
Research Report
with traverse points shown, valuable anno-
tations on vegetation.
Survey map of Foot (1855)
Map of the southern swamp edge from The
Inlets to Yalloek, shows crown allotments
allowing better resolution and registration
with the base map, valuable annotations.
Survey map of Cal tan an (1859)
Map of the northern swamp edge from
Cardinia to Pakenham, shows allotments,
valuable annotations.
Plan K1 18 (1866)
Map of the southern swamp edge in the
Yalloek area, shows allotments, valuable
annotations.
Plan L3335 (1866)
Map of the near-coastal swamp edge and
The Inlets, shows allotments, valuable
annotations.
Plan Rail 84C2 (1873)
Railway survey map of the eastern swamp
edge from Garfield to Yannathan, uniquely
covers a large area but relatively small
scale.
Map of T nr honor ach and Red Bluff
(Moore & Martin 's Yalloek stations)(no
date)
Sketch map of the Yalloek area in Gunson
(1968), not to scale but informative.
Map of land subsidence of Hills (1942)
A remarkable map of early land subsi-
dence, overlaying early contours with 1914
contours. Subsidence was due to shrinkage
and loss of up to about eight feet of peat
from drainage, burning, wind erosion,
compaction and oxidation. The distribution
of the former peat deposit is assumed to
indicate the extent of the inner swamp.
Points where contours lines from the two
surveys converge indicate no subsidence
and the edge of the deposit. Coverage is
not complete so the entire deposit is not
indicated. The map also appears in Hills
(1975).
Soil map of Sargeant et al. (1996)
The primary source on the extent of the
original peat deposit and thus the inner
swamp. Map units Koo-Wee-Rup peaty
clay (Ko) and Koo-Wee-Rup peaty clay
with sandy ridges (Ko/sr) indicate the pre-
vious extent of peat (I. Sargeant pers.
comm.). These soils are developed on allu-
vial deposits that pre-date the swamp.
Most of the deposits were below the peat
layer and now incorporate residue from the
peat, hence the term ‘peaty’ (Hills 1942,
Goudie 1942).
Hills (1942) indicates a larger area of
peat deposit but Sargeant et al. (1996) is
adopted for the inner swamp boundary due
to its complete coverage. However, soil
map units Ko and Ko/sr may represent a
minimum estimate. The present organic or
peaty content of soil is expected to be
lower towards the edge of the former peat
deposit where the overlying peat would
have been more shallow. Marginal areas of
Monomeith clay loam and Narre clay loam,
which have normal amounts of organic mat-
ter. may have had shallow peat although it
was ‘no more than a few inches’, and the
transition from peaty clay to clay loam is
very gradual (Goudie 1942).
Swampy riparian woodland is indicated in
the mapping along the Bunyip River before
it enters the inner swamp and along Yalloek
Creek after it leaves the inner swamp. The
woodland is hypothesised or modelled in
order to complete the map, all other data
being sourced from existing maps. The
notional width of woodland is 100 m on
each side of the stream, based on the exam-
ple at Bayles, while the old course of the
Bunyip is unclear.
Results and Discussion
Early maps and survey plans and soil
mapping are combined in Figure 1 to rep-
resent the original inner and outer bound-
ary of the Koo-Wee-Rup Swamp. Where
there are discrepancies between sources,
the best source in terms of resolution is
given priority. Where no data is included,
along small sections of the outer boundary,
no line is indicated.
The scale and accuracy of the recon-
structed swamp boundary varies with the
source data. Source maps such as Foot
(1855) are remarkably detailed and proba-
bly accurate to within tens of metres, while
other maps are at smaller scales and one is
not to scale. The outer swamp boundary is
a compilation of historical maps and survey
plans, while the inner boundary is inferred
from soil mapping and is indicative only.
324
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Research Report
o 2 '£
■
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
325
Fig. 1. Koo-Wee-Rup Swamp, reconstructed from historical plans and soil mapping.
Research Report
The Koo-Wee-Rup Plain included a
number of swamp complexes (Rosengren
1984):
• Koo-Wee-Rup Swamp
• Dalmore Swamp, contiguous with above,
to the west
• Tobin Yallock Swamp, effectively sepa
rate from both of the above, to the south
Grasslands and woodlands were locally
extensive on the margins of these swamps.
Koo-Wee-Rup Swamp
The Koo-Wee-Rup Swamp was joined
with the Dalmore Swamp to form a major
wetland complex with an east-west orien-
tation. With maximum dimensions of 32
km and 14 km and over 30000 ha in area,
this was the largest swamp in Victoria.
The swamp was situated on the Koo-
Wee-Rup Plain, the northern and terrestrial
part of the Western Port Sunkland which is
a product of block faulting (Spencer-Jones
et al. 1975). The swamp formed after the
last Ice Age in what had been an arid or
semi-arid landscape, A previously dry cli-
mate is indicated by wind-formed curved
ridges (lunettes) on the east side of former
intermittent or dry lakes (Sargeant et al.
1996). With climate warming there was
more rainfall and permanent How in the
Bunyip River. Permanent inundation of the
inner swamp initiated peat deposition
which was continuous up to the time of
drainage (Hills 1942).
Sea level rise following the Ice Age trun-
cated the swamp, greatly reducing its size.
Freshwater swamp deposits outcrop along
the coast as low cliffs between The Inlets
and Lang Lang beach (Gel I 1974;
Rosengren 1984). Peat deposits also have
been traced below the mudflats of Western
Port Bay where they are exposed in tidal
channels. Peat 0.5 m above the base of the
freshwater swamp deposit on the floor of
the bay was dated 12 280 to 13 480 years
BP. Given the age of the peat sample and
its location relative to the base of the
deposit, it is likely that initial deposition
began around 14-15 000 years BP. Prior to
the marine incursion the Koo-Wee-Rup
and Tobin Yallock Swamps extended well
onto the present floor of the bay where
they merged to form a large swamp for
several thousand years (Miles 1976).
The outer swamp consisted primarily of
closed scrub 4-6 m in height and dominat-
ed by the shrub or small tree Swamp
Paperbark Melaleuca ericifolia (Urquhart
1 847 field book). The dense scrub grew on
essentially mineral clay soil rather than the
deeper organic peat of the inner swamp, as
Melaleuca requires drainage and generally
does not tolerate permanent inundation.
Melaleuca may develop a shallow peaty
surface layer when frequently waterlogged
or may colonise peat during dry phases
where water levels are lower than normal.
Some areas within the outer swamp, proba-
bly mostly localised sand ridges, supported
swampy woodland of Swamp Gum
Eucalyptus ovata with Melaleuca under-
storey, the •Gum Scrub' of Lrquhart
(1847). There were ‘water channels in
places' (Hills 1942).
The core of the swamp was a very differ-
ent environment, being relatively open and
dominated by reeds and rushes. Two tran-
sects of the swamp made in 1868 show
mainly reeds, rushes, and water where peat
has now been mapped, with a small area of
stunted tea-tree noted on the eastern edge’
(Goudie 1942). Hills (1942) thought the
reeds and rushes were probably Common
Reed Phragmites australis and a species of
Scirpus. The early 1868 survey, which
could not be located during this study, also
indicates the presence of open water.
The 13 000 ha inner swamp was essen-
tially a massive peat bog rather than a typi-
cal swamp. With an average surface slope
of 1.3 m per kilometre (Hills 1975), it
could not have held one continuous stand-
ing body of water. Hills (1942) suggested
it consisted of relatively small lake-like
cells separated by dense growths of reeds
and rushes that acted as slowly permeable
barriers to the flow of surface water, while
Goudie (1942) referred to ‘many lagoons'.
A particularly large cell or ‘sheet of water7
with deep peat probably existed between
Cora Lynn and Catani (Goudie 1942).
Groundwater moved more slowly through
the peat and, in effect, the swamp was a
gigantic sponge with large volumes of
water slowly moving through.
The fall of the swamp decreased towards
the coast, as the fall of the main drain
ranges from 1.9 m/km near Bunyip to 0.6
m/km in the lowrer reaches (Hills 1942).
This is due to the shape and size of the old
alluvial fan of the Bunyip River that lay
under the swamp (Goudie 1942).
The Victorian Naturalist
326
Research Report
Permanent inundation in the centre of the
swamp resulted in the deposition of
‘fibrous peat, six to ten feet deep, water-
logged for the most part’ (East 1935), con-
sisting of Phragmites and other vegetation
not fully decomposed due to anaerobic
conditions. Remains of Phragmites , Typha
and Melaleuca were found in remnant peat
by Goudie (1942). The peat also included a
small amount of gravel from the catchment
transported into the swamp by water cur-
rents. Up to three metres of peat had accu-
mulated over thousands of years, and since
it is resistant to erosion the massive peat
deposit acted as a local base level for
streams (Hills 1942, 1975).
The Koo-Wec-Rup Swamp complex was
fed by about ten creeks and rivers but main-
ly by the Bunyip River with headwaters in
the cool temperate rainforests and mountain
ash forests of the Central Highlands 25 km
north. Before it was channelled the Bunyip
River was ‘about 10 feet wide and 5 feet
deep' (Catani 1901). It is not clear whether
levees lined the river before it entered the
inner swamp, as levees arc not apparent at
sites 28 and 29 of Rosengren (1984). The
Lang Lang River may have connected with
the swamp on its southern margin; if so it
then left the swamp, crossed a short dis-
tance of grassland and entered Tobin
Yallock Swamp where it dissipated. With
the possible exception of the Lang Lang
River, all contributing streams dissipated
within the swamp complex, the outlets
being separate streams.
Paperbark scrub extended back along the
rivers and creeks entering the Koo-Wee-
Rup Swamp, making the boundary of the
swamp somewhat arbitrary in places. For
example, swampy vegetation east of
Bunyip along the Bunyip River and its
tributaries may be considered part of the
larger swamp complex but is not included
in this analysis. Further historical research
and map compilation are appropriate east
of Bunyip in particular.
About seven creeks drained the swamp
complex. The main outlet was Yallock
Creek which issued from the southern edge
of the inner swamp at Bayles and was
essentially the lower course of the Bunyip
River which entered the inner swamp in
the north-east (Rosengren 1984). Natural
levees lining the creek supported riparian
eucalypt woodland; a valuable example is
the isolated remnant woodland at Bayles.
Yallock Creek and its levee woodland
meandered through 3 km of scrub before
leaving the outer swamp and passing
through woodland and grassland to the
coast. According to an early survey,
Yallock Creek ‘runs the greater part of the
year, but towards the end of summer
becomes only a chain of ponds’ (Foot
1855). Low' flow does not necessarily
mean the inner swamp wras dry as the peat
may have been holding water at the time.
Hovel I in January 1827 found the water
‘exceedingly good’.
Sand ridges were reportedly used to access
the swamp for stock grazing (Hills 1942).
Narrow' meandering sandy ridges slightly
above the present surface occur in parts of
the swamp area, both inside and outside the
area of the former peat deposit. There are
two ‘sandy complexes', in the north and
south of the swamp, where sand ridges occu-
py more than 20% of the area, and occasion-
al ridges occur outside these areas (Goudie
1942. Sargeant et al. 1996. Fig. 1). Many
ridges are now modified by gravel extraction
(I. Sargeant pers. comm.) blit they were 0.3
to l .5 m high and from a few metres to 20 to
40 m wide (Goudie 1942). A site wdth one
metre ridges occurs at Pakenham South
(Rosengren 1984). The ridges are probably
abandoned levees and bed deposits of dis-
tributary channels of a large alluvial fan
made by the Bunyip River under more arid
conditions prior to formation of the swamp
(Hills 1942).
From the map of early land subsidence
(Hills 1942), the original surface of the
sandy complexes was 0.6 to 2.1 metres high-
er (average 1 .3 metres). It follows that many
but not all of the ridges were buried under
the peat, which is consistent with some
ridges having a peaty loam soil indicating
past coverage by peat while others do not
(Goudie 1942, Sargeant et al. 1996). It is
also likely that, along the shallow edges of
the peat deposit, exposed ridges in the outer
swamp extended into the inner swamp
before disappearing below peat.
The sandy complexes impeded drainage
and influenced the distribution and size of
lagoons within the inner swamp. The
southern sandy complex at Bayles may
have been responsible for a Targe area of
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
327
Research Report
standing water’ between Cora Lynn and
Catani. Similarly, the northern sandy com-
plex blocked Ararat Creek forming a north-
ern ami of the inner swamp (Hills 1 942).
Two ridges appear on Urquhart's map:
the 3 km Rvthdale ridge and 2 km Cardinia
ridge. Both are on the outer north-western
edge of the swamp, are curved and have
similar orientation (Fig. 1). They have
state geomorphic significance due to their
unusual landform (Rosengren 1984) and
are lunettes (Sargeant et al. 1996). Formed
by wind, and 5 to 8 m above the swamp
surface in the case of Cardinia ridge, they
are markedly different from the lower allu-
vial sand ridges. Both ridges were high
ground in the swamp but they did not
reach the inner swamp (the other high
ground was the island at Tynong). From
remnant vegetation, the crest of Rythdalc
ridge supported grassy woodland of Manna
Gum Eucalyptus viminalis . The southern
tip of the ridge was annotated ‘point of
timber’ by Urquhart.
Vegetation patterns, particularly within
the inner swamp, were probably intricate.
The lake-like cells postulated by Hills
probably would have supported a complex
mosaic of reedswamp, aquatic sedgeland
and aquatic herbland. Emergent sand
ridges are likely to have supported vegeta-
tion ranging from stunted paperbark scrub
to swampy woodland on higher sites. Sand
ridges would also have determined vegeta-
tion patterns in the outer swamp due- to
more soil aeration and possibly higher fire
frequency, generally favouring swampy
woodland. They also impeded drainage
resulting in local reedbeds and waterholes
(1866 Yallock plan).
The close proximity of the inner and
outer swamp boundaries for about 8 km
between Nar Nar Goon and Garfield is of
considerable interest. The area is likely to
have been highly productive for the
Woiwurrung, providing access to the inner
swamp where fish and waterbirds would
have been abundant. Tynong is said to
mean ‘plenty of fish’ (O’Callaghan 1918).
River Blackfish Gadopsis marmorulus ,
after which the swamp is named, is a valu-
able eating fish that presumably occurred
in the swamp. Black Swan eggs may have
been obtained in spring when most breed-
ing occurs. On the south side of the
swamp, the Boonwurrung could reach the
inner swamp via the Yallock Creek levees
as far as Bayles and also possibly in the
Yallock to Yannathan area. Plant resources
were presumably plentiful and included
food plants such as Water-ribbons with
edible tubers and Cumbungi with edible
rhizomes, and Common Reed used for
spear shafts, bags, baskets and necklace
beads (Gott 1993).
An early sketch map of Western Port
drawn by Assistant Protector of Aborigines
William Thomas in 1840 depicts an area
well inland of his coastal route with the
label ‘Pan-der-buit or Great Impassable
Swamp’ (Thomas in Cannon 1983). This
may have been a name of the inner swamp,
from buth/butj = ‘grass in general’ also
referring to reeds and sedges (N Scarlett,
pers. comm,).
An island in the swamp occurred at
Tynong where a low granite hill had become
surrounded by swamp (Fig. 1 ). The descrip-
tion on Urquhart's map is ‘island heavily
timbered with gum and dense scrubs’ sug-
gesting lack of fire. At Tynong there was an
abrupt sequence from grassy eucalypt wood-
land on granite hills to reedswamp on the
plain with a fringe of Melaleuca and
swampy woodland. The extensive view
from the hills over ‘impenetrable scrubs of
Tea Tree, Gum Scrubs and Reeds' (Urquhart
1847) included the northern arm reedswamp
and the vast inner reedswamp stretching
south-west to the horizon.
A specimen of Leadbeatcr's Possum at
Museum Victoria was collected from the
hollow branch of a tree being felled at ‘the
edge of the Koo-Wce-Rup Swamp long
before the swamp was drained, about three
miles due south from Tynong railway sta-
tion’ (Mason in Brazenor 1932). This
locality is well within the original swamp
but peripheral clearing may have occurred
by that time. The hollow-bearing tree may
have been a Swamp Gum on a sand ridge.
The location suggests sand ridges out-
cropped above the peat south-west of the
Tynong island. A sand ridge in the vicinity
mapped by Rosengren (1984) may have
been the collection site.
Magpie Goose is recorded from Koo-
Wee-Rup and the swamp would presum-
ably have supported large numbers of this
bird which was locally abundant in south-
328
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Report
east Australia. From the habitat preferences
and behaviour of the species in northern
Australia (Nye 2004), the inner swamp
would have provided nesting habitat, the
outer swamp roosting habitat in trees and
shrubs, and the adjacent floodplain grass-
lands foraging habitat. The swamp area thus
provided all necessary habitats for the
species as well as drought refuge.
As with many swamps in Australia,
Kuwirap was said to be inhabited by a large
black monstrous amphibious creature with a
harsh call, known as the bunyip. The
Woiwurring called the creature Banib hence
the place name Bunyip, while the
Boonwurrung called it Tooroodun hence the
name Tooradin (Database of Aboriginal
Placenames of Victoria 2002).
‘On the Western Port plains, there is a
basin of water — never dry, even in the
hottest summers — which is called Toor-roo-
dun, because the Bun-yip lives in that
water’ (Smyth 1878), which suggests Toor-
roo-dun was also a name of the inner
swamp. Reputed to devour human beings,
Toor-roo-dun was said to inhabit the deep
waters and the thick mud beneath the waters
of the swamp and to have a head and neck
like an emu (Smyth 1878).
No bunyip story in Australia is recorded in
detail. The story may relate to seals which
sometimes visit freshwater rivers and
swamps, as bunyips reported by early
Europeans were apparently vagrant seals, or
even to extinct megafauna such as
Diprotodon (Flctt 1999). However, the
swamp formed after the mega fauna I extinc-
tion and it is implausible that the coastal
Boonwurrung would not have recognised
seals even outside their usual habitat.
Draining and clearing the Koo-Wee-Rup
and Tobin Yallock Swamps rapidly led to
deep incision and channel erosion of the
feeder streams upstream, due to lowering of
the local base level. By 1916 the Bunyip
Main Drain had deposited a layer of sedi-
ment two feet thick P/2 miles out to sea
(East 1935). Bunyip Main Drain and Lang
Lang River (Drain) remain by far the largest
contributors of suspended sediment to
Western Port Bay (Wall brink et at. 2003).
The slow recovery of seagrass cover since
the decline of the 1970s (Ball and Blake
2001) and declining fisheries in the bay (DPI
2004) may be affected by the resulting high
turbidity.
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
Dalmore Swamp
Before it was drained and cleared,
Dalmore Swamp was fed mainly by
Cardinia Creek and was known for its
dense, almost impassable scrub (Goudie
1942). It occurred on mineral clay soil
rather than the deep peat of the inner Koo-
Wee-Rup Swamp. A continuous line of
‘impenetrable scrubs’ was mapped by
Urquhart (1847) along the north edge of
the ‘Great Swamp’ then consisting of both
swamps in combination. Dalmore Swamp
was effectively joined with the Koo-Wee-
Rup Swamp, forming a western extension
of the outer swamp. The swamp was
drained by five tidal creeks, four at The
Inlets and Sawtell Creek at Tooradin.
The central area has a layer of decom-
posed peat approximately 75-85 cm below
the surface which may reach a thickness of
60 cm (Goudie 1942). The peat seam is
valuable in market gardening due to the
internal soil drainage it provides (Sargeant
et al. 1996), the overlying black clay pre-
venting it from being lost. Remains of
club-sedge Bolboschoemis have been
found in the peat (S Seymour pers.
comm.), consistent with Goudie who iden-
tified seeds of 'Scirpus and Lepidosperma ’
in the peat ( Bolboschoemis was previously
Scirpus).
The centre of the Dalmore Swamp once
may have been an arm of the inner swamp
until local geological uplift reduced the
catchment size and stream flow of the
western feeder streams, ending peat
formation and leading to deposition of the
overlying Dalmore clay (Hills 1942).
However, soil maps indicate the Dalmore
peat was not connected with the inner
swamp peat (Goudie 1942, Sargeant et al.
1996), suggesting the past existence of two
inner swamps.
Tobin Yallock Swamp
The former extensive Tobin Yallock
Swamp was south of the Yallock grass-
lands and was fed mainly by the Lang
Lang River. It consisted largely of
Melaleuca scrub fanning out to form a 6
km length of the north-east coast of
Western Port Bay. With no mangrove or
salt marsh fringe and no beach, this shore-
line Melaleuca scrub was highly unusual
in Victoria.
329
Research Report
The shore was probably cliffed and
receding when mapped by Smythe, the low
two metre cliff consisting of exposed
freshwater swamp peat and clay. There
was no single outlet, water issuing from
the swamp via ‘numerous rills of fresh
water continually running’ (Smythe 1843).
‘It is possible that floodwaters spilling out
in this way produced the crenulate shore-
line, with waterfalls scouring out each
cove' (Bird and Barson 1975).
Gum Scrub Creek drained the outer Koo-
Wee-Rup Swamp at Caldermeade and was
vegetated by ‘Tea Tree Swamp"; it then
entered Tobin Yallock Swamp and dissi-
pated. The scrub from the two swamps
almost connected via a tenuous link where
the first European ‘road" was situated
(Smythe 1843), almost certainly following
the Aboriginal path between the swamps.
A valuable 1887 Lands Department plan
of Tobin Yallock Swamp, showing scrub
along the coast and a mosaic of scrub and
grassland further inland, is in Key (1967).
The grassland is described as ‘coarse pas-
ture land very wet in winter' and ‘very
good pasture land'.
Further research and mapping would be
worthwhile to better define the edges of the
Tobin Yallock and Koo-Wee-Rup Swamps
and the largely open area between them.
Smythe’ s (1843) description of some sites
as ‘Tea Tree Swamp' is not consistent with
surveys of Foot ( 1 855) and Callanan ( 1 866)
who maps belts of ‘Tea Tree' within ‘very
course pasture land timbered [with] gums &
very wet in winter’. Smythe’s is an
exploratory survey but fire or clearing may
have fragmented the scrub near
Toorbinarruk Station between surveys.
A ssociated grasslands
The extensive grassland or open wood-
land on the floodplain, of Yallock Creek,
between the Koo-Wee-Rup and Tobin
Yallock Swamps, was no doubt familiar to
the Yallock balug clan. Flowever, explorer
Samuel Wright was the first European to
see it, in 1826. He described it as follows
(quoted in Gunson 1968):
in point of quality ... equal to any he ever
saw in the Colony, it .appeared like beautiful
meadows in England, very thin of timber,
grass excellent
Soon after, explorer William Hovell
(1827) described the same area;
one mile from the tent [mouth of Yallock
Creek]. I came to a fine open level country,
very thinly covered with trees, soil of a good
quality, and the grass long and fresh ... the
only objection to it is that I think it lies too
Hat to be perfectly dry in rainy seasons
The area south of Yallock Creek seen by
Hovell is in Monomeith, which is an
Aboriginal term meaning ‘pleasant, good,
pure' (Massola 1968), ‘good and beautiful'
(Gunson 1968) or ‘pleasant, agreeable'
(Blake 1977). This may have been a refer-
ence to the open and productive terrain
compared to dense swamp scrub, or a ref-
erence to water quality. It is noted that
‘monomeeth poath' means ‘a grassy plain,
a lawn’ (Bunco in Smyth 1878).
‘It was this natural grassland which made
the Yallock area, just south of the swamp,
so attractive to early squatters’ ( Key 1967).
Smythe (1843) mapped swamp scrub and
acacia woodland forming a mosaic in the
local area. The description of the relatively
open country between belts of ‘Tea Tree
Swamp' is ‘Rich black soil wooded with
Lightwood’ and ‘good grass’. Mapping of
the open areas includes many series of
non-random dots that may represent trees
thus depicting a mosaic of grassland and
acacia woodland.
On its western side, the Great Swamp
had an adjacent ‘open grassy plain’ at
Cardinia where Cardinia Creek entered the
swamp (Urquhart 1847). Another ‘open
grassy plain’ north of Tooradin about 5 by
2- 3 km in size (Cook and Yugovic 2003)
was described by Hovell (1827):
J came to another open space, quite clear of
trees for several miles square, but so perfect-
ly Hat that the water appears to have no pos-
sibility of draining off, consequently after
rain the ground must be some time before it
can absorb the whole, but at this time we
could not get a drop to moisten our lips,
which would have been very acceptable
from it being so very hot, and which we so
much required, having come upon a native
path, which led in the direction I wanted to
go, I kept upon it in hopes that it would lead
to water
William Blandowski crossed the grassy
plains during his scientific exploration of
Western Port in 1855. He described it thus
(1855):
Between Lisle's station [Tooradin] and the
inlets, the land is swampy, and luxuriantly
330
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Report
covered with excellent grass, well adapted
for fattening cattle. . . Between Lisle's and
Cuthbert's station [The Gurdies] the country
consists of magnificent pasture grounds, the
horse having to walk through thick kangaroo
grass, reaching up to the girths.
Grassland and acacia woodland, essen-
tially the same plant community, were
locally extensive on alluvial plains outside
the wall of Melaleuca scrub that defined
the edges of the Great Swamp and Tobiri
Yallock Swamp. The major grass was
moisture-demanding Common Tussock-
grass Poa labillardiered. Also present,
usually on slightly drier sites, was
Kangaroo Grass Themeda triandra , the
dominant grass of dry basalt grasslands in
western Victoria. The grassland was rich in
flora and fauna (Cook and Yugovic 2003)
including the Aboriginal staple Murnong
(Yarn Daisy) Microseris sp. which was
probably common. Southern Brown
Bandicoot was probably common in less
flooded areas and still occurs in grassland
remnants.
Blackwood Acacia melanoxylon (then
called Lightwood) and to a lesser extent
Swamp Gum were the major trees in this
grassy environment due to their resilience
to flood, drought and fire. Blackwood’s
suckering habit enables it to survive fire.
Some individuals would reach tree size
and avoid grass fires, forming a woodland.
The area is just beyond the range of River
Red-gum Eucalyptus camaldulensis proba-
bly due to high rainfall. Acacia woodland
on flood plains, previously a distinctive
part of the landscape, is now very rare or
extinct as an ecosystem. However
Blackwood remains widespread, mainly on
road and rail reserves.
The outer swamp boundary has no clear
relationship with soil type (Sargeant el al.
1996) as the same soils occur on both sides
of the surveyed boundary. Since
Melaleuca tends to occupy former grass-
land sites today, we suggest that Koories
were burning back the edges of the
swamps for access and hunter gathering.
All the early European explorers of
Western Port noted that large areas of land
were burnt (Gaughwin 1981). William
Thomas noted that since the neighbouring
Yowengarra clan was defunct their country
had become scrubby because it was not
being periodically burned (Clark 1990).
Urquharf s field book refers to frequent
burning reducing the Melaleuca on open
plains ‘producing good grass’. ‘Many lay-
ers of burnt tea tree branches were found
when the swamp was drained’ (Roberts
1985). As dry peat is flammable, accumu-
lation of the massive peat deposit in the
presence of the Aboriginal fire regime pre-
sumably was due to water in the inner
swamp preventing major peat fires.
Melaleuca ericifolia reproduces by root-
suckcring and seedlings, enabling rapid
spread under suitable conditions. The
Koories were probably advantaged by a nat-
ural weakness or tolerance limit of
Melaleuca : while it was flood tolerant it
was not tolerant of the high fire frequency
on the swamp margin associated with drier
soils and more flammable vegetation.
Melaleuca can regenerate after fire but may
be greatly reduced in cover, so the position
of the swamp boundary is likely to have
been a long-term response to repeated fire.
Drainage patterns indicate the floodplain
grasslands and woodlands occurred on
slightly higher and therefore less flooded
land than the swamp. It follows the soils
were more prone to dry out and crack in
summer but it is unlikely soil factors alone
would have controlled Melaleuca , A com-
bination of soil and fire factors may have
operated to confine the scrub. Both the
inner and outer swamp boundaries may
have been relatively stable over time, or
dynamic and responsive to change in fac-
tors such as rainfall, evaporation, flooding
and fire.
Fire may have been particularly impor-
tant to the Boonwurrung for access purpos-
es. Aboriginal burning is likely to have
maintained the 18 km open space corridor
between Tooradin and Lang Lang and the
effective separation of the Koo-Wee-Rup
and Tobin Yallock Swamps. The Yallock
balug dan were most likely managing their
grassy open landscape by regular burning,
without which the land would have
become dense and effectively uninhabit-
able scrub. In doing so they maximised
both food production and biodiversity.
At The Inlets, the grassland strip passing
between the inland paperbark scrub and
the coastal samphire and mangrove scrub
was less than 300 m wide and probably
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
331
Research Report
formed a vital corridor in the middle of the
tribal range. Four tidal creeks draining the
Dalmore Swamp and the terminal western
arm of the inner swamp were in close
proximity. Part of the area is described as
‘good grass pasture land' on the 1866 sur-
vey plan. Remnant vegetation includes
grasslands associated with various salinity
regimes. Non-saline sites are mostly domi-
nated by Kangaroo Grass, brackish sites
are dominated by Common Tussock-grass
(Fig. 2), while relatively saline sites beside
salt marsh are dominated by Coast
Tussock-grass Pun poiformis.
Despite the previously locally extensive
occurrence of periodically wet grasslands
on flood plains adjacent to swamps, recog-
nition of this distinctive ecosystem
occurred only in the 1990s (SAC 1994),
reflecting early modification and loss of
the grasslands before recording.
The now rare plains grassland may be pre-
dicted to occur on alluvial ‘black soil’ out-
side the margins of former swamps on the
Gippsland plain. The eastern side the Great
Swamp may have had little or no grassland,
such as in the north-east area where
foothills of the ranges formed an edge with
the swamp (Garfield to Bunyip), Here
Melaleuca evidently extended to the break
of slope. However, the rail survey map with
this evidence was compiled after cessation
of the Aboriginal fire regime, so Melaleuca
may have spread onto grassland.
This knowledge of the swamp boundary
has been useful in locating and recognising
several significant remnants of grassland
such as the Clyde-Tooradin grassland
(Cook and Yugovic 2003) and the Yallock
grassland seen by Samuel Wright 180
years ago (Fig. 3). Similarly, extremely
rare remnants of outer swamp scrub have
been found, including an example with the
original swamp boundary beside brackish
sedgeland at The Inlets estuary.
Conclusions
The Koo-Wee-Rup Swamp was a unique
ecosystem with distinct zonation formed
by inner and outer swamps. The inner
swamp was a permanently inundated reed
and rush swamp on deep peat with
localised emergent sand ridges. It is likely
to have included a descending series of
lake-like cells or lagoons separated by
dense belts of vegetation, resulting in mul-
tiple internal water levels rather than the
single water level of most swamps. The
fringing outer swamp was subject to fre-
quent Hooding and supported dense
Melaleuca, giving an impression that the
scrub occurred throughout. Adjacent grass-
lands and grassy woodlands were occasion-
ally flooded and were locally extensive
beyond the generally sharp swamp
boundary.
We suggest the inner swamp boundary
was primarily flood controlled while the
outer swamp boundary was primarily fire
controlled on the plain and topographically
controlled by hills to the east Aboriginal
burning maintained the adjacent grasslands
and woodlands but had little or no influ-
ence on the core of the swamp where per-
manent water prevented major peat fires.
Despite the major environmental change,
some of the wetland flora and fauna of the
original swamp live in, visit or pass through
the area today, the many drains and pastures
providing modified habitat. Swamp
Paperbark and Common Reed are conspicu-
ous along many drains. In addition, some
flora and fauna from the forest catchment of
the Bunyip River such as Silver Wattle
Acacia dealbuta have colonised the banks
of the Buny ip Main Drain.
Further historical research and field
investigation would resolve these wetland
and grassland ecosystems more clearly,
this analysis forming a basis for further
study. An understanding of historical and
extant ecosystems and landscapes provides
the basis for informed land management.
Rare examples of scrub and grassland
remain, all in need of management.
This study shows how careful interpreta-
tion of small remnants, in combination
with examination of archival records, can
further our knowledge of highly fragment-
ed vegetation types such as native grass-
lands. It also demonstrates that existing
vegetation on roads and drains may be
misleading as to pre-European vegetation
patterns. Similar studies may provide use-
ful insights in other heavily cleared
regions.
332
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Report
Fig. 2. Native grassland 200 m from the swamp edge (not in photo), The Inlets.
Fig. 3. Native grassland on the floodplain of Yallock Creek, Monomcith,
■A1- .
fid' ' ’tst -■
Acknowledgements
We thank Sue Harris and Ian Stevenson (Cardinia
Shire Council) for support, Katherine Crowder
and Bretan Clifford (Biosis Research) for map-
ping assistance, Lydia Sivaraman (Biosis
Research) for historical research, and Alex
Blaszak (Victorian Aboriginal Corporation for
Languages), Damien Cook, Doug Frood, Ian
Sargeant, Neville Scarlett, Jill Anderson, Gary
Vines, Errol Nye, lan Smales, Chris Bloink, Peter
Menkhorst, Tan Miles, Rob Gell, Scott Seymour
and Pal Condina for comments. This research
was supported by Cardinia Shire Council.
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
333
Research Report
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Received 22 September 2005; accepted 16 March 2006
334
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
New locality records for reptiles, including
the vulnerable Swamp Skink Egernia coventryi,
in South Gippsland, 2001 - 2005
Peter Homan
409 Cardigan Street, Carlton. 3053 (Email: peter. homan(a::rmit. edu.au)
Abstract
Between 2001 and 2005, surveys of vertebrate fauna in three crown land conservation reserves in
South Gippsland were commissioned by Parks Victoria. During these surveys new locality records
were obtained for several species of small reptiles, including the vulnerable Swamp Skink Egernia
coventryi. Incidental records were also obtained from local residents during this period, resulting in
one new locality record for the Swamp Skink and two other species that had not previously been
recorded in this part of southern Victoria. Habitat preference of the Swamp Skink is discussed. ( The
Victorian Naturalist 123 (5), 2006, 335-338).
Introduction
During 2001, a reptile and amphibian sur-
vey of the Wonthaggi Heathland Nature
Conservation Reserve was commissioned
by Parks Victoria, results of which have
been published in this journal (Homan
2003). Over the following four years further
surveys of reserves in South Gippsland
were commissioned by Parks Victoria.
In 2002, a survey of the vertebrate fauna
of the Bunurong Coastal Reserve was car-
ried out. This reserve is located approxi-
mately 1 15kms south cast of Melbourne,
between Cape Paterson and Inverloch.
In 2003, a survey of the vertebrate fauna
of part of the Kilkunda-Harmers Haven
Coastal Reserve was carried out. The sec-
tion of this reserve surveyed was formerly
known as the Harmers Haven Flora and
Fauna Reserve and adjoins the western end
of Bunurong Coastal Reserve at Cape
Paterson and extends along the coast for
approximately four kilometres to the eastern
boundary of the Wonthaggi Heathlands.
During 2004 and 2005, staff and students
from the Department of Applied Science,
Holmesglen Institute of TAFH, carried out
vertebrate surveys of sites in the
Wonthaggi Heathland Nature Conser-
vation Reserve that had been subjected to
ecological burning.
Over this five year period several local
residents also provided information that
produced new locality records for several
species of reptiles.
The species and localities
Swamp Skink Egernia coventryi
Wonthaggi Heathland Nature
Conservation Reserve
During the 2001 survey of this reserve a
new locality record for the vulnerable
Swamp Skink was obtained (Homan 2003).
Bunurong Coastal Reserve
A feature of this reserve is a series of
rocky headlands that enclose small, sandy
coves. In one such cove twenty Elliott
traps (small size, Type A) were set in
October 2002, principally to survey the
presence of small mammals. Traps were
baited with a mixture of peanut butter,
‘quick’ oats and honey. They were set
behind a primary sand-dune, less than
twenty metres from the high tide mark, at
the base of a cliff. Traps were set over
three days and nights (60 trap-nights) and
were left open for daylight sampling,
which resulted in the capture of a Swamp
Skink on 10 October 2002. The site was
visited again in November 2002 (using the
same survey method and effort) and a
further capture of a Swamp Skink occurred
on 27 November 2002. Both captures mea-
sured and weighed the same (Table 1) and
both had a regrowing tail, so it is assumed
that this was the same animal.
The vegetation at this location consisted
of Spreading Flax-lily Dianella revoluta,
Knobby Club-sedge Isolepis nodosa , Coast
Sword - sedg e L ep i d o sperm a gl a di a tit m ,
Coast Tussock Grass Poa poiformis ,
Seabcrry Saltbush Rhagodia candolleana ,
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
335
Contributions
Table 1. Details of Swamp Skinks recorded in Bunurong Coastal Reserve and Kilkunda-Harmers
Haven Coastal Reserve, in 2002 and 2003. * indicates regrowth tail.
Location Date Snout-vent Tail length Weight
length (mm) (mm) (gms)
Bunurong
10 Oct. 2002
95
Bunurong
27 Nov 2002
95
H aimers Haven
12 Feb. 2003
80
Harmers Haven
12 Feb. 2003
105
Harmers Haven
12 Feb. 2003
65
Harmers Haven
17 Nov 2003
107
with some Austral Bracken Pteridium escu-
lentum , Ross’ Noon flower Carpobrotus
rossii , Common Reed Phragmites
australis , Coast Daisy-bush Olearia axil-
laris and Coast Beard-heath Leucopogon
parviflorus .
Kilkunda-Harmers Haven Coastal Reserve
During this survey two pitfall lines were
established in low-lying areas behind ter-
tiary sand-dunes approximately 1.3 kilo-
metres apart. Both pitfall lines consisted of
ten, twenty-litre plastic buckets, spaced at
five metre intervals, with a 30-centimetre-
high aluminium fly wire drift fence, over a
distance of 60 m. The first pitfall line was
in vegetation that was largely weed-free,
with Coast Sword-sedge, Strand Sedge
Carex pumila , Coast Tussock Grass,
Bidgee-widgee Acaena novaezelandiae ,
some Austral Bracken and Coast Banksia
Banksia integrifolia and a small infestation
of Sweet Vernal-grass Anthoxanthum ador-
ation. The second site was in a more dis-
turbed area, which had been a public camp-
site until it was fenced off about ten years
previously. Vegetation at this site consisted
of large areas of Sweet Vernal-grass, with
some Spear Thistle Cirsium vulgare , Coast
Tussock Grass, emerging Swamp
Paperbark Melaleuca ericifolia , Coast Tea-
tree Leptospermum laevigatum and Coast
Wattle Acacia sophorae.
During the first trapping session on 12
February 2003, three Swamp Skinks were
captured in the first pitfall line, and on 17
November 2003 one Swamp Skink was
captured in the pitfall line at the disturbed
site (Table 1).
Private property approximately 8 kilome-
tres south-west, of Koonwarra.
In late 2003, D and D Drummond, the
owners of a property approximately eight
95*
23
95*
23
120
13
115
30
57*
9
115
30
Fig. 1. Swamp Skink Egernia coventryi on
mulch under pear tree.
kilometres south-west of Koonwarra,
reported seeing fairly large skinks basking
at several locations on their property. On
18 November 2003 I visited the property
and found two Swamp Skinks, one basking
on the trunk of a fallen Swamp Paperbark,
amongst weeds, beside a dam, and another
on mulch, under a pear tree in a small
orchard (Fig. 1). The property was visited
again on 28 January 2004, when another
Swamp Skink was found under an old
polystyrene surfboard lying on weeds
beside the dam.
Tree Dragon Amphibolurus muricatus
Wonthaggi Heathland Nature
Conservation Reserve
No records of this species were obtained
during the reptile and amphibian survey of
this reserve in 2001 (Homan, 2003).
However, on 1 1 October 2002 Ms Terri
Allen, of Wonthaggi, visited the reserve
and observed a Tree Dragon basking on a
fence post.
The site was visited two days later on 13
October 2002, with Mr Steve Darby
of Yarram, when the Tree Dragon was
located again, captured by hand and
336
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
photographed. Prior to this, no records for
this species were available for this reserve
or the Wonthaggi district (Atlas of
Victorian Wildlife database). On 14
November 2003 Terri Allen also found a
road-killed Tree Dragon on a public access
track in this reserve.
Kilkunda-Harmers Haven Coastal Reserve
On 19 November 2003, the last day of
the survey of this reserve, a juvenile Tree
Dragon was caught by hand near the pitfall
line located at the disturbed site mentioned
above. Prior to this no records were avail-
able for this species in this reserve (Atlas
of Victorian Wildlife Database). This
species is readily captured in pitfall traps
(FNCV, RMIT University unpubl. data);
yet, despite 1327 pit-nights being complet-
ed throughout these reserves between 2001
and 2005, no individuals of this species
were recorded using this survey method.
This may suggest that the population of
this species is low along this section of the
Victorian coast.
Black Rock Skink Egernia saxatilis
Private property approximately 3 kilome-
tres WNW of Inver loch
During early 2005, B and L Teesdale,
owners of a property approximately three
kilometres WNW of Inverloch, noticed a
lizard entering their home. The animal
became a regular visitor and was pho-
tographed on 25 February 2005. The pho-
tograph was forwarded to me by Parks
Victoria staff at Wonthaggi and clearly
showed the lizard to be a Black Rock
Skink. No records of this species were pre-
viously available for the Wonthaggi/
Inverloch district (Atlas of Victorian
Wildlife Database).
Common Blue-tongued Lizard Tiliqua
scincoides
Wonthaggi Heathland Nature Conser-
vation Reserve
During October 2005, staff and students
from Holmesglen Institute of TAFE car-
ried out a survey of vertebrate fauna in a
section of this reserve that was subjected to
an ecological burn in May J992. Elliott
traps (Type A) were one of the survey
methods used and were left open for day-
light sampling on 12 October 2005. During
this trapping session one juvenile Common
Blue-tongued Lizard was captured (Snout-
vent = 100mm, Tail = 40mm, Weight =
27gms). Bait used was a mixture of ‘quick’
oats, peanut butter and honey. The
Blotched Blue-tongued Lizard Tiliqua
nigrolutea has been recorded in this
reserve (Homan, 2003) and is common in
this district (Homan, unpubl. data); howev-
er, this is the first available record of the
Common Blue-tongued Lizard for this
reserve and for the Wonthaggi district
(Atlas of Victoria Wildlife Database).
Discussion
The Swamp Skink is listed as vulnerable
in Victoria and most records are from
coastal regions (Atlas of Victorian Wildlife
Database). The species generally inhabits
low-lying areas, swamp margins, sedge-
tussock vegetation and salt-marshes
(Cogger 2000; Wilson and Swan 2003).
The records obtained during these surveys
from Wonthaggi Heathlands, Bunurong
Coastal Reserve and Kilkunda-Harmers
Haven Coastal Reserve, are from areas and
habitat that are considered typical for this
species. However, the habitat and location
of Swamp Skink records at the Koonwarra
site are very different from those at the
other three sites. In particular, it was unex-
pected to find this species in an orchard
close to numerous man-made structures,
well away from any low-lying areas.
The Koonwarra property, of about ten
hectares, is located in coastal foothills
approximately eight kilometres from the
coast and is at an altitude of about 90 m. It
was a dairy farm before being purchased in
1974 and is heavily infested with intro-
duced weeds, including Sweet Vernal-
grass, Yorkshire Fog Holcus lanatus , Cape
Weed Arctotheca calendula , Rib Wort
Plantago lanceolata , Rats-tail Grass
Sporobolus africanus , Dandelion
Taraxacum spp., and some Blackberry
R ubus fruticusos .
Prior to settlement the property and sur-
rounding areas would have been typical
South Ciippsland open-forest. Small rem-
nant areas of this forest type survive today
along roadsides in the district and in neigh-
bouring properties, and as remnant vegeta-
tion in moist gullies. However, no low-
lying, swampy habitat that could be con-
sidered typical for the Swamp Skink, exists
in any nearby areas.
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
337
Contributions
The only native vegetation remaining on
the property in 1974 was an isolated area
of about two hectares in a moist gully.
Vegetation covering half of this area con-
sisted of Soft Tree Fern Dickson ia antarc-
tica, Scrambling Coral-Fern Gleiehenia
microphylhi , Red-fruit Saw-sedge Guhnia
sieberiana. Scented Paperbark Melaleuca
scjiiarrosa , Forest Wire Grass Tetrarrhena
juncea , and Austral Bracken, with some
Blackberry and an overstorey of
Blackwood Acacia mefanoxy/on . A small
remnant stand of Messmate Eucalyptus
obliqua and some Narrow-leaved
Peppermint Eucalyptus raciiata survived
south of and adjacent to the gully. This
gully vegetation remains today and has
been allowed to expand through natural
regeneration to approximately three
hectares. The other hectare consisted of an
open area of Common Reed, which sur-
vives, upstream and immediately adjacent
to the above vegetation.
Swamp Skinks were located about 300 m
above the moist gully to the north, near the
top of a wide slope. A narrow, road-side
verge with Messmate, Narrow-leaved
Peppermint and Swamp Paperbark and
some Blackberry is located about 150 m
north of the area where Swamp Skinks
were found. The previous open grazing
land now consists of a vineyard, poultry
enclosures, an orchard, a vegetable garden,
several sheds, a house, several small dams
and a large native garden.
At least one previous survey has located
the Swamp Skink in habitat considered
atypical for this species. Clemann and
Beardsell (1999). recorded the Swamp
Skink in a low-lying site within heathy
woodland, during a herpetofauna survey in
the Enfield State Forest near Ballarat, in
February 1999. During a survey of a
reserve in Boron ia, in March, 2000,
Clemann (2000) also recorded the Swamp
Skink from habitat containing an under-
storey of weed grasses.
Some small reptiles can be unintentional-
ly relocated when firewood or logs are
moved between sites. The Swamp Skink,
however, usually shelters in burrows
(Wilson and Swan 2003) and in any case
large logs are not a normal component of
swampy areas inhabited by the species, so
it is unlikely that Swamp Skinks were acci-
dentally introduced to this property. It
therefore appears that Swamp Skinks have
survived in the past, in either the remnant
moist gully (perhaps in the reedy vegeta-
tion) or the roadside verge and have since
colonised several areas of artificial and
weedy habitat that the species apparently
finds suitable,
Clemann (2000) suggests that caution
should be exercised when assuming that
Swamp Skinks are not present in marginal
habitat or areas that appear unlikely to sup-
port the species. If Swamp Skinks have sur-
vived on this Koonwarra property, then it is
possible that other isolated populations of
this threatened species may exist in other
parts of the South Gippsland foothills.
Acknowledgements
Surveys of the reserves mentioned in this article
were carried out under Research Permit Nos.
10001200, 10001693, 10002108 and 10002377
issued by the Department of Sustainability and
Environment. Staff at Parks Victoria,
Wonthaggi, especially Dan Drummond, Brian
Martin and Sandy Brown, provided much assis-
tance. Terri Allen of Wonthaggi kindly shared
her intimate knowledge of the Wonthaggi
Hcathlands. Pascale Pitot, of Holmesglen
Institute of TAFE, and Richard Francis provided
assistance with plant identification. D and D
Drummond prov ided access to their property and
B and L Teesdale provided photographic evi-
dence for the Black Rock Skink record.
Maryrose Morgan of Lome provided field
assistance.
References
Clemann N and Beardsell C (1999) A New Inland
Record of the Swamp Skink Egernia coventryi Storr,
1978. The Victorian Naturalist \ 16, 127-128.'
Clemann N (2000) Survival m the Suburbs! The (redis-
covery of the Threatened Swamp Skink Egernia
roventiy i East of Melbourne, with Comments on the
Failure of Elliott Traps in a Survey for this Species.
The Victorian Naturalist . 1 17. 180-183.
Cogger 1 1 (2000) Reptiles and amphibians of Australia,
6 ed. (Reed Books: Chatswood, NSW)
Homan P (2003) A Reptile and Amphibian Survey of
the Wonthaggi Heath land and Coastal Reserve. The
Victorian Naturalist 120. 147-152.
Wilson S and Swan G (2003) A Complete Guide to
Reptiles of Australia (Reed New Holland: Sydney)
Received 8 December 2005; accepted 11 May 2006
338
The Victorian Naturalist
Book Reviews
Birds of South-eastern Australia
Gould League Series revised
‘Susan Mclnnes commemorative edition’.
Illustrations by Susan Mclnnes. Revised by Alan Reid.
Publisher: Overthefence Press 2005. Seven volumes, paperback, in slipcase.
ISBN 0975247204 (1-7 set)
The ‘Susan Mclnnes commemorative
edition’ of Birds of South-eastern
Australia is an attractively presented set of
seven regional field guides that are clearly
written, beautifully illustrated and a plea-
sure to use. The books stem from the series
Birds of Victoria , published by the Gould
League over 30 years ago and later
expanded to include birds of the south-
eastern region. Because there have been
considerable changes in the status, distrib-
ution and nomenclature of bird species in
Australia over the years, well-known
ornithologist Alan Reid has revised and
updated the original text (written by Alan
Reid, Noel Shaw and Roy Wheeler) and,
as in previous editions, has included addi-
tional articles by other authors.
Each book contains a dedication to the
memory of the illustrator, gifted artist
Susan Mclnnes. Her beautiful paintings
show birds in lifelike poses in their habi-
tats, and also depict the behaviour of the
birds: the White-breasted Woodswallows
clustered together on a dead twig, (Book 6
p 103) and the finches and sparrows on a
parkland fence (Book 1 p 3 1 ) are just two
of many delightful examples.
All major habitats found in south-eastern
Australia are covered, - namely ( 1 ) Urban
Areas, (2) The Ranges, (3) Oceans, Bays
and Beaches, (4) Inland Waterways, (5)
Dry Country, and (7) Farmlands - and fea-
ture the most common bird species found
in these places. Book 6 (Rare) is devoted
to species that are rare in the south-eastern
region and, with 118 pages, is now the
largest book in the set. Each general habi-
tat type is subdivided into specific habitats;
for example Book 2, ‘The Ranges', fea-
tures Foothills, Gullies, Denser Forests,
High Plains and Heaths, and Tasmania.
The latter section includes all birds endemic
to Tasmania.
The colour coding used for earlier edi-
tions has been retained (e.g. brown for
Urban Areas, blue for Oceans, Bays and
Beaches), and is used on the spines of the
books, the headings in the text, and to
frame the colour plates, reducing their size
a little but creating room for an easy-to-
find name of a specific habitat to the right
of each plate. The font is much easier to
read than that used in previous editions,
and the cover designs have been simpli-
fied. Appropriately, all photographs pub-
lished in previous editions have been
removed and replaced with drawings or
text. New, clear maps harmonise perfectly
with the rest of the content. The layout is
excellent: no space is wasted, enabling a
large amount of information to be fitted
into the books without any page seeming
overcrowded.
Each book has its own introduction,
index, ‘How to use this book', plus other
informative articles and at least one map.
Silhouettes of bird groups to aid recogni-
tion arc included in Books 1 and 3. Those
in Book 1 are placed in a very useful 5-
column table, showing bird group, size,
silhouette, habitat, and the page numbers
where information on each group can be
found. Book 1 also contains two forewords
to the set (one by the Governor of Victoria
at the time of publication, John Landy, and
the other by the author), as well as ‘Hints
for bird study' and a comprehensive index
to all seven books.
Descriptions of the birds cover General
(appearance). Voice, Flight, Food, Nest,
Behaviour, and Distribution, in some cases
two or more of these categories are merged
together, often under the heading
‘Behaviour’. The use of colour for the head-
ings is pleasing and much more effective
than black bold type. Small pictures of
plants, animals and similar bird species that
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
339
Book Reviews
live in particular bird habitats are distributed
through the volumes. In the case of the ani-
mals, size is given (though 10 mm seems a
little large for an aphid, Book 1 p 30).
Where similar species of birds are shown,
their size and the page number of the book
where they appear are indicated. In each
book general notes on particular groups of
birds are sometimes supplied, e.g. ‘Grebe
characteristics’. When many birds are illus-
trated on a double page spread, the book
and page numbers where their descriptions
appear are indicated (e.g. the honeyeaters in
Book 1 pp 64-65).
I have only a couple of minor criticisms.
It is a pity that the colours in some of the
paintings lack the vibrancy of those in ear-
lier editions, and are, in just a few cases,
misleading. For example, the Australian
Reed-Warbler in this edition has inexplica-
bly changed from brown to green (Book 1
p 51), but fortunately remains brown in
Book 4. Not so obvious unless you are
comparing editions - some of the colours
are ‘washed out': the breeding plumage of
the Cattle Egret has paled to a mustard
colour (Book 4 p 51), and the scarlet on
the Scarlet Honeyeater is brownish orange
(Book 6 p 71). Maybe this would not have
happened if it had been feasible to print the
books in Australia. Typographical errors
are almost non-existent, but in ‘How to use
this book' Matin’ should have a capital ‘L\
This is a really lovely set of books, pro-
duced with much enthusiasm, thought and
care. Although soft-covered, they are suffi-
ciently robust to withstand repeated use,
their size is just right to fit into a day pack or
glove box, and they come in a protective
slipcase (appropriately depicting many
species of birds), which is constructed so
that it is easy to slide all the books in at
once. The notched sides of the slipcase make
it equally easy to take hold of the books and
pull them out. These guides provide a mar-
vellous introduction to over 470 birds of
south-eastern Australia, and would make a
wonderful gift for anyone, young or old,
who is interested in learning about them.
Virgil Hubregtse
6 Saniky Street
Notting Hill, Victoria 3168
340
The Victorian Naturalist
Tasmanian Devil: a Unique and
Threatened Animal
Book Reviews
by David Owen and David Pemberton
Publisher: Allen and Unwin, St Leonards,
New South Wales, 2005, 225 pages, hard-
back; ISBN J 74 1143683. RRP $35.00
Tasmanian Devils are fascinating
creatures. They became Australia’s largest
carnivorous marsupials following extinction
of the Thylacine. They remind me of myself
- shy, nocturnal, a spicy attitude when
required and the ability to eat almost any-
thing! The Tasmanian Devil has endured
much prejudice, misunderstanding and per-
secution over the past 200 years, being
labelled 'Beelzebub's pup’ and, along with
the Thylacine, considered responsible for
destruction of livestock. However, 80 years
of bounty records collected by Eric Guiler
show ed that the real culprits were poor man-
agement decisions and practices, along with
packs of feral dogs. This did not stop the
persecution of the Tasmanian Devils, as they
were seen to be the bane of sheep farmers,
and their perceived notoriety was the inspi-
ration for the famous Warner Brothers’ car-
toon character, Taz. Recently the Devils
have once more come under attack, not by
humans, but by the deadly Devil Facial
Tumour Disease (DFTD), mutilating the
faces of hundreds of Devils and posing the
threat of extinction for the species.
Tasmanian Devil: a Unique and Threat-
ened Animal summarises the life and times
of the Tasmanian Devil accurately and con-
cisely. It covers the history of the Devil,
from the evolution and radiation of the
dasyurid family in Australia, the relationship
of the Devil with the new settlers of
Tasmania and the current threat of DFTD.
Although the inclusion of some chapters is
questionable (e.g. the supposed link between
Errol Flynn and the development of Taz by
Warner Bros) every chapter covers an
important part of the Tasmanian Devil’s his-
tory in detail. The particularly interesting
sections are the chapters focusing on the life
history and ecology of the Devil, which
leave the reader thoroughly informed. Did
DAVID OWEN AND
DAVID PEMBERTON
TASMANIAN
A l JNIQUE AND THREATENED ANIMAL
DEVIL
you know- that Tasmanian Devils have
remained relatively unchanged in both shape
and size for about 70 000 years? Or that an
adult Tasmanian Devil can eat up to 40% of
its body weight in one meal? It also is con-
cerning to learn that DFTD has killed at
least a third of the Tasmanian Devils.
The authors have made use of the many
publications and insights by past and pre-
sent researchers, ensuring the book is a
valuable resource for current and potential
researchers and for anyone with an interest
in these beautiful creatures. Throughout the
book there are also many eyewitness
accounts, dating from the early 19lh century.
These provide humour, horror and a sense
of disbelief, making the book a thoroughly
interesting and entertaining read.
The layout of the book is similar to that of
David Owen’s book, Thylacine: The tragic
tale of the Tasmanian Tiger, with extensive
black and white photographs and drawings
throughout the book as well as eight pages
of colour plates at the centre. Overall this
book has been the most enjoyable, under-
standable text I have read regarding
Tasmanian Devils. 1 recommend this book
to anyone with an interest in Tasmanian
Devils or Tasmanian history.
Sarah Bouma
PO Box 708
Lilydale, Victoria 3140
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
341
Book Reviews
Spiders of Australia: an introduction
to their classification, biology and distribution
by Trevor J Hawkeswood
with photographs by B Coulson, T J Hawkeswood, CJ Parker and M Peterson;
paintings by JR Turner
Publisher: Pensoft Publishers, Sofia, Bulgaria , 2003. 264 pages,
paperback. ISBN 9546421928. RRP $44
Having long held a fascination with
Australasian arthropods, particularly
insects and spiders, I keenly accepted a
review copy of Spiders of Australia from
the author. A Hip through the glossy pho-
tographs, depicting many live spiders in
natural settings, rekindled memories of
encounters during my childhood and
youth. There were few introductory spider
books in my primary school library when
my interest in arthropods developed in the
early 1970s, and had a suitable piece such
as this been then available I would have
read it with enthusiasm.
The work is introductory, rather than
definitive. It is educative, compiled by a
well-known naturalist and indefatigable
writer on Australasian natural history, and
seems appropriately directed towards a lay
readership or the intelligent beginner
observer. About 1 50 spider species of a
national total exceeding 1800 are
described and many are beautifully illus-
trated. The illustrations feature the live spi-
ders in natural settings, providing a
glimpse into their ability to camouflage.
To enable the book to be practical as an
identification guide, the 166 colour plates,
comprising 139 photographs and 27 paint-
ings, are cross-referenced to the relevant
species accounts. Many common
Australian spiders will be quickly recog-
nised using the sharp colour plates, but the
author points out their identification limi-
tations, given that important characters
defining species or distinguishing sibling
taxa may not be visible in the photographs.
The book is about half A4 sized and glossy
covered, and as well as conveniently sized,
its slim shape enables snug fitting into
one’s daypack or car glove box for quick
retrieval in the field.
The preface describes the author’s child-
hood fascination with flora and fauna, stim-
ulating further reading. The introduction
includes general information on morpholo-
gy, w ith line drawings of dorsal and ventral
surfaces of a typical spider, with external
anatomical structures labelled to assist the
novice. Spider diets, lifecycles, courtship
and mating behaviour are described, and
favoured habitats specified. The classifica-
tion section covers the basics any new
inquirer will need to know. Many readers
will quickly turn to the short section listing
the 14 genera of poisonous Australian spi-
ders (10 of which are illustrated in the
work) so as to familiarise themselves with
any undesirable home visitors. Here the
work wisely promotes collection of the
actual biting spider for positive identifica-
tion to prevent myths from mis-associa-
tions a problem the medical profession
now knows only too well since the White-
tail Spider’s circumstantially earned reputa-
tion became legendary during the 1980s.
The 29 spider families and representative
species discussed are all listed for quick ref-
erence (pp 29-33). Family overviews (spec-
ifying species numbers at national and
world levels) and selected species accounts,
which comprise the bulk of the book, then
follow (pp 33 163). Headed by scientific
names (unlike birds and butterflies, most
spiders don’t have common names), one or
more common representatives of each fami-
ly are presented, accompanied by black and
white thumb-sized photos. These are cross-
referenced (by plate numbers) to the
enlarged colour plates located at the rear of
the book (pp 200-257, albeit those particu-
lar pages are not individually numbered).
For each representative species, both sexes
are usually described and adult size is given
342
The Victorian Naturalist
Book Reviews
in millimetres (as the illustrations are with-
out scale). Species’ accounts often include
commentary on egg sizes and quantity, egg
sac structures and placements, hatching
time, adult and spiderling behaviour, and
common prey where known, or known to
the author. Importantly, many observations
by the author appear otherwise unpublished.
A five-page glossary assists readers unfa-
miliar with technical terms, but usually the
author keeps jargon to a minimum in the
body text, enhancing its appeal to a lay
field-naturalist audience. A list of 1 1
Australian spider books introduces the
Reference section (comprising bibliograph-
ic rather than cited sources), and includes
brief annotations on earlier generalist
works spanning from 1935 to 1996. includ-
ing comment on their availability should
readers wish to supplement their personal
library. For advanced reading, many jour-
nal papers are listed on a family by family
basis. Artistic credits are given on (unnum-
bered) p 257; most photographs having
been taken by the author. The guide then
concludes with arthropod and plant indexes
of both common and scientific names.
Although perhaps of limited concern to
the novice or hobbyist observer, the guide
does contain a sprinkling of inaccuracies
which spider specialists will detect, as well
as a few other limitations. Lampona is list-
ed as a member of the Gnaphosidae on p
27, but in the main text is under
Lamponidae (p 67). Distribution data are
defined to State level only, and some
appears a little conservative. For example,
the St Andrews Cross spider ( Argiope , pre-
sumably A. keyset* l ingi, the common
species illustrated) occurs in Melbourne,
but Victoria is not listed (p 1 16). I found
the black and white inset photo placement
above (rather than below) each species’
name a little ambiguous for groups where
several species are present in sequence.
And. given my biogeographical faunal
interests, small range-fill maps for each
species seem conspicuous by their absence.
Readability suffers in places due to the
variable print quality. In my review copy
the text font within the species accounts on
pp 34-35, 39, 42-43, 46-47 are unfortunate-
ly finely shadowed or double imaged. In
addition, a small number of grammatical or
typographical errors, or word omissions are
present (pp 61, 67, 73, 94, 96, 123, 157). A
preposition is missing on p 112 (fourth
line), a verb is omitted on p 147, insects is
rendered ‘inspects’ (p 150), and Myanmar
has been misspelled twice (p 46). The
adjective ‘tropical’ (p 162) in reference to
rainforests in south eastern Queensland is
latitudinally inappropriate. Structurally, a
paragraph on red-back spiders (pp 141-143)
is lengthy and might have been better topi-
cally split. Selected species have been
described as ‘interesting’ (e.g. p 99), and no
doubt these are to the author, but perhaps
further explanation is needed to convince
readers or spider enthusiasts as to why. The
author frequently mentions the lack of infor-
mation available for various species, and a
generic statement to this effect might have
been well placed in the introduction to avoid
repetition across sections.
Because of my pragmatic interests, I
would have liked to see in-text citation of
books and papers in support of some
specifics and to enable rapid sourcing and
checking of important facts for quality
assurance purposes in line with the grow-
ing trend towards evidence-based literature
in recent decades. However, in a guidebook
written for general public readership or
middle secondary to primary school student
usefulness, textual reinforcement can be
distracting, often reducing comprehension.
Moreover, body text heavily reinforced
with citations could easily bore younger
inquirers who will gain most from reading
this book. For this reason 1 imagine the
author has opted for the classical educative
approach over fact fortification.
Curiously, the book does not provide
information on alcohol preservation or live
keeping of adults. Spider collection allows
many observation opportunities for bud-
ding arachnologists and this seems to be an
oversight. Although some Australian spi-
ders are very dangerous, most are not, as
the book indicates. During my early child-
hood I kept Leaf-curling Spiders in honey-
jars and in my ‘Bug-catchcr’® (a popular
1970s child’s toy for arthropod observa-
tion), to watch their web-spinning behav-
iour and habits. Yet, perhaps in this age of
conservation the author did not want to
focus on traditional natural history prac-
tices. Nonetheless, these remain important
since we know so little about the behaviour
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
343
Book Reviews
of our less common species and particular-
ly given that so many Australian species
still remain to be described.
Dr Hawkes wood's book aids rapid iden-
tification of common spiders likely to be
encountered in bush land or home gardens
in southern Australian cities. It is a wel-
come addition to the casual naturalist’s
library, and well suited to laypersons wish-
ing to get to know the local species and
learn of their habits as a recreational pur-
suit. As a registered teacher of biology, I
can recommend it as a useful resource for
school and public libraries in that it pro-
vides general information in a readily
accessible form, being particularly useful
for school projects. For school children,
the glossy presentation, large plates, easy-
to-read style and clear structural diagrams
of spider external anatomy will be a major
attraction and provide foundational knowl-
Rhythms of the Tarkine: a
natural history adventure
Book by Sarah Lloyd; CD by Ron
Nagorcka
Publisher: Surah Lloyd, Birralee,
Tasmania 7303. Book and CD in slipcase.
2004. Book 98 pages, paperback; colour
photographs: black and white drawings.
CD duration 74 minutes.
ISBN 0-646-44118-3. RRP $35. 00
Between the Arthur and Pieman Rivers
in north-western Tasmania lies the largest
tract of unprotected wilderness in the
State. This region, covering an area of
some 447 000 ha, was named the Tarkine
in honour of the Tarkincr people who lived
in the area until British settlement. The
Tarkine comprises a variety of vegetation
communities - buttongrass plains, coastal
heaths, the largest cool temperate rainfor-
est in Australia, and eucalypt forests -
which are home to 56 threatened and
endangered species. It also contains the
greatest concentration of Aboriginal sites
(240+, including remnants of villages) in
Australia. In short, this area is one of the
world’s great treasures, but is under threat
edge prior to inquisitive hunting, garden
observation and cautious collection.
Having also worked professionally in both
entomology and arachnology, 1 remain
hopeful that young readers may be stimu-
lated to learn more about the ecology of
the Australian spider fauna. Nature books
read during my childhood fuelled my own
biogeographical interests, so fm sure Dr
Hawkeswood’s handy book will similarly
pique the curiosity of many young readers
whose developing interests gravitate
towards spiders or other arthropods such as
insects. And, through such interest some
may progress to professional roles in bio-
logical or species diversity research.
Kelvyn L Dunn
81 Scenic Drive, Beaconsfield Victoria 3807
Email: kelvyn_dunn@yahoo.com
from the forestry and mining industries.
The campaign to protect it has been run-
ning for over 20 years, but considerable
damage has already occurred. At present
73 000 ha are protected from logging, but
not from mining.
Sarah Lloyd and Ron Nagorcka have
explored 1 1 sites in the area (shown on the
map at the front of the book), and have
recorded their experiences and observa-
tions in words, pictures and sounds. They
communicate clearly not only their passion
for the beauty and complexity of this
descendant from the primeval forests of the
ancient supercontinent, Gondwana, but also
a strong sense of what a great loss its
destruction would be. The text is beautiful-
ly written, containing a wealth of interest-
344
The Victorian Naturalist
Book Reviews
ing and carefully researched information.
With a keen eye for detail, Sarah paints a
vivid picture of the scenery, vegetation and
wildlife, as well as the history of settle-
ments in the area, such as Balfour and
Guildford. In just a few words she brings to
life some of the early explorers - Henry
Hellyer and James ‘Philosopher’ Smith, for
example. The text is enhanced by colour
images of animals, plants and fungi con-
tributed by several photographers, includ-
ing Sarah, and also by Nicholas Sheehy’s
monochrome drawings of birds and insects.
The main text is followed by details of the
99 CD tracks, a table of fauna sightings,
and an index of flora and fauna with the
scientific names printed next to the com-
mon names. Tracks on the CD are num-
bered and highlighted throughout the text.
The CD features 89 tracks of high quality
recordings of animal sounds-mainly bird-
song, but also calls of insects, frogs and the
Tasmanian Devil-interspersed with ten of
Ron’s innovative musical compositions
based on these sounds. To the untrained ear
the music may seem strange at first, but
appreciation grows with repeated listening.
Six musicians, including Ron, perform the
compositions on various instruments.
Wilderness areas such as the Tarkine,
where, to quote Bob Brown, ‘one is imbued
with the awe of being part of nature’s con-
tinuum’, are always a source of inspiration,
whether for photographers, writers, artists,
musicians, botanists, zoologists or anyone
who just enjoys the experience of being
there. One of my favourite tracks on the CD
is the recording of the exquisite ascending
call of the Ground Parrot, accompanied by
the distant roar of the mighty Southern
Ocean. Atmospheric indeed.
This publication should appeal to anyone
with an interest in natural history. Needless
to say, a visit to the Tarkine is now at the
top of my ‘must do’ list.
Virgil Hubregtse
6 Saniky Street
Notting Hill, Victoria 3168
The Gilded Canopy
Botanical Ceiling Panels of the Natural History Museum
by Sandra Knapp and Bob Press
Publisher: Natural History Museum, London , 2005. 168 pages, hardback;
colour photographs. ISBN 0565091980. RRP $49.95
This attractive little book documents the
decorative botanical panels that adorn the
ceilings of the Central Hall, Landing
and North Hall of Natural History
Museum, London.
The founding Director, Richard Owen,
conceived the Museum as being a ‘cathe-
dral to nature’ where learning and discov-
ery about the natural world were para-
mount and where national pride in the
British Empire could be celebrated. His
vision is reflected in the Museum’s neo-
Romanesque design by architect Alfred
Waterhouse.
Waterhouse envisaged a grand central
hall, or ‘nave’, where Owen’s directive for
an ‘Index Museum’, a comprehensive
introduction to the order of nature, could
be realised. Smaller, more specialised
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
345
Book Reviews
galleries radiated from the hall. A grand
staircase led from the hall to the smaller
North Hall where the natural history of the
British Isles was to be displayed. The gild-
ed decorative ceilings featuring plants
from around the world were to unify the
separate halls while introducing visitors to
the marvels of the plant kingdom.
Knapp and Press were unable to find any
of Waterhouse’s original drawings on
which the ceilings decorations arc based,
so it is not clear how the initial selection of
plants was made. As the panels are remi-
niscent of herbarium specimens, it is possi-
ble that the Museum’s Keeper of Botany,
William Carruthers, was involved. It is
believed that the final selection of plants
was made by the artist James Lea of the
Manchester firm Best and Lea, and were
probably painted in situ from scaffolding.
Despite budget constraints, the gilded ceil-
ing decorations are quite extraordinary.
There are 12 plants depicted and named
in the Central Hall, each consisting of six
panels combining to make one major pic-
ture. Generally they are European in origin
or are introduced plants of economic bene-
fit, for example the Tasmanian Blue Gum
Eucalyptus globulus, which was being cul-
tivated in Southern Spain for the produc-
tion of eucalyptus oil. The Showy Banksia
Banksia speciosa seems a surprising inclu-
sion on these criteria but, as the authors
point out, it is perhaps a tribute to Sir
Joseph Banks who bequeathed to the
Museum his herbarium from his various
voyages of discovery.
The apex of the ceiling is decorated by
simpler, more stylised depictions of plants,
almost like photographic negatives.
Possibly inspired by Nathaniel Wallich’s
Plantae Asiaticae Rariores , published
between 1830-32, these plants arc not
named, and despite painstaking research
the authors were not able to conclusively
identify all of them. By contrast, the plants
on the ceiling panels above the staircase at
the southern end of the Great Hall are
more accurately depicted and have their
scientific names. All had some influence
on human civilisation or trade and most
were those upon which Britain built up
trade, empire and industrial might, e.g.
tobacco, cotton, coffee. Knapp and Press
provide some interesting notes and stories
on the introduction and exploitation of
some of these species, including sugar
cane and opium poppy.
The 1 8 plants from throughout the British
Isles portrayed in the Northern Hall are also
botanical ly accurate and shown with their
scientific names. They represent a variety of
habitats, and again the authors provide inter-
esting notes on a selection of them.
The book does not provide a detailed
analysis of the style of the artwork and
techniques, and frustratingly there is only
one passing reference to Victorian interior
design. However, it does provide the first
comprehensive listing of the plants so
beautifully represented in the ceiling pan-
els of the Natural History Museum, and
may be of great interest to the botanical ly
inclined visitor.
Eve Almond
Museum Victoria
Carlton Gardens
Melbourne
Victoria 3000
One Hundred Years Ago
EXHIBITION OF WILD FLOWERS
Following the custom of late years the October meeting of the Field Naturalists' Club consisted
chiefly of an exhibition of wild flowers. These had been sent by members and friends from many
distant parts of the State, such as Casterton, Dimboola, Echuca, Benalla. Sale, Castlemaine,
Bendigo, &c, and, thanks to the cool weather, arrived in very good condition, so that the display
was one of the best yet held. An additional feature was a fine series of flowers of Australian
plants blooming in the Melbourne Botanic Gardens, showing that, contrary to the prevailing idea,
many of our indigenous flowers are capable of cultivation.
From The Victorian Naturalist XXIII p 132, November 8, 1906
346
The Victorian Naturalist
Backyard Insects
by Paul Horne and Denis Crawford
Book Reviews
Publisher: The Miegunyah Press, Carlton, Victoria 2005. 2 eel, 252 pages, paperback,
colour photographs. ISBN 0522852025. RRP $24.95.
Insects and other arthropods are an inte-
gral part of urban Australia. These inverte-
brates that share our homes and gardens
are incredibly diverse and they perform an
enormous range of ecological functions. A
| selection of over 100 different insect
species is presented in Backyard Insects ,
covering a broad range of fascinating crea-
tures representing many of the major
groups of insects. The book, which is now
in an updated and revised edition, will
inspire a keener interest in the insect
denizens in our own backyard.
In the friendly and informative text for
individual species, Paul Horne tells us fas-
cinating details of the often bizarre life
cycles, dietary habits and behaviour of our
backyard insects. Although 18 insect
orders are included, the majority of species
covered in the book belong to only five
orders, Hemiptera (true bugs), Coleoptera
(beetles), Diptera (flies), Lepidoptera
(moths, butterflies) and Hymenoptera
(ants, bees, wasps) so a brief account of
each of these more conspicuous orders is
provided before individual species are pre-
sented. The text throughout the book is
carefully presented to be clearly under-
stood by even very young readers.
Specialist terms are kept to a minimum but
a short glossary explaining a few common-
ly used technical terms is provided. I’m
happy to see that a large number of the
insects chosen for inclusion are provided
with not only a common name but also a
scientific name, most often to the level of
species, but occasionally to genus only. In
addition, the species illustrated are classi-
fied to order and almost all to family. A
further valuable inclusion is an indication,
in millimetres, of the size of the insect. To
round off the species accounts a small sec-
tion is included with some brief, general
comments on a few groups of common
non-insect invertebrates including spiders,
scorpions, slaters, slugs, millipedes and
centipedes.
Denis Crawford’s photomicrography
techniques for imaging live entomological
specimens produce superb results in this
book. The photographs are full colour,
larger-than-life and mostly full page,
enabling easy identification. In my
younger years I found endless entertain-
ment in books on Australian insects such
as those by John Child, Walter Froggatt,
Keith McKeown or Robin Tillyard but
unfortunately at that time none was accom-
panied by the beautiful close-up images
that photography can now provide. A valu-
able addition to the current edition of
Baclcvard Insects is the inclusion of more
images of the immature stages such as
eggs of the Australian plague locust,
ootheca of the green mantid, nymphs of
the katydid and passionvine hopper and
larvae of the codling moth and hover fly.
Another asset is the inclusion of some
images of symptoms of the presence of
insects such as leaf-blister sawfly mines or
termite damage to wood.
There are two appendices, which deal
respectively with collecting and pho-
tographing insects. In addition a bibliogra-
phy is included, listing a good range of
books on both Australian insects and on
nature macrophotography.
In my opinion. Backyard Insects is a
valuable guide for nature lovers, gardeners
and especially younger people for whom
the insect world of the suburban backyard
can provide a captivating kaleidoscope of
subject material .
John Wainer
3/5 Rotherwood Ave
Mitcham, Victoria 3132
Vol. 123 (5) 2006
347
"S / ) cT ^
Naturalist
Volume 123 (6)
December 2006
Published by The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria since 1884
From the Editors
In reflecting on their year's work, which concludes with this issue, the Editors take both
pleasure and pride in reporting on their achievements over the past twelve months. In a
year of great variety of subject matter, of particular note was the special issue, in August,
which iocused on bryophytes. It has become customary in the on-going production of this
journal that one issue each year is devoted to a specific theme or subject. It is likely that,
in the long term, this year’s special issue will rank alongside those on Box-Ironbark
(February 1993) and Fungi (April 2001) as a particularly memorable and important one.
Elsewhere in this issue, there is a list of the many individuals who have assisted in some
way with the production of this year's issues of The Victorian Naturalist. The Editors are
pleased to acknowledge this help, happily and voluntarily given, and without which the
entire process would be a great deal more demanding. We are pleased also to thank those
individuals who have provided papers for publication in these pages. In the production of
a quality journal, much depends on such continuing support. A regular stream of papers
not only ensures that issues can be produced, but also helps the editors maintain a high
quality. To complete the circle, this in itself encourages potential authors to offer papers.
The Editors would like to take this opportunity of wishing the many readers and friends
of The Victorian Naturalist a happy and relaxed Christmas and New Year season.
The Victorian Naturalist
is published six times per year by the
Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Inc.
Registered Office: FNCV, 1 Gardenia Street, Blackburn. Victoria 3130, Australia.
Postal Address: FNCV, Locked Bag 3, Blackburn, Victoria 3130, Australia.
Phone/Fax (03) 9877 9860; International Phone/Fax 61 3 9877 9860.
email: fncv@vicnet.net.au
www.vicnet.net.au/-fncv
Editors: Mrs Anne Morton, Dr Gary Presland and Dr Maria Gibson.
Address correspondence to:
The Editors, The Victorian Naturalist , FNCV, Locked Bag 3, Blackburn, Victoria Australia 3 130.
Phone: (03) 9877 9860. Email: vicnat@vicnet.net.au
All subscription enquiries should be sent to FNCV, Locked Bag 3, Blackburn, Victoria
Australia 3130. Phone/Fax:61 3 9877 9860. Email fncv@vicnet.net.au
Yearly Subscription Rates - The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Inc.
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Victorian
Naturalist
December
Volume 123 (6) 2006
Editors: Anne Morton, Gary Presland, Maria Gibson
From the Editors 350
Research Report Some Flowers visited by the Australian Painted Lady
Vanessa kershawi (Nymphalidae, Lepidoptera)
in northern Sydney bushland, by PJ Kuhiak 352
Practices, experiences and opinions of snake catchers
and their clients in southern Australia, by Nick Clemann 383
Sexing Little Penguins Eudyptula minor using bill
measurements, by Rebecca Overeem, Robert Wallis
and Scott Salzman 390
Is there always a bias towards young males in road kill samples?
The case in Victorian Koalas Phascolarctos cinereus,
by Natasha McLean 395
Contributions Golden Sun Moth Synemon plana : discovery of new
populations around Melbourne, by Ian Endersby
and Sally Koehler. 362
Some taxonomic and ecological observations on the genus
Banksiamyces, by Katy Sommerville and Tom May 366
Annotated records of the Greater Glider Petauroides volans
from The Victorian Naturalist 1884-2005,
by K. Shane Maloney and Jamie M. Harris 376
Honours Australian Natural History Medallion 2006 - Ian Fraser,
by Ian Endersby 400
Tribute Brian Smith, by Alan Monger 403
Naturalist Notes The Mountain Katydid Acripeza reticulata (Orthoptera):
a tourist to Wilsons Promontory, Victoria? by TR New 405
Book Reviews Successfully Growing Australian Native Plants, and
Colour Your Garden with Australian Natives
by Geoff and Bev Rigby, reviewed by Maria Belvedere 407
Wedge-tailed Eagle, by Penny Olsen; illustrations by
Humphrey Price-Jones; colour photographs by
Peter Merritt, reviewed by Virgil Hubregtse 409
Guidelines for authors 410
ISSN 0042-5184
Front cover: Golden Sun Moth Svnemon plana. Photo by Rohan Clarke. See article on
p 362.
Back cover: Haiku by Christopher Palmer.
Research Reports
Some flowers visited by the Australian Painted Lady
Vanessa kershawi (Nymphalidae, Lepidoptera)
in northern Sydney bushland
PJ Kubiak
PO Box 439, Ryde, NSW 1680
Abstract
Adults ot the Australian Painted Lady Vanessa kershawi were recorded visiting the Bowers of 17
species of plants for nectar, in bushland of northern Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. More than
half of these were native plants, predominantly in the family Myrtaceae. Most of the plants visited
were dicotyledons. The growth forms of the plants visited by V. kershawi ranged from herbs,
through to shrubs and one species of tree. All native flowers visited by V kershawi were white or
cream coloured. Flow ers of w eed species visited were white, yellow, purple or orange. Tubular, cup-
shaped and dish-shaped or open flowers were fed upon by V kershawi. In the wild, ready availabili-
ty of nectar may be the overriding factor in determining Bower selection by V kershawi adults. V.
kershawi may play a role in the pollination of many of the 17 plant species recorded in this study. As
a migratory butterfly species, V. kershawi may be involved in the long range dispersal of the pollen
of a number of common native and exotic plant species. {The Victorian Naturalist 123 (6), 2006, 352-361 )
Introduction
The Australian Painted Lady Vanessa
kershawi (family Nymphalidae, subfamily
Nymphalinae) is a very common, medium-
sized butterfly occurring throughout south-
eastern Australia and also in parts of cen-
tral and western Australia (Braby 2000;
Braby 2004). Adults of V. kershawi have
been observed for much of the year in
southern New South Wales (NSW) and
Victoria, with peak abundance in spring,
but are apparently absent from there in
mid-winter (Braby 2000). The adults of V.
kershawi are migratory and have been
observed moving in large numbers, espe-
cially in spring (Smithers and Peters 1966;
Smithers 1969; Common and Waterhouse
1981; Braby 2000; Braby 2004). The lar-
vae of V. kershawi feed almost exclusively
on various native and introduced species of
plants in the daisy family (Asteraceae)
(Braby 2000; Edwards et al. 2001 ).
Some information has been published
about the diet of adult V. kershawi. For
example, Hawkeswood (1981) listed seven
introduced species of plants whose flowers
were visited by V. kershawi adults in the
Glenbrook area of the lower Blue
Mountains, NSW, in the summertime. He
listed Cobbler’s Pegs Bidens pilosa ,
Coreopsis Coreopsis lanceolata , Tall
Fleabane Erigeron florihundus (= IConyza
albida ), Stinking Roger Tagetes minuta
and Dandelion Taraxacum officinale (all in
the Asteraceae), Japanese Honeysuckle
Lonicera japonica (Caprifoliaceae) and
Pavonia hastata (Malvaceae) as adult food
plants of V kershawi. Nunn (2002) men-
tioned that the introduced daisy species
Smooth Catsear Hypoehoeris glabra and
Lesser Hawkbit Leontodon taraxacoides
were commonly visited for nectar by V.
kershawi in the Ballarat region of Victoria.
Williams and Powell (2006) observed V.
kershawi feeding on the flowers of
Capeweed Arctotheca calendula (Astera-
ceae) on Woody Island, off the coast of
southern Western Australia.
A few authors have noted some native
plants fed upon by V. kershawi adults.
Keighery (1975) recorded V kershawi as a
visitor to the flowers of Coastal Banjine
Pimelea ferruginea , Rose Banjine P. rosea
and P. sulphured (all in the Thymelae-
aceae) in Western Australia. Stace and
Fripp (1977) observed V. kershawi visiting
white-flowered plants of Common Heath
Epacris impressa (Epacridaceae) in spring
in eastern Victoria. Vanessa kershawi was
recorded foraging on the flowers of
Plunkett Mallee Eucalyptus curtisii
(Myrtaceae) in Queensland (Dunn 1994).
Williams and Powell (2006) observed
adults of V kershawi feeding on the flow-
ers of Pimelea ferruginea and of Variable
Groundsel Senecio lautus (Asteraceae), on
islands of the Recherche Archipelago in
352
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
Western Australia. Braby and Edwards
(2006) frequently observed V. kershawi
adults feeding from the flowers of daisies
(Asteraceae) and Eucalypts (Myrtaceae) in
the Griffith district of inland southern NSW.
The aim of this present study was to find
out which species of plants weare visited
for nectar by V. kershawi adults in the
bushland of northern Sydney.
Observations and Discussion
Observations for this study were made in
the Lane Cove River catchment area of
northern Sydney, NSW, in the years 1995-
1998 and 2003-2005. Much of the natural
vegetation in the study area is open-forest,
with smaller amounts of woodland and
heathland also present (Clarke and Benson
1987; Benson and Howell 1990). The
open-forests of the study area are dominat-
ed by a few species of eucalypt, most com-
monly Sydney Peppermint Eucalyptus
piperita . Red Bloodwood Corymb ia gum-
mifera and Sydney Red Gum Angophora
costata. The understoreys of these forests
are often shrubby and floristically diverse,
with the families Proteaceae, Fabaceae,
Myrtaceae and Rutaceac strongly repre-
sented. These plant families also dominate
woodland and heathland within the study
area. Herbs, sedges, grasses and subshrubs
are most evident in areas that have recently
been burnt. Keith (2004, pp 146-147) pro-
vided a general description of the Sydney
Coastal Dry Sclerophyll Forests, which are
typical of most of the study area’s surviv-
ing vegetation. In the study area, water-
courses and disturbed places (such as the
Fig. 1. Vanessa kershawi feeding on nectar of
Kunzea ambigua (Myrtaceae).
edges of bushland) are frequently dominat-
ed by introduced weed species, e.g. Small-
leaved Privet Ligustrum sinense (Oleac-
eae) and Lantana La n tana camara. The
observations for this study were made in
sclerophyllous vegetation, mostly growing
on sandstone. Harden (1990-1993) was
consulted as the main authority for plant
names to be used in this paper.
In the course of this fieldwork, V. ker-
shawi adults were recorded feeding on the
nectar of 17 species of plants (Table 1 ). On
most occasions the butterflies were
observed inserting their proboscises into
the flowers and it w'as assumed that this
indicated that they were feeding on nectar.
Some instances have been included where
a butterfly moved from flower to flower in
a manner highly consistent with nectar
feeding, but I was unable to observe
whether it inserted its proboscis into the
flowers. In these cases it wras inferred that
the butterfly was probably feeding on nec-
tar. However, it is worth noting that butter-
flies may occasionally land on flowers
without feeding on their nectar.
Of the 1 7 species visited by V. kershawi ,
ten were native species, predominantly
belonging to the family Myrtaceae (Figs 1
and 2). Other native plants visited were in
the families Thymelaeaccae, Colchicaceae
(Liliaceae s. hit.) and Xanthorrhoeaceae.
All of the native plants visited are common
species within the study area, except for
Melaleuca styphelioides , which is locally
rare. The introduced plant species visited by
V. kershawi were from the families
Fig. 2. Vanessa kershawi foraging on flowers of
Angophora hispidia (Myrtaceae).
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
353
Research Reports
Table 1. Some flowers visited by the Australian Painted Lady Vanessa kershawi for nectar, in the
bushland of northern Sydney. An asterisk before the plant species name indicates an introduced
plant, occurring either in bushland or in weed thickets and patches of weeds associated with bush-
land.
Family / Species
Growth
Form
Flower
Colour
Flower
Shape
Month(s) of
Feeding by
V. kershawi Adults
Dicotyledons
Asteraceae
*Ageratina adenophora
herb
white
(florets)
October
* Coreopsis lanceolata
herb
yellow
tubular
tubular
December
*Senecio madagascariensis
herb
yellow
tubular
November
Rosaceae)
* Cotoneaster glaucophyllus
shrub
white
‘cup’
November
Myrtaceae
Angophora hispida
tall shrub
white
‘dish’
December
Eucalyptus piperita
tree
white
‘cup'
January
Kunzea ambigua
tall shrub
white
‘cup'
Oct., Nov., Dec.
Leptospermum polygalifoli am
shrub
white
‘dish’
November
Leptospermum trinervium
shrub
white
‘dish’
October
Melaleuca styphel iuides
tall shrub
white
short tube
November
Oleaceae
*Ligustrum sinense
tall shrub
white
short tube
October, November
Thymelaeaceae
Pimelea linifolia
shrub
white
tubular
Sept., Oct., Nov.,
Dec., Jan.
Verbenaceae
* Lantana camera
tall shrub
orange
tubular
October
* Verbena bonariensis (s. lat.)
herb
purple
tubular
November
Monocotyledons
Colchicaceae (Liliaceae s.lat.)
Burchardia umbellate
herb
white
open
October
Xanthorrhocaccac
Xanthorrhoea arborea
white
open
January, February
Xanthorrhoea media
-
white
open
October
Asteraceae (Fig. 3), Rosaceae, Oleaceae and
Verbenaceae. Most of the flowers visited
were dicotyledons. Only three of the species
visited were monocotyledons. This list is by
no means exhaustive and could be expand-
ed by more intensive and widespread obser-
vations. Even so, it begins to give some idea
of the diet of adults of V kershawi in the
bushland of northern Sydney. Vanessa ker-
shawi was not seen feeding on plant sap in
the study area.
Flower Shape
Faegri and van der Fiji (1979) suggested
that the ‘typical’ butterfly blossom has a
narrow tube and a flat ‘rim’, e.g. Lantana
and Buddleja. They also recognised that
butterflies are able to feed on other flower
types. In addition, they stated that butter-
flies frequently feed on the florets of
daisies. Rutowski (2003) indicated that
flower shape is important to butterflies in
learning which flowers to visit for nectar.
The flowers visited by V. kershawi in
northern Sydney bushland ranged from
tubular in shape to ‘cup’-shaped, ‘dish’-
shaped, or open. The only native species
with tubular flowers visited by V kershawi
was Slender Rice Flower Pimelea linifolia .
Armstrong (1979) listed a number of but-
terfly species, recorded as visiting Pimelea
flowers. Hawkeswood (1981) noted that P,
linifolia was visited for nectar by many
adult butter-flies at Glenbrook. Pimelea
354
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
linifolia is commonly visited by many dif-
ferent species of butterfly in the bushland
of northern Sydney, including V. kershawi
(pers. obs.). Pimelea linifolia often flowers
abundantly in the understorey of northern
Sydney’s bushland in the first few years
after fire, when its nectar is probably an
important food for adult butterflies, includ-
ing V. kershawi.
Most of the native flowers visited by V.
kershawi in northern Sydney bushland
were ‘cup’ or ‘dish ’-shaped and easy to
access for a wide range of nectar-feeding
insects, including butterflies. These native
plant species were mostly in the family
Myrtaceae. For example, the Dwarf Apple
Angophora hispida has very broad, large
and ‘open’ flowers that attract a diverse
and abundant array of insects (Fig. 2), in
the bushland of Sydney (Musgrave 1972;
Benson and McDougall 1998; pers.obs.).
Other ‘open', or readily accessible, flowers
visited by V. kershawi in northern Sydney
bushland include those of the Broad-leaf
Grass-tree Xanthorrhoea arhorea and of X.
media (Xanthorrhocaceae). The flowers of
A. hispida and X. media are usually abun-
dantly produced only in the first year or so
after fire (Benson and McDougall 1998,
2005; pers. obs.).
The flowers of the weed species visited
by V. kershawi were predominantly
tubular, though the Small-leaved Privet
Lignstrum sinense has very short floral
tubes and the daisies visited also have
rather short tubular florets.
Theoretically, V. kershawi might be
expected to experience more competition
for nectar from other insects (e.g. bees,
beetles and flies) at the more open
flowers. However, in practice such compe-
tition often may not be an important factor.
Most of the observed visits to ‘open’ flow -
ers by V. kershawi were to plants that were
flowering abundantly. Generally, there
seemed to be sufficient amounts of nectar
available for the relatively small number of
butterflies (often only one) visiting any
particular plant at a given time. However,
it is possible that the introduced Honeybee
Apis mellifera might significantly compete
with native insects for nectar, when A. mel-
lifera forages in large numbers on flower-
ing plants (including some species wdth
tubular flowers).
Kevan and Baker (1999) indicated that
butterflies (with large wings) probably
have a lower metabolic rate in flight than
some other insects, such as hovering bum-
blebees and moths. The lower energy
requirement of butterflies stems at least
partly from their ability to regulate their
temperature by basking in sunlight (Kevan
and Baker 1983; Bernhardt 1999; Weiss
2001 ). So, V. kershawi may require smaller
amounts of nectar (per gram of body
weight) than some insects in some other
orders, e.g. bees and hover flies. Kevan
and Baker ( 1 999) stated that competition
between insect flowrer visitors has been little
studied. They suggested that butterflies may
be less dominant at flowers than some other
insects, such as bumblebees and hover flies.
Kevan and Baker (1999) noted that the
composition of nectar varies between dif-
ferent flower types and also between dif-
ferent plant families. They stated that
open, bowl-shaped flowers tend to be
hexose-rich and that their nectar tends to
be concentrated, due to evaporation. They
noted that the flowers of daisies also tend
to be hexose-rich. Kevan and Baker (1983;
1999) also stated that flowers ‘pollinated’
by butterflies tend to be sucrose-rich.
These are flowers with deep or ‘concealed’
nectaries (Proctor et al. 1996). For exam-
ple, the notable ‘butterfly bush’ Buddleja
davidii has nectar that is rich in sucrose
(Baker and Baker 1983). There is also
some indication that flowers ‘pollinated’
by butterflies may have higher levels of
amino acids in their nectar (Kevan and
Baker 1999).
Flower Configuration and Abundance
Kevan and Baker (1983) noted that the
packing of flowers into dense inflores-
cences saves foraging insects energy. They
also noted that walking generally uses far
less energy than hovering flight, when
insects are foraging on flowers. Faegri and
van der Pijl ( 1 979) stated that ‘typical’ but-
terfly blossoms, such as Lantana and
Buddleja , have their flowers aggregated
into dense masses and that this minimises
‘travel costs’. May (1988) studied the
flower selection and foraging energetics of
two butterfly species in Florida, USA. He
found that the more densely packed flow-
ers visited by the butterflies in his study
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
355
Research Reports
Fig. 3. Vanessa kershawi feeding on nectar of
Senecio madagascariensis (Asteraceae).
area tended to provide less energy per
flower. This was because these flowers
tended to be smaller and consequently pro-
duced less nectar per flower than the
larger, but less densely packed flowers. He
concluded that the flowers with longer
corollas tended to be more profitable for
the two butterfly species in his study area.
Corbet (2000) found that the Painted Lady
Vanessa cardui tended to visit flowers
massed in dense inflorescences, at a study
site in Britain.
The flowers visited by V. kershawi in the
bush land of northern Sydney were often
clustered closely together on plants that
were flowering abundantly. This often
enabled the butterfly to walk over the plant
from one flower to the next, e.g. when
visiting Tick Bush Knnzea ambigua (Fig.
1) and Small-leaved Privet flowers.
Foraging in such a way would be likely to
help the butterfly to conserve energy.
The individual flowers of Slender Rice
Flower, Lantana and the florets of daisies
are not large and each may yield a relatively
small amount of nectar. However, these
flowers are packed densely together in
‘heads’. This enables a butterfly to perch on
a ‘head' of flowers and feed in rapid succes-
sion from numerous flowers, in an energy
efficient manner. Also, the flowers of the
Broad-leaf Grass-tree are arranged in long
vertical ‘spikes’, enabling the butterfly to
walk easily between individual flowers as it
feeds. Such feeding efficiencies probably
assist V. kershawi to live within the con-
straints of its energy budget.
Flower Colour
An important role of flower colour may
be to attract the butterfly (and other
insects) from a distance, particularly when
plants are flowering abundantly. Weiss
(2001) suggested that butterflies use long-
distance visual cues to locate nectar
sources. However, according to Rutowski
(2003) it is not known whether butterflies
use visual cues to locate nectar sources at
distances greater than a few metres. At
closer distances, flower colour is important
in helping the butterfly to recognize and
locate flowers (Rutowski 2003) and in
guiding insects to the precise source of
nectar (Kevan and Baker 1983). Faegri and
van der Pijl (1979) stated that it was not
known whether nectar guides ‘mean any-
thing' to butterflies. Rutowski (2003) indi-
cated that butterflies tend to visually detect
resources (such as flowers) at distances of
up to one or two metres and that visual
recognition of such resources mostly takes
place at distances of a few centimetres.
Briscoe (2003) noted that there is consid-
erable variation in the number of spectral
classes of photoreceptors in the compound
eyes of different moth and butterfly species.
For example, some butterflies in the family
Nymphalidae have been found to possess
three or four spectral classes of photorecep-
tors, whereas some of the Hesperiidae have
only three. The retina of the Asian Yellow'
Swrallowtail Papilio xuthus (Papilionidae)
has five spectral classes of photoreceptors
(red, green, blue, violet and ultraviolet),
placing it amongst the most complex of the
butterfly retinas that have been studied
(Briscoe 2003). True colour vision has been
confirmed, by means of behavioural experi-
ments. in P. xuthus (Kinoshita el al. 1999)
and the Orchard Swallowtail Papilio aegeus
(Kelber and Pfaff 1999).
fhe spectral responses and photorecep-
tors of the compound eye of a number of
butterfly species in the family
Nymphalidae were studied by Eguchi et al.
(1982), Steiner et al. (1987) and Kinoshita
et al. (1997). For example, Steiner et al.
(1987) found evidence to suggest that the
compound eye of the Small Tortoiseshell
Aglais urticae was sensitive to ultraviolet,
blue and green light.
Briscoe et al. (2003) found that the com-
pound eye of the Painted Lady Vanessa
356
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
cardui has three types of photoreceptors
(green, blue and ultraviolet) and that this
species apparently lacks red-absorbing
visual pigments. Horridge el al. (1984) also
could not find evidence of red-sensitive
photoreceptors in the eye of the Yellow
Admiral Vanessa ilea. Briscoe and Bernard
(2005) found that representatives of four
other genera of nymphalid butterfly, close-
ly related to Vanessa , also evidently lacked
red-sensitive photoreceptors. This evi-
dence, taken together, indicates that V. ker-
shawi is probably unable to see the colour
red. It also seems likely that the compound
eye of V. kershawi is sensitive to green,
blue and ultraviolet light.
Butterfly vision is significantly different
from human sight. For example, it is possi-
ble that V kershawi might be attracted to
ultraviolet light reflecting from some flow-
ers. Such reflections are invisible to the
naked human eye. Dyer (1996) studied the
reflection of near-ultraviolet (UVA) radia-
tion from the flowers of a number of
Australian native plants. Fie studied twenty
white- flowered species, all of which did not
reflect UVA radiation. For example, he
found that the UVA reflection for a white-
flowered Pimelea sp. was ‘dark’. None of
the other plant species studied by him corre-
sponds with species recorded in this present
study, as food plants of adult V kershawi.
Weiss (2001) noted that innate colour
preferences have been recorded for forag-
ing butterflies in the families Nymphalidae,
Papilionidae and Pieridae. She indicated
that such colour preferences may vary
between genera within a family, between
species within a genus and even between
the sexes of a given species. Briscoe (2003 )
indicated that the reason for these prefer-
ences is not well understood.
Nunn (2002) conducted an experiment, the
results of which implied that V. kershawi
might possibly have shown some preference
for yellow artificial ‘flowers’ over white or
purple artificial ‘flowers’. However, the but-
terflies that she tested were captured from
'the wild’, so it is possible that they might
have already learned to favour yellow flow-
ers. To unequivocally determine an innate
colour preference (and exclude the possible
influence of learning), it might be necessary
to use methods similar to those employed by
Kinoshita et al. ( 1 999).
The Painted Lady V cardui is similar to
V. kershawi and is common and wide-
spread in North America, Europe, Asia and
Africa (Braby 2000). Janz (2005) noted
that V. cardui is an opportunistic species,
capable of annually colonizing large areas
in the temperate portions of the world
during spring. Bennett (1883) studied V.
cardui at one site in Britain. He found that
V. cardui visited Common Knapweed
Centaurea nigra and Greater Knapweed C.
scabiosa (Asteraceae). Both of these
species have purple (or ‘reddish-purple’)
flowers. Corbet (2000) observed adults of
V cardui feeding on a variety of flowers at
a site in Britain. Janz (2005) indicated that
selection of nectar sources by V. cardui
may be determined largely by local abun-
dance and availability. He noted that it
may be unusual for V. cardui to use the
same plant species for both nectar and lar-
val food, at any given locality. In
Australia, V cardui has been recorded in
only a few localities in Western Australia,
and then only sporadically, suggesting that
it is not permanently established there
(Braby 2000; Braby 2004). This precludes
a comparative study of the adult feeding
behaviour of V. kershawi and V. cardui in
the wild, in south-eastern Australia.
A study by Kay (1982) found that the
Red Admiral Vanessa atalanta strongly
preferred purple flowers of a common
European herb, Devil’s-bit Scabious
Succ is a prate ns is (Dispacaceae), over
white flowers of the same plant species.
Kay suggested that such a pattern of dis-
crimination may involve an innate or fixed
colour preference in the butterfly. Scherer
and Kolb (1987) observed that the feeding
reaction of the Small Tortoiseshell Aglais
urticae (Nymphalidae) was elicited by the
yellow and blue regions of the spectrum
(possibly also indicating an innate colour
preference).
Weiss (1995) reported that the Gulf
Fritillary Agraulis vanillae (Nymphalidae)
can learn to favour one colour of flower
over another, depending on the amount of
nectar provided by the flower. She indicat-
ed that this capacity for associative colour
learning is likely to be widespread
amongst flower- foraging butterflies. Weiss
(2001) noted that foraging butterflies can
quickly learn to associate a sugar reward
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
357
Research Reports
with a particular colour and that they can
rapidly learn to switch their colour prefer-
ences when a previously unrewarding
colour is made rewarding.
Flowers visited by V kershawi in north-
ern Sydney bushland were mostly while.
All of the native plants visited had white or
cream coloured flowers. It seems plausible
that this does not indicate a flower colour
preference by V kershawi, but rather that
the best available native nectar sources
happened to be predominantly white
coloured flowers. The weed species visited
by V. kershawi had white, yellow, purple
or orange flowers.
No discemable preference for one partic-
ular flower colour was noticed in the for-
aging behaviour of adult V. kershawi in the
study area. However, this study was not
designed to detect such a preference.
Flower colour preference may not be an
overriding factor in the selection of nectar
sources by V. kershawi , in the bushland of
northern Sydney. It seems plausible that an
abundant source of readily accessible nec-
tar would be sought by this butterfly,
almost regardless of the flower colour.
There are obvious survival advantages for
such a widespread, migratory species in
not being rigidly selective about the colour
of flowers from which it feeds. It seems
likely that such a common and widespread
species would tend to be somewhat oppor-
tunistic and flexible in its selection of nec-
tar sources. Such flexibility may well
involve learning abilities similar to those
discussed by Weiss ( 1 995; 200 1 ).
Whether V kershawi would readily feed
from red flowers remains to be determined.
Red is probably somewhat less abundant
than white, as a flower colour in the bush-
land of northern Sydney, where red-
coloured flowers tend to be fed upon pri-
marily by birds. For example, Pyke (1983)
found that the flowers of Mountain Devil
Lambertia formosa and Red Spider Flower
Grevillea speciosa are visited by hon-
eyeaters (Meliphagidae). As mentioned
above, it seems unlikely that V. kershawi
can see the colour red.
Flower Scent
Apparently, it is not known whether
scent plays any role in attracting V. ker-
shawi to feed on flowers. Kevan and Baker
(1999) stated that ‘butterfly-pollinated
flowers’ are mostly weakly scented, but
that butterflies can orient strongly to olfac-
tory cues. Proctor et al. (1996) indicated
that some butterfly species are evidently
capable of using scent to search for food.
Barth (1985) stated that some butterflies in
the family Nymphalidac use olfaction to
find their food. Raguso and Willis (2003)
indicated that floral scent has been found
to attract some species of Nymphalidac
from a distance and can also prompt some
butterflies in this family to land on and
probe flowers. Pellmyr (1986) found that
three species of Fritillary (Nymphalidac)
were strongly attracted to the scented
morph of the Japanese herb Cimicifuga
simplex (Ranuneulaceae), but the butter-
flies were not very responsive to scentless
plants of the same species.
Proctor et a/. (1996) suggested that scent
may attract some butterflies from a dis-
tance, alerting them to start searching for a
food source, and that it also may act as a
recognition signal for food sources that
previously have been used by some butter-
fly species. Proctor et al. ( 1 996) noted that
some butterfly species first react to scent at
a distance of 20 centimetres, whereas oth-
ers can apparently react to scent at a dis-
tance of 30 metres (extending to 60 metres
with a favourable wind). They also stated
that the Red Admiral Vanessa atalanta has
been found to use both visual and olfactory
cues to seek food (consisting of flowers,
dung and sap). However, some other but-
terfly species apparently do not respond to
scent when seeking food.
Musgrave (1972) reported that Tick Bush
flowers have a very strong scent and he sug-
gested that this ‘almost sickly-sweet aroma’
may act as an attractant to insects. Kunzea
ambigua flowers are quite often visited by
V. kershawi (Fig. 1) and also by other
species of butterfly in the bushland of north-
ern Sydney (pers. obs.). However, it is not
clear whether these butterflies are attracted
to the scent of K. ambigua flowers.
Pollination
Bernhardt (1999) noted that relatively
few plants are pollinated exclusively by
butterflies. Quantitative data on the perfor-
mance of butterflies as pollinators are
somewhat scarce (Weiss 2001). An indi-
358
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
vidual butterfly species may effectively
pollinate some, but not all, of the plant
species visited by the butterfly for nectar
(Murphy 1984; Jennersten 1984).
Wiklund et al. (1979) studied the Wood
White Leptidea si nap is (Pieridae) in
Sweden and concluded that this butterfly
was probably not an effective pollinator of
the flowers that it visited for nectar. They
suggested that this butterfly species may
have been acting as a ‘nectar thief’.
Murphy (1984) suggested that this may
have been because the flowers that were
visited by L. s map is happened to be struc-
turally unsuited to pollination by butter-
flies. A study conducted by Courtney et al.
(1982) in England indicated that some but-
terfly species, including the Small
Tortoiseshell Agfa is urticae (Nymphal-
idae), may be important in transporting
pollen over distances of many kilometres.
Murphy (1984) reported that the
Checkerspot Butterfly Euphydryas editha
(Nymphalidae), in California, USA. can
carry large amounts of some pollen types
on its body and wings. He also considered
that this butterfly was a likely pollinator of
a number of plant species. Jennersten
(1984) found that butterflies in Swedish
meadows were probably only minor polli-
nators of the majority of plant species vis-
ited and were probably stealing nectar
from the flowers of ‘legumes’ (Fabaceae,
subfamily Faboideae). Schmitt (1980) sug-
gested that even a small amount of pollina-
tion by butterflies can increase the disper-
sal of genes within a plant population. She
studied three species of Senecio
(Asteraceae) in the Rocky Mountains,
Colorado, USA, and found that butterflies
can carry and transfer pollen between
Senecio plants.
There apparently has been little informa-
tion published about the specific effective-
ness of butterflies as pollinators of plants
in Australia. Keighery (1975) suggested
that some butterfly species, including V
kershawi , were probably effective pollen
vectors for a number of species of Pimelea
in Western Australia. Hopper (1980) found
some evidence to suggest that butterflies
may be minor pollinators of Syzygium tier-
neyanum (Myrta-ceae) in northern
Queensland. Also, the observations made
by Ireland and Griffin (1984) suggested
that butterflies may be relatively minor
pollen vectors for the Yellow Stringybark
Eucalyptus muelleriana in Victoria.
Hawkeswood (1985) concluded that but-
terflies were probably not important polli-
nators of Corkwood Wattle Acacia hid-
wi/lii (Mimosaceae) at Townsville,
Queensland. House (1997) noted that but-
terflies have been recorded transporting
eucalypt pollen.
Vanessa kershawi may play a role in the
pollination of many of the plants listed in
Table 1, including the weed species. Given
that V. kershawi is a migratory species, its
greatest significance as a pollinator may be
in the long range dispersal of pollen between
isolated stands of a given plant species. In
NSW, large numbers of V. kershawi can fly
considerable distances over periods of up to
7-8 weeks, especially in the springtime
(Braby 2000). Such migratory flights are
probably fuelled largely by nectar and the
migrating butterflies may pause quite often
to feed on flowers. While making prolonged
migratory flights, many Lepidoptera feed
along the way (Johnson 1969). The main
migration of V kershawi in NSW can start
any time between mid August and late
November and there is some evidence of a
smaller return movement between February
and April (Smithers and Peters 1966;
Smithers 1969: Braby 2000).
Many of the species of plants visited by
V. kershawi in this study (Table 1) flower
at times of the year when V. kershawi
could be migrating. Many of these plant
species are common, widespread and pro-
duce abundant flowers. For example. Tick
Bush Kunzea ambigua occurs commonly
in many of the sandstone bushland areas of
northern Sydney. When in flower, K.
ambigua produces abundant nectar and is
quite often visited by V kershawi (Fig. 1),
as well as numerous other nectar-depen-
dent insect species, including other species
of butterfly (Musgrave 1972; Benson and
McDougall 1998; pers. obs.). Whilst native
bees and the introduced Honeybee Apis
melt if era may be amongst the most effec-
tive pollinators of K. ambigua over short to
medium distances, it is possible that migra-
tory butterflies (and perhaps also migrating
moths) may play a role in the pollination
of K. ambigua and other plant species over
longer distances.
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
359
Research Reports
Conclusions
The majority of plants visited by adults of
Vanessa kershawi for nectar in the study
area were native species, predominantly in
the family Myrtaceae. Most of the plants
visited were dicotyledons. The growth
forms of the plants visited by V. kershawi
for nectar ranged from herbs, through to
shrubs and one species of tree. Most of the
flowers visited were white or cream
coloured. Other flower colours visited were
yellow, purple and orange. No discernible
preference for one particular flower colour
was noticed in the foraging behaviour of
adult V. kershawi in the study area.
However, this study was not designed to
detect such a preference. It may be that an
abundant source of readily accessible nec-
tar would be sought by V kershawi , almost
regardless of the flower colour. (However,
V. kershawi may not be able to see the
colour red). It seems plausible that such a
common and widespread species would
tend to be flexible and somewhat oppor-
tunistic in its selection of nectar sources.
A variety of flower shapes were fed upon
by V. kershawi in the study area, ranging
from tubular to very open or broadly dish-
shaped flowers. Open flowers appeared to
be visited as often as, if not more frequent-
ly than, tubular flowers. V. kershawi was
not observed feeding on plant sap in the
study area.
As a migratory butterfly species, V. ker-
shawi may be involved in the long-range
pollination of a number of common native
and exotic plant species. However, the
effectiveness of V. kershawi as a pollinator
requires further research.
Not much is known about the extent to
which the diet of adults of V. kershawi
varies across Australia. Nectar from native
plants in the family Myrtaceae may pro-
vide a major portion of the diet of adult Vr
kershawi in the forests and woodlands of
northern Sydney. Whether this also may
apply in other forested areas of coastal
Australia could be worth investigating.
Another possible line of enquiry is w hether
scent plays a role in attracting this species
of butterfly to flowers.
In conclusion, much remains to be learnt
about the foraging behaviour and ecology
of adults of V kershawi and also of other
Australian butterflies.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the two referees, who
made a number of suggestions that improved the
paper as originally submitted.
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(Lepidoptera) of Middle, Mondrain, Sandy Hook,
Woody and Goose Islands in the Recherche
Archipelago, Western Australia. Australian
Entomologist 33, 39-48.
Received 16 February 2006; accepted 14 September
2006
361
Contributions
Golden Sun Moth Synemon plana: discovery of new
populations around Melbourne
Ian Endersby1 and Sally Koehler2
'56 Looker Road, Montmorency, Victoria 3094
'Biosis Research Pty Ltd, 38 Bertie Street (PO Box 489), Port Melbourne, Victoria 3207
Corresponding author Email skoehler@bt0sisresearch.com.au
Abstract
The Golden Sun Moth Synemon plana is a small diurnal moth that is critically endangered in
Australia. The species had been known from just six areas in Victoria until 2003, when new popula-
tions were discovered at the Craigieburn and Cooper Street Grasslands north of Melbourne. In
response to these discoveries, Biosis Research Pty Ltd has undertaken a number of targeted surveys
for Golden Sun Moth as part of ecological investigations of land proposed for development around
Melbourne. This report provides a general outline of the species’ habitat requirements and biology,
and briefly describes the discovery of additional populations and implications of these survey results.
(The Victorian Naturalist 123 (6), 2006, 362-365)
Introduction
Golden Sun Moth Synemon plana (see
cover) is a small diurnal moth from the
family Castmidae that is listed as critically
endangered in Australia under the
Environment Protection and Biodiversity
Conservation Act 1999. The species was
once widespread in the temperate grass-
lands and grassy woodlands of Victoria,
the Australian Capital Territory and south-
ern New South Wales but is now restricted
to small disjunct populations throughout
its former range. Surveys undertaken in
2000 reported Golden Sun Moths from 43
sites in New South Wales and 12 in the
Australian Capital Territory (Clarke 2001).
Prior to 2003, the species had been report-
ed from just six areas in Victoria -
Broadford, Tallarook, Flowerdale,
Dunkeld. Hamilton and near Nhill-
Salisbury (C CP Dwyer pers. comm.).
In December 2003 a substantial popula-
tion of ‘hundreds’ of sun moths was found
at the Craigieburn Grasslands by members
of the Merri Creek Management Committee
and Friends of the Craigieburn Grasslands
(van Praagh 2004). They also sighted four
males in the Cooper Street Grasslands in
Campbellfield. Subsequently another popu-
lation was discovered in Craigieburn,
approximately 7 km north of the
Craigieburn Grasslands, with 30-50 individ-
ual males observed (L Macmillan, Merri
Creek Manage-ment Committee, pers.
comm.).
In response to these recent discoveries,
Biosis Research Pty Ltd undertook a tar-
geted survey as part of ongoing ecological
investigations of land proposed for resi-
dential subdivision in Epping, Victoria.
During December 2004 and January 2005,
four populations were located that were
not previously known to exist, and were
occupying habitat not previously consid-
ered typical for the species, as the vegeta-
tion was generally dominated by
Kangaroo-grass Themeda triandra rather
than wallaby-grasses Austrodanthonia spp.
This increased knowledge led to surveys
being conducted on several other proper-
ties in the Craigieburn/Epping area that
were known to support potential habitat for
the species. Surveys were also extended to
include the Deer Park area as the Golden
Sun Moth historically occurred through
western Melbourne, as indicated by
Museum Victoria records collection from
Altona, Broadmeadows, Keilor and
Glenroy (Fig. 1). These surveys revealed
several additional populations of Golden
Sun Moth.
Habitat requirements
Generally, it has been thought that
Golden Sun Moths are restricted to native
grassland and grassy woodland areas dom-
inated by wallaby grasses Austrodanthonia
spp., which are important as larval food
plants. Floristic and soil surveys from
Golden Sun Moth sites undertaken by
362
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
O’Dwyer (1999) and O’Dwyer and
Attiwill (1999) found the species occupied
native grasslands and grassy woodlands
with greater than 40% cover of
Austrodanthonia spp. Habitat structure is
likely to be an important element for
species such as the Golden Sun Moth in
which females display from a sedentary
position to attract a patrolling partner. It is
therefore expected that grasslands charac-
terised by an open tussock structure and
the presence of Austrodanthonia spp. pro-
vide the most suitable habitat.
Biology
The biology of the Golden Sun Moth is
summarised below, based on information
from ACT (1998), Clarke and O’Dwyer
(2000), O’Dwyer el a/. (2000) and van
Praagh (2004).
Females are poor fliers and tend to bask,
flashing their bright orange hindwings to
attract patrolling males. Individual female
territories are small and they are thought to
walk between tussocks to lay their eggs.
Based on comparisons with Synemon mag -
nijica from Canberra, it is assumed that
females lay their eggs (oviposit) between
the tillers of Austrodanthonia grasses, the
larval food plant. Early instar caterpillars
feed internally on the plant tissues while
later instars feed on the underground parts
of the grass for up to two (or even three)
years before pupating and emerging
through a previously prepared tunnel to the
surface.
The main adult flight season near
Melbourne extends from late November to
January, depending on temperature and
site aspect. Adults lack functional mouth-
parts so their life span is only a few days,
but adult emergence occurs continually
throughout the flight season.
Golden Sun Moths are diurnal (day Hy-
ing), with males most readily observed as
they patrol for females. Male flight is low
(-1 m), fast, and can be prolonged, but
they are rarely found more than 100 m
from suitable breeding habitat (Clarke and
O’ Dwyer 2000).
New populations around Melbourne
Craigieburn/Epping area
Six new populations have been found
during Biosis Research Pty Ltd surveys in
the Craigieburn/Epping area. Initially four
new populations ranging from seven to
over 60 individual males were recorded
during surveys in the Epping area during
the 2004/5 flight season. They were
observed in association with stony rises
with a lower density of Austrodanthonia
spp. than previously considered suitable
habitat. Additional populations were sub-
sequently found at two other localities in
the Craigieburn area during surveys in the
2004/5 and 2005/6 seasons, with three
males observed flying at one site and 13
males at the other.
Interestingly, a number of the male
Golden Sun Moths were observed in flight
over paddocks, as far as 400 m from the
nearest patch of suitable wallaby grass
breeding habitat. This finding is substan-
tially different from the 100 m previously
considered in the scientific literature to be
the maximum flight distance from breed-
ing habitat.
Observations of the colonies in the
Craigieburn/Epping area over two consec-
utive flight seasons (2004/5 and 2005/6)
suggest that there are two populations that
fly in alternate years; one may be substan-
tially more numerous than the other. This
means that populations not seen in one
year could be found in the next, or large
populations seen in one year could be
much diminished in the second year. This
is consistent with the biology of the
species, in which the larval stage is
thought to last for two or more years.
Deer Park area
Observations of a number of males
demonstrated the existence of an additional
population in the Deer Park area during the
2005/6 flight season. While there are no
previous records of the species from that
area, it is within the distributional range of
the species as indicated by Museum
Victoria specimens from Altona and Keilor
(Fig. 1).
Some of the newly found sites are on pri-
vate properties that are currently subject to
assessment for potential development
approval. At present it is not possible to
publish details of fl ori sties and habitat
structure, land tenure and management
activities at these new sites. This informa-
tion will be important to gain further
understanding of the species’ requirements
and will be made available in due course.
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
363
Contributions
-Kalkallo
Sunbury
Craigieburn
.Grassland
Cooper Street
Grassland
'Epping
Keilors
Preston
Sunshine
^ .3\] vf- \
Melbourne-City:
Laverton
kilometres
Fig. 1. Distribution of Golden Sun Moth records around Melbourne.
&1983
364
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Since survey intensity has varied between
sites, and surveys at some locations have
been aimed simply at determining whether
the species is present, the numbers of indi-
viduals documented at various sites does
not necessarily reflect the relative size or
importance of those populations.
Implications
The finding of these new populations
around Melbourne suggests the Golden
Sun Moth is more widespread and may
have less specific habitat requirements
than previously thought. Extensive surveys
are now underway to improve our under-
standing of the distribution and habitat
requirements of the species in the
Melbourne area. It is hoped that this will
assist with determining the relative size
and importance of populations and there-
fore establishing priorities for conservation
and management. Information gathered
will also contribute to knowledge of what
constitutes optimal habitat for the Golden
Sun Moth.
In the meantime, the potential presence of
the species should be considered for any
area within the range of the species where
native grassland or grassy woodland habitat
is present.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Luisa
Macmillan and Brian Bainbridge of Merri Creek
Management Committee, Beverley van Praagh
and Cheryl O’ Dwyer. Our thanks also go to Ken
Walker, Peter Lillywhite and Peter Marriott of
Museum Victoria. Thanks also to Robert Baird,
Bretan Clifford, Catherine Costello, Rohan
Clarke and Ian Smales of Biosis Research Pty
Ltd.
References
ACT Government (1998) Golden Sun Moth ( Synemon
plana)-. An endangered species. Action Statement
No. 7. (Environment ACT: Canberra).
Clarke GM (2001) Survey and genetic analysis of'
NSW populations of the endangered golden sun
moth. Synemon plana 2000. (CSIRO Entomology:
Canberra)
Clarke GM and O ‘Dwyer C (2000) Genetic variability
and population structure of the endangered Golden
Sun Moth, Synemon plana. Biological Conservation
92,371-381.
O’ Dwyer C (1999) The habitat of the Golden Sun
Moth Synemon plana (Lepidoptera; Castniidae). In
The Other 99%. The Conservation and Biodiversity
of Invertebrates, pp 322-324. Ed W Ponder and D
Lunney. (Royal Zoological Society of New South
Wales; Mosman)
O’Dwyer C' and Attiwill PM (1999) A comparative
study of habitats of the Golden Sun Moth Synemon
plana Walker (Lepidoptera: Castniidae): implications
for restoration. Biological Conservation 89, 131-141.
O'Dwyer C, Madden S and Arnold A (2000) Action
Statement 106: Golden Sun Moth Synemon plana.
(Department of Natural Resources and Environment:
Victoria).
van Praagh BD (2004) New sightings of the Golden
Sun Moth Synemon plana (Lepidoptera: Castniidae)
at Craigieburn and Cooper Street Grasslands,
Melbourne Victoria 2003/2004. (Unpublished report
for the Department of Sustainability and
Environment).
Received 4 May 2006; Accepted 23 November 2006
One Hundred Years Ago
EXCURSION TO WILSON’S PROMONTORY
Insects , generally speaking, were not plentiful, nor were any rarities secured. Those seen were
such as are found at Beaumaris, Frankston, and along the Mornington Peninsula. The most
favourable localities visited were the grass-tree flats on the south-east corner of the inlet and the
valleys between Oberon and Waterloo Bays. Lepidoptera, ehielly micros, were most noticeable at
the former locality, but although several of the well-known forms were fairly plentiful, the number
of species was very' limited. Among the butterflies, the Common Brown, Heteronvmpha merope ,
was very numerous on one of the ridges behind our landing-place, but, strange to say, we saw very
few during the remainder of the trip. The Mountain Brown, Tisiphone abeona, as well as the
Painted Lady, Pyrameis kershawi , and the Australian Admiral, P. it ecu were met with every day.
Amongst the “blues”, Neolucia agricola, our Williamstown friend, was fairly common on Tongue
Point, and still more so at Waterloo Bay. This species, which is also found in Tasmania and South
Australia, seems to delight in situations exposed to strong sea winds. Five species of “skippers”
(Hesperidaf) were taken, the rarest being HesperiUa dispar and Mesodina halvzia.
From The Victorian Naturalist XX II p 203, March 8, 1906
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
365
Contributions
Some taxonomic and ecological observations
on the genus Banksiamyces
Katy Sommerville12 and Tom May1
'Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne, Private Bag 2000, South Yarra, Victoria, 3141
:Research School of Biological Sciences, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 0200
Abstract
The stalked cup-fungus Banksiamyces is reported from 13 wild and one cultivated Banksia species.
The geographic range of Banksiamyces is expanded to include Western Australia. South Australia,
Victoria, Tasmania and NSW. Forty-five collections of Banksiamyces were examined in detail for a
range of macro- and micro-morphological characters. Amongst the collections were all four of the
previously described Banksiamyces species ( B . katerinae , B. maccannii , B. macrocarpus and B
toomansis). Some collections that did not accord with these taxa were assigned to Banksiamyces aff.
macrocarpus and B. aff. toomansis. The two species B. katerinae and B. toomansis appealed closer
than initially proposed. The strict host-specific relationship suggested by some earlier studies was
not confirmed. Evidence is provided for production of the fruit-body in early spring, and production
of multiple crops of the same species on the one cone over successive fruiting seasons. Apothecia of
these crops are of different macroscopic appearance, with lighter apothecia being mostly immature,
and darker apothecia producing spores. This phenomenon may explain previous observations of
seemingly different species on the same cone. ( The Victorian Naturalist 123 (6) 2006, 366-375)
Introduction
The fungal genus Banksiamyces is found
growing only on cones of Banksia. The
small, grey, cup-like fruit bodies are rela-
tively dull and inconspicuous, and perhaps
this explains the small amount of attention
the fungal genus has received in compari-
son to the copious literature on its host
(Taylor and Hopper 1991; George 1996).
The genus Banksiamyces was erected by
Beaton and Weste ( 1 982) for B. toomansis
and the newly described B. katerinae and
B. macrocarpus ; a fourth species, B. mac-
cannii, was described by Beaton and
Weste (1984). Banksiamyces toomansis
was first described by Berkeley and
Broome (1887), in the genus Tympanis ,
from a Banksia collected ‘on the banks of
the River Tooma’ [the Tooma River rises
in the Snowy Mountains of southern
N.S.W. and flows into the Murray near
Tititaldra]. The only other collections
reported prior to the studies of Beaton and
Weste (1982, 1984) were two of
Banksiamyces toomansis (as Encoelia
toomansis ) examined by Dennis (1958a,
1958b), one on Banksia marginata from
Victoria and one from an un-named
Banksia from South Australia.
The fruit-body of Banksiamyces is an
apothecium, consisting of a fertile upper
surface (the hymenium), which is slightly
concave or cup-like (especially when dry),
with a basal stipe. The four species of
Banksiamyces recognized by Beaton and
Weste (1982, 1984) were separated on the
basis of micro- and macro-morphological
features of the apothecium, and each was
described from a single Banksia host.
• Banksiamyces macrocarpus (on Banksia
spinulosa) occurs on the central sur-
faces of follicle valves and has rela-
tively large apothecia, dark grey in
colour, and microscopically there are
pigmented granular hyphae extending
down the length of the stipe.
• Banksiamyces katerinae (on Banksia
ornata) has tight clusters of small, dark
grey apothecia on the lips of Banksia
follicle valves, lacks pigmented granu-
lar hyphae in the stipe, and has spores
which are uniformly ellipsoid.
• Banksiamyces toomansis (on Banksia
marginata) has a more solitary habit,
with apothecia on the central surfaces
of the follicle valves, the apothecia are
lighter grey, and pigmented hyphae
extend only partially to the base of the
stipe.
• Banksiamyces maccannii (on Banksia
saxicola) has comparatively large
spores and asci, and the light brown
apothecia are located both at the base of
the follicle valve and on the intra-folli-
cle tissue.
366
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Seven species of Banksia are recognised
from Victoria: Banksia canei , B. integrifo-
lia , B. marginata , /?. ornata , ZL saxicola
(formerly included in B. integrifolia ), /?.
serrata and #. spinulosa (Walsh and
Entwisle 1996). Beaton and Weste (1984)
noted that Banksia canei, B. integrifolia
and B. serrata also hosted Banksiamyces,
but the collections were sterile, and not
able to be identified. Fuhrer and May
(1993) mention a cone o [Banksia mar-
ginata from South Australia on which
occurred both Banksiamyces katerinae and
B. toomansis , and also that an unidentified
Banksiamyces occurs on the Queensland
Banksia conferta , cultivated in Victoria.
Fuhrer and May (1993) considered that not
only could some species of Banksiamyces
grow on more than one Banksia host
species, but also that more than one species
of Banksiamyces could grow on the same
Banksia cone. They state that most dried
collections examined were sterile, but con-
sidered that Tn the absence of spores there
are sufficient other distinguishing characters
... for satisfactory identification’.
Additional collections of Banksiamyces
have accumulated at the National
Herbarium of Victoria, particularly from
South Australia and Western Australia,
allowing further observations on the host
range, species delineation, geographic
range and phenology of the genus
Banksiamyces .
Materials and Methods
Specimens held at the National
Herbarium of Victoria (MEL) and the
Herbarium, School of Botany, University
of Melbourne (MELU) were examined.
Among these collections, those that did not
include sufficient data about location, the
Banksia host, or the exact date of collec-
tion were excluded. Holotypes for B.
katerinae , B. macrocarpus and B. maccan-
nii also were examined, as were two of the
three authentic specimens used by Beaton
and Weste (1982) in their redescription of
B. toomansis , and a paratype of B. macro-
carpus (MEL 2022388). In total 45 collec-
tions were studied (Appendix A).
Before determining the specificity of the
fungus-host relationship, fungi were identi-
fied and grouped using the morphological
characters employed by Beaton and Weste
(1982: 1984) in their treatment of the genus.
These characters were: (1) apothecium
diameter, (2) apothecium position, (3)
apothecium external colour, (4) stipe length,
(5) position of pigmented hyphae, (6) para-
physis shape, (7) paraphysis septate or not,
(8) spores in asci uni or biseriate, (9) stain-
ing of ascus apical plugs with Melzer’s
Reagent (blue or not), (10) spore length,
(11) spore width, (12) Q value (individual
spore length divided by spore width), and
(13) position of apothecia on follicle valve/
intrafollicular tissue.
For each collection, macroscopic charac-
ters (1-3) were determined from dried
material using a dissecting microscope
before cross-sections of at least two
apothecia (from at least two Banksia
cones, where present) were placed in a
weak (<5%) KOH solution and heated.
These sections were examined under x 100
magnification and stipe length measured.
Sections were crushed by pressure on the
cover slip and surveyed at x 1000 magnifi-
cation where observations were made on
spores and paraphyses. Slides were then
Hushed with water before the addition of
Melzcr’s Reagent to determine any stain-
ing of apical plugs. At MELU there were
some existing slides of apothecia from
holotypes which were already mounted in
a lactophenol-cotton blue solution. Fresh
mounts of apothecia from these collections
were made in a weak KOI I solution.
When measuring spore size a minimum
of 10 spores were randomly selected.
Where possible these spores were divided
equally between those found within asci
and those found ejected from the asci
(free). A one tailed t-test assuming unequal
variance was conducted to determine if
spores found within asci were smaller than
those found free.
Maps of the distribution of the different
species were produced and compared to
maps of the host range. Where possible,
the identity of the Banksia host was
checked and confirmed. Where insufficient
host material existed, the host identity
assigned by the collector was compared to
the known range of the host species. If the
two correlated then the identity assigned
by the collector was accepted.
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
367
Contributions
Results
Banks iamyces occurred on 14 species of
Banks ia, from southern New South Wales,
Victoria, South Australia and south-west-
ern Western Australia (Appendix A). All of
the Banksia cones appeared to be wild-col-
lected, with the exception of one cultivated
Banksia baxteri from Cranbourne, Victoria.
Sixteen of the 45 collections of
Banksiamyces examined were found to be
immature (without spores, or occasionally
with only a few spores in asci and none
free). The one collection from Banksia
menziesii and the two collections from B.
serrata were all immature, as were nine of
the 14 collections on B. marginal a and
four of the seven from B. spmulosa. All
collections on the remaining ten host
species (B. baxteri, B . canei, B. integrifo-
iia, B. nutans , B. occidental is, B. ornata,
B. pulchella, B. saxicola, B. speciosa and
B. sphaerocarpa ) were mature.
Distribution maps of Banksiamyces
species (Fig. 1) are based on fertile speci-
mens; among the sterile collections exam-
ined, two were from Tasmania.
Some apothecia were pale grey and some
were much darker, to charcoal grey or
blackish-brown. Of particular note was the
relationship between the external colour of
Banksiamyces apothecia and their maturity.
Apothecia in 20 collections were light grey
in colour. Ot these collections, 16 had no
spores present and two had spores present
only in asci. By contrast, collections with
charcoal grey to blackish-brown apothecia
always had spores present within the asci
and some spores free. There were three
collections which had at least one cone on
which both a cluster of light grey and a
cluster of dark grey apothecia were present
(MEL 2019585, MEL 2063135 and MEL
2022284) (Fig. 2). These clusters were
analysed separately as far as spore charac-
ters. Once again, in comparison to darker
apothecia on the same cone, light apothe-
cia had either no spores at all, or had more
spores in the asci than were free.
Spores located within asci were found to
be markedly smaller than those observed
floating free in the mounting medium.
Across all collections, spores located within
Fig. 1. Distribution of Banksiamyces species, based on fertile material only. a. B. katerinae (filled
square) and B. maccannii (open square); b. B. macrocarpus (filled triangle) and B. aff. macrocarpus
(open triangle); c. B. toomansis ; d. B. aff. toomansis.
368
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Fig. 2. Light (upper) and dark (lower) apothecia
of Banks iamyces toomansis on the one cone of
Banks ia marginala (MEL 2019585).
asci had a mean length of 5.5 pm which
were significantly shorter than free spores
which had a mean length of 6.7 pm (t= -
7.496, df= 401, P= 0.000). Spores within
asci also had a significantly smaller width
than those found free (t= -5.817, df= 401,
P= 0.000). Spores found within asci had a
mean width of 2.6 pm compared with free
spores which had a mean width of 3.2 pm.
It appears that either the spores located
within asci had yet to mature to their full
and final size, or the mounting medium
causes swelling of the spores. For consis-
tency, our analyses used only measure-
ments taken from free spores.
Collections of Banks iamyces were made
in all months, but most commonly in spring
to late summer (Fig. 3). Herbarium collec-
tions do not accumulate from systematic
surveys and therefore the number of collec-
tions per month is merely an indicator of
collector activity. However, it is apparent
that immature collections were nearly all
found in late winter and spring.
Using six characters showing significant
variation, collections were grouped into six
taxa (Table 1 ), four of which corresponded
to the species described by Beaton and
Weste (1982; 1984), with two un-named
taxa, each with affinities to one of the
named taxa. Immature collections could
not be identified with certainty, and the
following refers only to mature collections.
All collections found on Banksia spinu-
losa were distinguished by their large
apothecia diameter, long stipe and pig-
mented hyphae extending from the base of
the hymenium to the base of the stipe.
Spores were often smaller with a cylindri-
cal shape (reflected in the higher Q value).
These features, as well as the host species,
accord well with the description of
Banks iamyces macrocarpus (Beaton and
Weste 1982).
Most collections found on Banksia saxi-
cola had the characteristic large spores of
Banksicimyces macc-annii as described by
Beaton and Weste (1984). Mean spore
dimensions are quite separate from those
of the other taxa (Fig. 4). These specimens
were also distinguished by a lack of pig-
mented hyphae in the stipe.
One collection, also growing on Banksia
saxicola (Table 1 , MEL 2022 131, Banksia-
myces aff. macrocarpus ), had far smaller
spores than Banksiamyces maccannii , an
extremely large apothecium diameter, pig-
mented hyphae extending to the base of the
stipe and a large stipe reminiscent of B.
macrocarpus . This collection is considered
to be closest to B. macrocar-pus , differing
in the spores which are slightly broader,
and hence with a lower Q value than
recorded for B. macrocarpus. The small
number of collections of Banksiamyces
macrocarpus from Banksia spinulosa
available for study means that with more
collections, the range of variation of spore
size and shape may well extend to encom-
pass the dimensions of spores from the B.
saxicola collection.
Eleven collections on eight different
Banksia hosts were assigned to
Banksiamyces toomansis , on the basis of
relatively small spore size (particularly
smaller spore width), and pigmented
hyphae which extended only part of the
way towards the stipe base. Among the
collections was one examined by Beaton
and Weste (1982), from ‘Chappie Vale’.
All five collections on Banksia ornata
were consistent with Banksiamyces kateri-
nae as described by Beaton and Weste
(1982). Differences between B. katerinae
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
369
Contributions
and B. toomansis were far subtler than the
differences between B. maccannii and B.
macrocarpus . Banks iamyces katerinae has
slightly larger spores than B. toomansis
(Table 1 and Fig. 4). However, it should be
noted that the spore dimensions which we
recorded for the holotype of B. katerinae
(6.30 x 3.10 pm) also fall within the range
of variation of B, toomansis (see Table 1).
In the same way, the apothecium size of B.
katerinae is slightly smaller than B.
toomansis , but the two species show over-
lap for this character. In fact, both these
species overlap for all other characters.
They are both unique in being the only
species to show pigmented hyphae extend-
ing only part way down the stipe and hav-
ing apothecia sometimes growing on the
lips of the follicle valves. On the basis of
its spore width (3.60 pm), which was
wider than in any of the collections of B.
toomansis , one collection growing on
Banks ia integrifolia (MEL 2022166) was
also assigned to Banks iamyces katerinae.
Four collections found on the cones of
Banksia marginafa and B. canei were
assigned to Banks iamyces aff. toomansis
(Appendix A, Table 1). While the spores
of this group fell well within the limits of
B. toomansis , the stipe was longer in three
of the collections (3.7 to 4.5 mm, in con-
trast to the maximum of 2.2 mm for B.
toomansis ), and, unlike B. toomansis , pig-
mented hyphae stretched to the base of the
stipe. Also in contrast to B. toomansis , no
apothecia were observed on the lips of the
seed follicle.
In identifying collections, some of the
characters that were recorded appeared to
vary randomly across or within collections,
or showed little variation within the genus.
These included paraphysis shape, whether
or not paraphyses were septate, the posi-
tion of the spores in the asci, and the blue
staining or otherwise of apical plugs with
Melzer’s reagent.
The geographic range of the genus
Banksiamyces shows a decided southern
Australian bias (Fig. 1). Within the genus,
B. toomansis appears to have the widest
distribution. By contrast, B. maccannii ,
(being limited to the host Banksia
saxicola) is restricted to the Grampians,
one of the two sites in Victoria where its
host Banksia grows (the other is Wilsons
Promontory).
Discussion
Taxonomy
Six Banksiamyces taxa were distin-
guished, four of which match the species
already described by Beaton and Weste
(1982; 1984).
Banksiamyces maccannii and B. macro-
carpus are well characterised by the large
spores of the former and the larger apothe-
cia of the latter, with pigmented hyphae
Month of collection
Fig. 3. Frequency distribution for month of collection of Banksiamyces.
370
The Victorian Naturalist
Table 1. Characters separating Banks iamyces taxa. For measurements, the range of means across different collections is provided, followed in parentheses by the grand
mean across all collections. Pigmented hyphae position: 0 = no pigmented hyphae (hyaline hyphae in gelatinous matrix), 1 = extending part way from base of hymenium
towards stipe base, 2 = extending from base of hymenium to base of stipe. Apothecia position: a = on follicle valve lips, b = on base of follicle valve, c = on intra-follicle
tissue.
Contributions
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baxteri
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marginal
nutans
occidentc
pulchellc
speciosa
sphaeroc
<3
.R
'5>
R R
2 1
oq cq
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aq
cqQqoqQqQqQqQqQq
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Vol. 123 (6) 2006
371
Contributions
i 4
■g
o
Q.
u*
A
#
A
rV
s
•c2
□
□
□
□
■ B. katerinae
□ B. maccannii
A B. macrocarpus
A B. aff macrocarpus
• B. toomansis
OB. aff toomansis
6 8
Mean spore length (pm)
10
12
Fig. 4. Spore dimensions of Banksiamyces species. Each point is the mean for an individual collec-
tion, based on measurements of free spores.
extending to the base of the stipe. Each of
these species is known only from one host
Banksia. In contrast, B. toomansis and B.
katerinae clearly require further analysis.
The overlap between B. toomansis and B.
katerinae for characters such as spore size,
apothecia diameter, stipe length and pig-
mented hyphae position, would suggest
that these two species are closer than was
originally thought. While collections of B.
katerinae generally had broader spores (as
suggested by Beaton and Weste 1982),
spores measured from the B. katerinae
hoJotype fell well within the limits of B.
toomansis . The separation of these two
species is made even more problematic
when it is considered that the spore mea-
surements used by Beaton and Weste
(1982) in their description of B. toomansis
were taken only from spores located within
the asci. Indeed when the B. toomansis
authentic specimen was examined, no free
spores could be found. We found that
spores within Banksiamyces asci w ere sig-
nificantly smaller than those found free.
Spore measurements taken from the B.
toomansis authentic specimen are most
likely smaller than would be so for mature
spores of the same specimen. Consequen-
tly, a larger spore size for the B. toomansis
authentic specimen can be hypothesized,
and this would move the species closer still
towards the description of B. katerinae.
Both B. katerinae and B. toomansis require
further examination to determine their sta-
tus in relation to one another. We consider
that any swelling in the mounting medium
would be uniform, and thus not affect the
comparability of measurements from with-
in our study. We acknowledge that further
studies on the effect of maturity and
mounting medium on spore size would be
instructive.
Two taxa of Banksiamyces encountered
in this investigation did not lit within the
four species already described by Beaton
and Weste (1982; 1984). While these taxa
appear distinct, further w'ork is required to
determine if these groups warrant separa-
tion at the species level, or can be accom-
modated w ithin the known species if the
limits of variation of characters are
expanded. For example, if collections
assigned to Banksiamyces aff. toomansis
were accepted as B. toomansis , then that
species would have stipes varying from
short to long and pigmented hyphae vary-
ing from extending partially to fully to the
stipe base. At present, within each of the
four described species, all collections have
the same pattern for the extent of the pig-
mented hyphae in the stipe.
Several of the characters used by Beaton
and Weste (1982; 1984) in their description
372
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
of the four Banksiamyces species did not
appear to differentiate any of the species. In
particular, the position of the apothecia on
the Banks ia cone may be more influenced
by the structure of the cone than by some
feature of the Banksiamyces species itself.
This contention is partially supported by
the observation that Banksiamyces are gen-
eral ly more common on parts of the
Banks ia follicle valves where the tomen-
tum has eroded rather than on the hard
glabrous surfaces of the cone.
Further studies on the taxonomy of the
genus are required. Given the few charac-
ters which show significant variation, and
the difficulty of identifying many collec-
tions due to sterility, delimitation of
species would benefit from analysis of bio-
chemical and molecular characters. If
species can be grown in pure culture, cul-
tural characters also may be of assistance.
Ecology
Banksiamyces remains known only from
Banks ia. The number of Banks i a host
species from which the fungus is known
has been increased to 14. The existence of
more than one species on the same host
has been confirmed with the presence of B.
maccannii and the much smaller-spored B.
aff. macrocarpus on different collections
of Banks ia saxicola. The occurrence of one
Banksiamyces species on multiple Banks ia
hosts (up to eight hosts for Banksiamyces
toomansis ), and the occurrence of more
than one Banksiamyces species on the
same Banksia host, demonstrates that a
strict host specific relationship between
Banksia and Banksiamyces does not exist
at the species level. While certain groups
show preference for particular hosts. B.
macrocarpus appears to be the only
species found exclusively on one Banksia
species, and it does not share this Banksia
host with any other Banksiamyces species.
Even for this Banksiamyces , the collection
assigned to B. aff. macrocarpus eventually
may prove to be B. macrocarpus , which
would then extend the host range to
Banksia saxicola.
Amongst collections examined in this
study, there were no instances of two dis-
tinct Banksiamyces taxa growing on the
same Banksia cone. Nevertheless, it has
been suggested that more than one species
of Banksiamyces can grow on the one
Banksia cone at the same time (Fuhrer and
May 1993) - B. katerinae and B. tooman-
sis on the one cone of Banksia ornata , and
B. toomansis and B. maccannii on the one
cone of Banksia saxicola. Fuhrer and May
(1993) did not utilise spore measurements
for identification of Banksiamyces species.
Therefore, an alternative explanation is
that the occurrence of two types of apothe-
cia on the same cone reflects two different
crops of the same species each from a dif-
ferent fruiting season (perhaps annual
crops). This explanation is supported by
our observations that, in general, lighter
apothecia lacked spores while darker
apothecia were all fertile and, in particular
by observations that where a Banksia cone
had two different types of apothecia grow-
ing on it, the lighter grey apothecia were
usually immature (the new crop), whereas
the spatially separate darker grey apothecia
growing on the same cone were mature
(possibly the previous year’s crop). Dennis
(1958b) noted that a collection of
Banksiamyces toomansis from September
was immature, while one from June had
abundant free spores and mostly empty
asci, but did not relate this to apothecium
colour. Our observations suggest that
apothecia colour (as far as the contrast
between light grey and charcoal grey to
blackish-brown) is a function of the matu-
rity of the fruiting body rather than a basis
on which to separate different species
within the genus.
It is not known how long Banksiamyces
fruit bodies persist on the Banksia cone.
Thus the time of collection does not neces-
sarily reflect the time of first appearance of
the fruit bodies. Nevertheless, the presence
of immature fruit bodies predominantly in
the period from late winter to spring
(August to November) does suggest that
this may be the time of fruit body initia-
tion. Longitudinal studies of Banksiamyces
life history arc required to confirm this,
and would also assist greatly in determin-
ing how clusters of apothecia of different
colour originate.
The collections examined expand the
geographic range of Banksiamyces within
Victoria as well as further into southern
New South Wales, South Australia,
Western Australia and Tasmania. On cur-
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
373
Contributions
rent knowledge, Banks iamyces is restricted
to southern Australia, although Banksia
occurs in far north Western Australia, far
north Northern Territory, and along the
entire eastern seaboard to far north
Queensland (Taylor and Hopper 1991;
George 1996). It is interesting to note that
although the distribution of known Banksia
hosts extends substantially further north.
Banksiamyces has yet to be found in these
regions. For example, Banksia integrifolia
extends to southern Queensland and there
are populations of B. spinulosa as far north
as the Mossman district of Queensland.
Further surveys throughout the range of
known hosts and of the numerous Banksia
species on which Banksiamyces is yet to be
found will be of interest.
Acknowledgements
Teresa Lebel gave valued technical advice and
guidance, Barbara Archer provided the Western
Australian collections (the quality of which
made this investigation markedly easier), Pam
and David Catcheside provided material from
South Australia, and David Milne and Marco
Duretto provided critical comments on the origi-
nal manuscript. Research for this paper was car-
ried out while Katy Sommerville was the recipi-
ent of the Jim Willis Studentship at Royal
Botanic Gardens Melbourne. Roger Riordan is
gratefully thanked for this opportunity.
References
Beaton G and Weslc G (1982) Bunksiarnyces gen. nov.,
a discomvcete on dead Banksia cones. Transactions
of the British Mycologtcal Society 79, 271-277.
Beaton G and Wcsie G (1984) A new species of
Banksiamyces on Banksia saxicola ( Proteaceae).
Transactions of the British Mycolagical Society 83.
533-535.
Berkeley M.l and Broome CE (1887) List of Fungi
from Queensland and other parts of Australia: with
descriptions of new species Part 111, Transactions
of the Linnean Society of London, series 2, 2, 217-
226.
Dennis RWG (1958a) New or interesting Australian
discomycctes. Kew Bulletin 1957, 397-398.
Dennis RWG (1958b) Critical notes on some
Australian Helotiales and Ostropales. Few Bulletin
13,321-358.
Fuhrer B and May T (1993) Host specificity of disc-
fungi in the genus Banksiamyces on Banksia. The
Victorian Naturalist 110, 73-75.
George AS (1996) The Banksia Book, 3 ed. (Kangaroo
Press: Kcnthurst)
Taylor A and Hopper S (1991) The Banksia Atlas.
(Bureau of Flora and Fauna: Canberra)
Walsh NG and Lntwislc TJ (eds) (1996) Flora of
Victoria , vol. 3. (Inkata Press: Melbourne)
Received 2 February 2006; accepted 12 October 2006
Appendix. Collections of Banksiamyces examined.
Herbarium no. Banksia host State Locality
Date of
Collection
Banksiamyces katerinae
Holotype*
ornata
VIC
Grampians, Mt Zero
24.x. 1964
MEL 2070194
ornata
SA
Naraeoorte
29.V.1999
MEL 1054521
ornata
VIC
Wyperfeld, Black Flat
16. ix. 1968
MEL 2022166
integrifolia
VIC
Wilsons Prom., Mt Oberon
9.xi. 1989
MEL 2022168
ornata
VIC
Wyperfeld
16.vi.1961
MEL 2022184
ornata
VIC
Grampians, Mt Zero
24.x. 1964
Banksiamyces maccannii
Holotype*
saxicola
VIC
Grampians, Mt William
5.L1984
MEL 2068724
saxicola
VIC
Grampians, Mt William
18. v. 1975
MEL 2090368
saxicola
VIC
Grampians, Victoria Range
1 3. i. 2000
MEL 2090369
saxicola
VIC
Grampians. Mt William
12. i. 2000
Banksiamyces macrocarpus
Llolotype*
spinulosa
VIC
Tonimbuk
26.iv.1981
MEL 2090366
spinulosa
VIC
Warburton East
13. ii. 2000
MEL 2022388
spinulosa
VIC
Beenak
9.vii. 1 98 1
Banksiamyces aff macrocarpus
MEL 2022131
saxicola
VIC
Grampians, Victoria Range
1 1 .xii. 1 966
Banksiamyces toomansis
Authentic
marginata
VIC
Otways, Chappie Vale area
1 6.vi. 1 963
B. toomansis I*
MEL 2090367
integrifolia
NSW
Blue Mountains
no date
MEL 2019585
marginata
SA
Kangaroo Island
1 8.x. 1 985
MEL 2022174
marginata
VIC
Langwarrin Flora Reserve
28.xi.1983
374
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Appendix cont'd.
Herbarium no.
Banksia host
State
Locality
Date of
Collection
MEL 2051421
sphc.erocarpa
WA
12km SE Busselton
l.viii.1998
MEL 2057573
nutans
WA
Mt Merivale, 20km E. Esperance
S.iii. 1 997
MEL 2057574
pulchella
WA
Mt Merivale, 20km E. Esperance
1 5.ii. 1 997
MEL 2057575
pulchella
WA
Mt Merivale, 20km E. Esperance
30.iii. 1997
MEL 2057576
speciosa
WA
Mt Merivale, 20km E. Esperance
3 1 .i. 1 997
MEL 2063135
baxteri
VIC
Cranbourne Royal Botanic Gardens
1 6.vii. 1 995
MEL 259001
Banksiamyces aff
occidentalis
toomansis
WA
Mt Merivale, 20km E. Esperance
9.iii . 1 997
MEL 2070196
canei
VIC
Omeo Hwy
no date
MEL 2090370
marginata
VIC
Blackwood
2.vi. 199 1
MEL 2017890
canei
VIC
E. Highlands, Nunniong Plateau
13.xi.1964
MEL 2022165 marginata VIC
Banksiamyces sterile or immature collections
Otway Plain, Kennedy’s Creek
26.xi.1961
Authentic
B. toomansis 2*
marginata
VIC
Wonga Park near Gellibrand
17.V.1965
MEL 2091608
marginata
VIC
Between Penola and Casterton
21.ix.2000
MEL 2101859
spinulosa
VIC
Wilsons Prom.
21 .ii. 2002
MEL 2017887
serrata
VIC
East Gippsland, Howe Hill
2.xi.l969
MEL 2017889
spinulosa
VIC
Wilsons Prom., Lilly Pilly Gully
30.ix.1973
MEL 2019581
marginata
VIC
Grampians, Serra Range
4.xi.l992
MEL 2022121
marginata
VIC
Between Bullengarook
and Blackwood
8.xi.l964
MEL 2022162
menziesii
WA
Bullsbrook East
25.x. 1977
MEL 2022164
spinulosa
VIC
Last Gippsland, Howe Ranges
lO.xi. 1969
MEL 2022172
spinulosa
VIC
Wilsons Prom., Lilly Pilly Gully
4.xi.l980
MEL 2022173
marginata
VIC
Wilson’s Prom., Lilly Pilly Gully
30. ix. 1973
MEL 2022176
marginata
VIC
Wilson’s Prom., Sealers Cove
30.x. 1964
MEL 2022179
marginata
TAS
Lake St Clair, Cynthia Bay
Possibly
i. 1 977
MEL 2022180
marginata
VIC
Grampians, Victoria Range
1 l.xi.1974
MEL 2032795
serrata
VIC
Dutson Downs, near Sale
22.viii.1971
MEL 227981
marginata
TAS
Flinders Is., Whilemark
3 1 .viii. 1 99 1
* All types and authentic material cited are held at MELU. Collection details are as follows:
Holotype B. macrocarpus - Coll. B. Fuhrer (G. Beaton 418, EO 0620).
Holotype B. maccamii - Coll. I. McCann (G. Beaton 420, EO 0622).
Holotype B. katerinae - Coll. K. Beaton (G. Beaton 268, EO 0433).
Authentic specimen B. loomansis 1, cited by Beaton and Weste (1982) - Coll. G. Beaton 40 (EO
0411).
Authentic specimen B. toomansis 2, cited by Beaton and Weste (1982) - Coll. G. Beaton , no num-
ber. Located in packet with G. Beaton 40 (EO 041 1 ).
One Hundred Years Ago
EXCURSION TO WILSON’S PROMONTORY
Reptiles were poorly represented. The only snakes seen were Copper-heads, Denisonia superba,
a speies also found in New South Wales and Tasmania. On opening one of those killed we found
in the stomach a small lizard, Liolepisma guichenoti , a small frog, and two earthworms.
Although I have often examined the contents of the stomach of our larger snakes this is the first
instance in which I have found earthworms. All specimens were in good preservation, and had
evidently been but recently swallowed.
From The Victorian Naturalist XXII p 202, March 8, 1906
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
375
Contributions
Annotated records of the Greater Glider Petauroides volans
from The Victorian Naturalist 1884-2005
K Shane Maloney1 and Jamie M Harris2
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, NSW 2522
'School of Environmental Science and Management
Southern Cross University, Lismore NSW 2480 (jharrill@scu.edu.au)
- Author for correspondence
Abstract
A survey of The Victorian Naturalist was undertaken for records of the Greater Glider Petauroides
volans. This report compiles around 52 distribution records, and summarises naturalists’ observa-
tions ot the animal s behaviour and feeding. Those concerned with the ecology and conservation of
arboreal marsupials generally, and the Greater Glider in particular, should find this work useful as it
compiles many interesting and important records ot this the largest and most conspicuous of the
gliding possums. (The Victorian Naturalist. 123 (6), 2006, 376-382)
Introduction
The Greater Glider Petauroides volans
(family Pseudocheiridae) is the largest
(900 - 1700 g) of the gliding marsupials
(Strahan 1995). It is strictly folivorous,
feeding on the buds, shoots and leaves of
mainly eucalypt species, and it is hollow
and forest dependent (Strahan 1995;
Menkhorsl and Knight 2001; Lindenmayer
2002; Goldingay and Jackson 2004). The
current distribution of P. volans is from
Victoria (Vic) in the south to the tropic of
Capricorn in Queensland (Qld) in the
north. It is found mainly among the tall
wet forests within this range. The variable
coat colouration of the Greater Glider
extends from black with a white underbel-
ly through mixtures of grey and cream,
although pure white individuals are also
reportedly common (Strahan 1995;
Menkhorst and Knight 2001; Lindenmayer
2002). The conservation status of this
species is stated as ‘common’ or ‘secure’
for the three states it inhabits (Menkhorst
and Knight 2001; Goldingay and Jackson
2004). The historical and more recent
records of this species in The Victorian
Naturalist are at present scattered in many
articles and naturalists' notes, and this adds
to the inaccessibility and under-apprecia-
tion of these records. We have aimed to
bring these records together in a single
summary to augment other readily accessi-
ble information on the natural history of
this species (Strahan 1995; Menkhorst and
Knight 2001; Lindenmayer 2002). Such
compilations may ultimately assist with
conservation appraisal. This paper presents
an annotated chronology of Greater Glider
records from a desktop survey of all
volumes ol The Victorian Naturalist.
Greater Glider records from The
Victorian Naturalist
Forbes-Leith and Lucas (1884) provided
a checklist of the mammals of Victoria,
and indicated that the ‘Great Flying
Phalanger’ Petaurus taguanoides (=P.
volans) was a resident species. Following
this, a group of (presumably dead) ‘Great
Flying Phalangers’ were exhibited by Mr
A Coles of Melbourne at a "conversazione'
of the Club held on 14-15 June 1894
(Anon 1894). On 14 August 1905, Mr AE
Kitson presented a ‘skeleton, with skin
attached, of a Hying squirrel. Petauroides
volans , found on a barbed-wire fence at
Allambee East, South Gippsland. This ani-
mal had been caught by the foot on a barb,
and had slowly and miserably perished’
(Anon 1905). Batey (1907) wrote that the
‘Great Brush Squirrel, Petaurus
taguanoides \ was:
never very plentiful; some 12 years ago
[1885] I found one drowned in a large dam
at Newham. They were more common in the
Macedon region, further north, than with us
[at Sunbury district]. Mr W. Thom told me
of two albinos he had seen at Bullengarook.
At a meeting of the club held on 12
February 1923, Mr HB Williamson exhibit-
ed a ‘Flying Phalanger, picked up dead at
Dandenong’ (Anon 1923). However, no
376
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
specific name for the specimen was provid-
ed, and it may or may not have been the
Greater Glider. Fleay (1928) commented
that Greater Gliders are among the
‘favourite game’ of the Powerful Owl Nirtox
strenua. The ability of the Powerful Owl to
take the Greater Glider also has been noted
more recently (i.e. Galbraith 1974).
In November 1931 near Mitta Mitta, CW
Brazenor of the National Museum,
Melbourne discovered a Greater Glider in
a big Blue Gum. ‘It was, however, impos-
sible to take it alive, the tree being too big
to fell’ (Brazenor 1931).
David Fleay (1933a) provided a then
authoritative article on the biology, habitat
and distribution of the Greater Glider,
including notes on its captivity, feeding,
nesting and breeding habits, and vocalisa-
tions. Captive animals favoured Long-
leaved Box Eucalyptus goniocalyx or E.
nortonii and Common Peppermint E. radi-
ata (Fleay 1933a). A photograph of Manna
Gum E. viminalis habitat used by Greater
Glider ‘in a gully at Upper Beaconsfield
(Vic.)’ was included with Fleay’s (1933a)
paper on the species. Other distributional
records included a capture at Delegate,
New South Wales (NSW), a pair at
Traralgon, a pair at Daylesford which were
captured and taken into captivity (see also
Fleay 1935), one or more at Beaconsfield,
and observations of several animals at
Mitta Mitta in January 1933 including a
female taken from Callaghan's Creek
when a Blue Gum E. globulus was felled.
At Bendoc, Fleay stated that ‘it was not
uncommon to find suspended bodies’ in
barbed wire used to fence off farms.
‘These animals had caught their volplaning
membranes on the sharp barbs when
swooping low, and so had died a miserable
and lingering death’. Other reports of dead
Greater Gliders were the result of animals
crossing open spaces on the ground and
falling prey to the fox Vulpes vulpes. In
relation to its distribution and habitat,
Fleay (1933a) stated:
Favouring the tallest timber areas, and gen-
erally inhabiting dead trees in the gullies of
mountainous country, the range of
Petauroides volans extends down the high-
lands of Eastern Australia from Southern
Queensland to Victoria. Further north in
Queensland a smaller sub-species represents
the only other member of this very interest-
ing genus. In Victoria I have never observed
the species further west than the Ballan-
Daylesford forest, though more western
records may have been established
...Apparently the species never reached the
suitable environment of the Otway region. . .
In November 1942, a photograph of a
‘Greater Flying Phalanger’ appeared in an
article by Carthew (1942). However, in the
December issue of The Victorian
Naturalist it was clarified that this was
erroneous, and the caption for the photo-
graph should have stated ‘Yellow-bellied
Possum-Glider, Or Flying Phalanger,
Petaurus australis ’ (Anon 1 942).
Norman Wakefield recorded the ‘Dusky
Glider Schoinobates volans 1 (= P. volans)
as a sub-fossil from a number of cave
deposits in Victoria including M-27 and
M-28 (Wakefield 1960a) and Pyramids
Cave (Wakefield 1960b; 1967). The pres-
ence of the species in the deposits was
attributed to the predatory action of Quolls
Dasyurus spp. which caught Gliders when
they occasionally descended to the ground.
Smaller marsupials were thought to have
been deposited by owls. The cave deposits
are of Flolocene-Late Pleistocene age (see
also Harris and Goldingay 2005).
In 1960, Mr Frank Buckland of 'Sunny
Corner', Mallacoota, contributed some
notes on gliders which mainly pertained to
their acrobatics. He stated that in the bush-
lands of East Gippsland, the Greater
Gliders could be heard especially when
Red Ironbark E. sideroxylon is in flower
(Buckland 1960). However, according to
Wakefield (1970), Buckland’s records are
actually of Yellow-bellied Glider and not
Greater Glider. Wakefield (1970) stated
that the voice and gliding accomplishments
of the Yellow-bellied Gliders had been
credited erroneously to the Greater
Gliders, ‘which is, in fact, a sedentary,
slow-moving, silent animal of minor glid-
ing ability’.
Wakefield (1960a) suggested Greater
Gliders were ‘quite plentiful in heavy for-
est’ to the north of Buchan. In early
December 1960, a Greater Glider was seen
while spotlighting near Mount Tara at
Buchan (Anon 1961a). In June 1961, on a
mountain road between Walhalla and
Woods Point (towards Matlock), Mrs Ellen
Lyndon found remains of a Greater Glider
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
377
Contributions
which had been taken by a Wedge-tailed
Eagle Aquila audax (Lyndon 1961).
We stopped and backed the car to look at it
[the Wedgetailed Eagle], curious to know
what it had been feeding upon. Hunting
around in the undergrowth, I came on the
still warm carcase of what appeared to be a
large black possum, with thick soft fur and a
long ringed tail. It proved to be the rear half
ot a Dusky Glider ( Schinobates volans) [= P.
volans ], the largest of the glider-possums
and the first of its species that we had seen.
Unfortunately, the front quarters and the
body contents had been completely eaten by
the eagle. Lying flat, with membranes
extended, black above and white below, the
shape was oddly kite like. Prom toe to toe
across the rump the measurement was twenty
inches. The small pink soles of the hind feet
bore knobby clawless “thumbs” and two of
the toes were joined in the one enclosing skin
to form the double combing nail, or, more
properly speaking, the syndaclvlous toe.
Anon (1961b) noted that the popular name
'Dusky Glider’ is used in David Fleay’s
(1947) Gliders of the Gum Trees . Subse-
quently, Garnet (1962) highlighted that the
wide range of common names for the
species often led to confusion, even for
experienced naturalists. Wakefield (1963)
supported Fleay’s suggestion that ‘Dusky
Glider' should be universally adopted,
despite the occasional white specimen.
Wakefield (1963) also reported that the
species ‘is quite abundant in the mountain
forests of the eastern half of Victoria, but it
does not occur anywhere west of Port Phillip
Bay’. Some recent observations made by Mr
J Hyett of Croydon also were detailed:
On the night of January 19, 1963, ten
Greater Gliders were seen at Myers Creek,
several miles north of Healesville. on trees
along the main road. Most were very high in
the eucalypts, but one was seen at twenty
feet on a mass of Twining Silkpod
(Parsons ia straminea). Its body was well
spread as it climbed over the plant, so that
the gliding membranes could be seen easily,
joining the forelimbs at the elbows. It was
observed to eat several leaves of the silkpod.
At Yellingbo, a Powerful Owl was perched
in a Black Wattle ( Acacia m earns ii) over-
hanging the stream. Gripped in its talons was
a Greater Glider whose head had been eaten.
The owl regurgitated a pellet as we were
watching it. This was recovered and found to
contain glider fur, small fragments of skull
bones, and the wing covers of two species of
longicom beetles.
On 6 July 1963, two Greater Gliders
were found whilst spotlighting near
Powelltown, and it was reported that one
of these animals was ‘rather low in a large
messmate’ (King 1963). In 1965, the
Fauna Survey Group observed six Greater
Gliders (Anon 1965; 1966a). These were
for 18 May in Blue Gum E. globulus
subsp. bicostata at a locality 10 miles
north-west of Buchan (by NA Wakefield),
19 and 20 May in Messmate E. obliqua
and Manna Gum E. vi mined is along
Tulloch Ard Road near Buchan (by NA
Wakefield and J McCallum); 29 May on
Britannia Creek Road and at Yellingbo (by
W King); and on 6 November a Yellow-
bellied Glider was seen (also by W King)
in a Eucalyptus ova ta tree at Woori
YalIock(Anon 1966a).
On 9 May 1966, Ms V Parry addressed a
general meeting of the Club on her Masters
of Science research at Monash University
on Kookaburras. She stated that during the
study. Greater Gliders were ‘predatory on
the eggs of Kookaburras, and that these
invaders were driven away fiercely from
the region of the nesf (Anon 1966b). A
record of the ‘Greater Glider' was also
provided for Powelltown/Labertouche
State Forest (Anon 1967).
In June 1966 and June 1967, the
Mammal Survey Group studied a small
area of secondary regrowth forest south of
the Darlimurla township. South Gippsland
(Seebeck et ah 1968). Greater glider was
recorded as:
Not common in the area. Four specimens
were seen, all feeding high up in the trees.
On two occasions the food tree was identi-
fied as Mountain Grey Gum, Eucalyptus
cypeJiocarpa. Animals were seen feeding
between 7.40 pm and midnight.
Seebeck et al. (1968) also stated that the
‘Squirrel’ of South Gippsland of the 1880s
(citing The Land of the Lyre Bird , second
edition by South Gippsland Development
League 1966) referred ‘probably’ to both
Pelaurus and Schoinobates (= P. volans).
Towards the end of 1967, some spotlight-
ing was undertaken by a party of field
naturalists in the Upper Thompson Valley
(Anon 1968). At 11 pm, a Greater Glider
was seen and reported as
378
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Jet black; fine big chap; slow movement,
pretending to hide. Some noise from us and
up he goes a bit, across on to a branch to
take up the stance of the textbooks (expect-
ing a fee perhaps?). But how poor the text-
books are, and what would the soap adver-
tisements give for this brilliant black and
white?
At 12.25 am, another Greater Glider was
seen, and reported as 60 feet up (Anon
1968).
Fryer and Temby (1969) conducted a
mammal survey at Stockman’s Reward,
north-east of Marysville, during May 1967
and May-June 1968. Twenty-seven Greater
Gliders were counted during spotlighting
in 1967 but only 10 were found in 1968.
The difference between counts of Greater
Gliders on each trip was thought to be
related to the drought at that time.
Even the habitually wet area dried out exces-
sively during the drought and many of the
eucalypts on the hills died. In the valleys
undergrowth was killed and the young gums,
the main supply of food for the Greater
Gliders, dried out considerably. As the
Greater Glider population in 1967 was quite
concentrated, some had to leave to find new
areas of food trees and this could explain the
fewer sightings of Greater Gliders in 1968.
Fryer and Temby (1969) also noted that
several animals were seen whilst gliding
‘often between trees about ninety yards
apart.’
O’Donnell (1970) reported on a ‘quite
plentiful’ Greater Glider population in the
Porepunkah district, north-eastern Victoria.
At least seven animals were seen in this
area in 1967-1968. Some of these animals
were observed feeding on E. globulus
subsp. bicostata , E. rcidiata , E. viminalis ,
Red Stringybark E. macrorhyncha , Broad-
leaved Peppermint E. dives , Long-leaved
box E. goniocatyx , Wonga-vine Pandorea
pandoranci , Blackwood Acacia melanoxy-
lon and Hazel Pom ad err is Pornaderris
aspera. An albino Greater Glider seen at
Mount Buffalo also was mentioned, as
well as several other arguably doubtful
Porepunkah records from animals that
were only heard and not seen. A caption
provided by the Editor stated that the
Greater Glider is regarded as silent, and
some of these records from vocalisations
may have in fact been Petaurus australis.
For additional comments on the supposed
vocalisations of Greater Glider and the
confusion with P. australis see Rodda
(1929), Fleay (1932, 1933a. b, 1947, 1954)
and especially Wakefield (1970).
In February 1970, two Greater Gliders
were spotlit near Tram Creek in the Upper
Lerderderg Valley; one in E. radiata , the
other in Mountain Grey Gum E . cypel-
locarpa (Deerson et al. 1975). At that
time, these were the most westerly sight-
ings of the species in the Mammal Survey
Group’s records. Other Greater Glider
records from this area included one seen
on Campaspe Road in August 1969 in a
dead Messmate E. obliqua ; and another 1 1
km north-east of this locality in 1967
(Deerson et al. 1975). Hampton and
Seebeck (1970) conducted a mammal sur-
vey in the Mount Maccdon region, and
although no Greater Gliders were found,
they mentioned that the species was known
to occur at that time just outside the area of
their survey. Also mentioned were the ear-
lier records provided by Batey (1907).
Wakefield (1970) recorded Greater Gliders
in the Yellingbo area, central Victoria in
1965 and 1966.
Anon (1974) reported that on 16 and 17
February 1974 the Greater Glider was
observed during spotlighting, in the vicinity
of Mt Baw Baw. Some were also spotlight-
ed at the Easter Camp around Mt Cobbler
and Mt Speculation. ‘An unusual incident
was the observation at close quarters of a
Greater Glider sitting in the middle of the
road. It had apparently landed there
between two parties setting out in cars to
spotlighting areas’ (Anon 1974). Zirkler
(1974) stated that Greater Gliders are
known to occur at Tidbinbi 1 la Nature
Reserve, NSW.
Gilmore (1977) spotlighted 11 Greater
Gliders in a survey of the Stradbroke area
of South Gippsland, and noted that the
species was widespread in the taller
stringybark and gum forest but was not
recorded in E. nitida or E. consideniana.
Anon (1979) reported Greater Gliders seen
on a trip to Mt Cobbler and Mt Specul-
ation. Dixon (1979) lists the Greater Glider
as present in the Alpine Area of Victoria
and NSW. Ambrose (1979) records
Greater Glider as ‘uncommon’ in the
Wallaby Creek Catchment, and as an
obligate tree hollow user.
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
379
Contributions
Van Dyck and Gibbons (1980) noted
Greater Gliders as ‘usually major compo-
nents’ of regurgitated pellets of Powerful
Owls. They also cited Seebeck ( 1 976) and
Fleay (1968) in stating that ‘Powerful
Owls from Victoria to Queensland show a
definite preference for large, slow moving
prey items such as Ringtails and Greater
Gliders’. Brunner el at. (1981) stated that
Greater Gliders are recorded as prey of the
feral cat Felis cams in Victoria (also see
Coman and Brunner 1972).
Callanan (1981) undertook 42.4 hours'
spotlighting at Wallaby Creek (September
1974 - November 1978). Three Greater
Gliders were seen in mature Mountain Ash
forests and another two were spotted in
mixed eucalypt forests. Seebeck et at.
(1983) employed stag-watching in
November 1980 and July 1981 and seven
Greater Glider observations were made
along the Snobs Creek Road (south of
Eildon) and a further I 1 were made at
Upper Thomson River (north ofToorongo).
Nicholls and Meredith (1984) made 98
Greater Glider observations in the Ml
Timbertop region between 1971 and 1976.
Densities were quite high - they made 42
sightings in 4 km of spotlighting in ripari-
an and E. radio ta forests along Eight Mile
Creek, and five individuals were known to
inhabit two trees adjacent to the Timbertop
School. Only dark-phase individuals were
recorded in the region; in the Strath bogie
Ranges (50 km west) light-phase individu-
als were reportedly common. Greater
Gliders were reportedly more numerous in
E. radiata open forests, which were typi-
cally in gullies and on the wetter foothill
ridges, as well as in riparian vegetation
associated with the valleys of the major
streams. However, they were apparently
less numerous in the E. dives open forests
on the dry foothill ridges.
Loyn et al. (1986) recorded the Greater
Glider in pellets of the Sooty Owl Tyto
tenebricosa from Thurra River, East
Gippsland. Read (1987) recorded Greater
Gliders at Bodalla State Forest (NSW).
The Mammal Survey Group spotlighted
Greater Gliders on Errinundra Plateau in
December 1986 (Anon 1987). Regan el at.
(1988) conducted a mammal survey in
East Gippsland in a Callistemon thicket
and adjacent sclerophyll woodland domi-
nated by E. obliqua and E. dives. Seven
sightings of Greater Glider were made in
the woodland and traces of the species
were also detected in fox and/or dog scats
in that area.
Dixon and Huxley (1989) reviewed
notes, photographs and mammal collec-
tions of Donald F Thomson, which are
now held in Museum Victoria. This review
included details of a juvenile Greater
Glider specimen which was photographed
(reproduced in Dixon and Fluxley 1989)
and collected at Mooroolbark, Vic. in
December 1932 (DTC 13; skull); and a
male specimen (DTC 12 1229; skin and
skull) collected at Toorloo Arm, Gippsland
Lakes on 31 March 1934. Dixon and
Huxley (1989) also commented that the
Greater Glider
is an inhabitant of eucalypt-dominatcd habi-
tats; from low open coastal forests to the tall
forests of the ranges, and low woodland west
of the Dividing Range. As a result of urban
development it is now unlikely to be a com-
mon inhabitant in the Mooroolbark area.
Lindenmayer (1992) recorded Greater
Glider in the Mountain Ash forests in the
Central Highlands of Victoria, and also
commented that in this area it is ‘more
commonly observed emerging from tall,
large diameter trees with hollows (see also
Lindenmayer et al. 1991). Wallis et at.
(1996) recorded Greater Glider in scats of
the Fox but not those of the Cat, from a
collection from Dandenong Ranges
National Park (NP).
Garth and Garth (1996) regularly record-
ed Greater Gliders whilst spotlighting at
Badger Weir Park, Healesville (now within
Yarra Ranges NP). They stated that:
Most evenings around fifteen minutes
around dusk, a pair of Greater Gliders leave
their hollow in the Manna Gum and make a
spectacular glide over our heads to com-
mence their foraging in the mixed species
forest upstream. On one notable occasion in
October 1995, the female did not glide, and
was observed to be carrying a juvenile on
her back. This youngster has been seen leav-
ing the nest tree with its parents up until
August 1996.
Taylor (1996) also spotlighted a Greater
Glider with pouch young near Healesville.
This rare sighting was made on 27
September 1995 at 21.35 hours in wet scle-
rophyll forest.
380
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
Reid (1997) reviewed records of the
Greater Glider feeding on Mistletoes and
proposed that they may reduce local popu-
lations of Mistletoe species. These feeding
observations were on Mueller ina eucalyp-
toides in Boola Boola State Forest (Henry
1985); Amyema pendula in Coolangubra
State Forest, NSW (Kavanagh and
Lambert 1990); and A. pendula near
Armidale, NSW (Porter 1990).
In reference to mammal introductions on
Wilsons Promontory NP, Seebeck and
Mansergh (1998) stated that one Greater
Glider ‘of unknown origin, was liberated
in the Vereker Range in February 1929 and
another, at a site not identified, in March
1934' (see also Wescott 1998). The species
4 is widespread in the South Gippsland
Highlands and foothills to the north of
Comer Inlet' (Norris et ai 1979). Seebeck
and Mansergh (1998) also commented that
the natural absence of Greater Glider from
Wilsons Promontory reflects the ‘island’
nature of this NP.
Calder and Calder (1998) noted that the
Greater Glider occurs ‘down from the
Plateau’ at Mount Buffalo NP. van der Ree
(1999) collated observations of wildlife
becoming entangled with barbed-wire
fencing from various sources including
naturalist groups, professional societies
and databases of government departments
and wildlife carers. lie found two records
of the Greater Glider entangled in barbed
wire in Victoria, six records for NSW and
four records for Queensland.
Conclusion
In summary, 96 reports were identified
with information on Greater Gliders. These
produced around 52 distribution records,
excluding those from the same locality and
fossil records. The records span the period
from pre 1905 to 1998. The records
include observations of the species utilis-
ing 10 eucalypt species: E. cypellocarpa ,
E. dives , E. globulus , E. goniocalyx , E.
macrorhyncha , E. norland * E. obliqua , E.
ovata , E. radiata and E. viminalis. Feeding
was observed on six non-cucalypt species:
Acacia melanoxylon , Amyema pendula ,
Muellerina eucalyptoides , Pandorea pan-
dorana , Parsonsia straminea and Pomad-
erris aspera. There are also records of the
Greater Glider as prey of seven predators:
Cat, Dog, Fox, Wedge-tailed Eagle, Quoll,
Powerful Owl and Sooty Owl. Greater
Glider is also recorded as predator i.e. on
Kookaburra eggs. Hence, The Victorian
Naturalist is a particularly rich source of
records on the Greater Glider. These
records are a useful supplement to other
information available from museum hold-
ings and wildlife Atlas records.
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Received 2 March 2006; accepted 1 0 July 2006
382
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
Practices, experiences and opinions of snake catchers
and their clients in southern Australia
Nick Clemann
Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research, Department of Sustainability and Environment
PO Box 137, Heidelberg, Victoria 3084
Abstract
The occurrence of snakes on private properties concerns many residents. Translocation of snakes by
licensed snake catchers from private properties to public land is a common management practice in
many urbanised areas in Australia. However, little is known about the practices of the snake catchers
and the effectiveness of this management in terms of solving human-snake conflict. Mail question-
naires were used to survey licensed snake catchers from South Australia, and South Australian and
Victorian residents who have used snake catchers. Catchers received calls from spring to autumn. The
most frequently relocated snakes in South Australia were Brown Snakes Pseudonaja spp. Catchers
chose release sites based on pennit stipulations, perceived suitability of habitat, and likelihood of repeat
encounters with humans. Residents detailed various beliefs for the occurrence of snakes on their prop-
erty, including prey and shelter availability, and proximity to 'snake habitat', and, after first having a
snake removed from their property, most found snakes subsequently. These repeat encounters suggest
that education regarding snake encounters and discouraging snakes from enfering/staying on their prop-
erties should be provided to residents, and that alternative management strategies for snakes in urban
areas should be investigated. ( The Victorian Naturalist 123 (6), 2006, 383-389)
Introduction
Human-snake conflict is common wherev-
er both are abundant (Sealy 1997, Nowak
1998, Whitaker and Shine 1999, Feam et al.
2001, Shine and Koenig 2001, Clemann et
al. 2004). This conflict is heightened where
highly venomous snakes occur. A recent
survey of residents in urban areas of New
South Wales showed that, of all animals
likely to be encountered in suburbia, snakes
were the least desired around people’s
homes (Davies et al. 2004). The most abun-
dant and frequently-encountered snakes in
south-eastern Australia are large, highly
venomous members of the family
Elapidae. Several of these are common in
both urban and rural areas, and frequently
come into contact with humans (Clemann
et al. 2004). Although direct persecution of
snakes remains common (Whitaker and
Shine 2000), relocation of 'nuisance’
snakes is often the government-sanctioned
approach to managing this issue (Clemann
et al. 2004).
Human-snake conflict involves two key
issues - human dimensions and biological/
ecological factors. The human dimensions
issue involves the opinions, biases, motiva-
tions, knowledge and behaviours of people
and organisations involved in this conflict.
The biological/ecological factors involved
in snake translocation include the effects
of capture and relocation on individual
snakes, and impacts on conspecifics and
other taxa at both the 'donor’ and release
sites. Both issues have been largely
neglected. Most studies of snakes relocated
to solve human-snake conflict have
involved viperid taxa in North America
(e.g. Sealy 1997, Nowack 1998). Only
recently has there been any investigation
into the effects of translocation on
Australian elapid snakes (Butler et al.
2005a, b).
An initial investigation of the human
dimensions of human-snake conflict exam-
ined the practices of licensed snake catch-
ers and "first-contact organisations’ who
channel calls from the public to snake
catchers in urbanised areas in Victoria
(Clemann et al. 2004). That study showed
that many elapid snakes were relocated
every year, and that snake catchers, whilst
usually following permit stipulations,
apply a suite of subjective criteria when
choosing release sites. In the present study,
1 expand on previous results (Clemann et
al. 2004), adding data from questionnaire
surveys of licensed snake catchers and res-
idents who have used the services of these
catchers in South Australia, and also pre-
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
383
Research Reports
sent some details from Victorian residents
who have used snake catchers.
Permit stip ulations
Within Victoria* snake catchers operate
under permits issued by the Department of
Sustainability and Environment (DSE),
allowing them to capture and translocate
snakes. These catchers are predominantly
private citizens, although a minority arc
keepers at zoological parks or are
employed by local governments, either as
full-time animal officers, or on an as-need-
ed basis. Permit stipulations require catch-
ers to release snakes on public land with
suitable habitat no more than five kilome-
tres from the point of capture. This dis-
tance was perceived by policy-makers to
be sufficient to solve human-snake con-
flict, whilst not moving the snake beyond
the probable natural distribution of the
species (S Watharow, pers. comm.).
In South Australia a 'Snake Catcher’s
Permit’ is required to capture and translo-
cate snakes. This permit allows catchers to
capture and translocate any reptile that is
causing anxiety or danger to a member of
the public. It directs catchers to translocate
any indigenous snakes removed from prop-
erties, although captured Eastern Brown
Snakes Pseudonaja textilis may be kept or
traded (Department for Environment and
Heritage (DEH) 2004). Translocation dis-
tance is a maximum of two kilometres, but
snakes arc not to be released close to
dwellings. Alternatively, snakes may be
retained for onward transmission to the
South Australian Museum or to the holder
of a permit to take protected animals.
Methods
Licensed snake catchers in South Australia
and residents who have used the services of
snake catchers in South Australia and
Victoria were surveyed by mail-out ques-
tionnaires, which included postage-paid
reply envelopes. Questionnaires were not
sent directly to residents. Rather, each snake
catcher receiving a questionnaire was asked
to forward a specific ‘resident’ questionnaire
to five people who had used their services.
Each of the state governments has a register
of licensed snake catchers. In Victoria, the
45 licensed snake catchers surveyed by
Clemann et al. (2004) were asked to forward
residents' questionnaires to former clients
(i.e. potentially 225 residents if each catcher
forwarded questionnaires to five residents).
The South Australian DEH was unwilling
to release contact details for licensed snake
catchers. Consequently, a DEH staff mem-
ber forwarded questionnaires to licensed
snake catchers, and, as for Victoria, these
snake catchers were asked to forward
questionnaires to five residents who had
used their services. Questionnaires were
mailed to 28 licensed snake catchers in
South Australia, and therefore potentially
to 140 residents.
The snake catcher's questionnaire sought
details of: 1. the number of calls received
to remove snakes each year; 2. the propor-
tion of call-outs that resulted in the capture
of a snake; 3. the seasonal timing of calls;
4. the relative contribution of different
species to the total captures; 5. the imme-
diate future of captured snakes (transloca-
tion. euthanasia, kept captive by self or
others, sold to others or commercial pet
trade); 6. the distance that snakes were
translocated; 7. the selection and number
of release sites; 8. whether catchers offered
residents information regarding snakes and
snake management; 9. whether catchers
advertised their services; and 10. whether
the catchers charged a fee for the service.
The resident’s questionnaire sought
details of: l. the first organisation called to
arrange for a snake removal; 2. the resi-
dent’s beliefs about the reason for the pres-
ence of the snake on their property; 3.
whether they expected to find snakes on
their property following the initial
removal; 4. whether they had found subse-
quent snakes; 5. whether they were
charged a fee; 6. whether they thought the
fee was reasonable; and 7. whether they
were satisfied with the service provided.
Results
Tables 1 and 2 summarise the question-
naire results from snake catchers and resi-
dents respectively. Questionnaires were
returned by nine (32%) catchers from
South Australia (Table 1). One return was
not included in Table 1 because that person
had only recently received a licence, had
not attended any call-outs, and did not pro-
vide answers to any questions.
Questionnaires were returned by four
384
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
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385
50-100 <50% Not answered EBS ~50% Not answered Within 10 km Not Yes, verbal Not answered Not answered
(respond to RBB -50% answered
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these)
Table 1. cont'd
Usual Percentage Months of Species Fate of Distance Always use Do you Do you Do you
number of of call-outs highest involved captured snakes same offer advertise? charge
call-outs per that result number of in snakes moved release information a fee ($AUD)?
year in a capture call-outs captures?3 (km)? site?
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South Australian and seven Victorian resi-
dents (Table 2). It is not known how many
catchers cooperated with forwarding ques-
tionnaires to residents.
South A ustralian snake catchers
Five respondent catchers operated in
rural cities and towns, whereas two operat-
ed in suburban Adelaide; one did not indi-
cate his or her area of operation. One
catcher simply removed snakes from his or
her own property, and therefore had not
received any call-outs (but was present for
the removal of one snake from a school
and one from a horse-show). Most consid-
ered that approximately 50% or more of
attended calls resulted in the capture of the
snake. Several noted that they did not
attend all calls, resolving up to 50% of
inquiries over the telephone, or that a con-
siderable proportion of calls were false
alarms - 'lizards' or imagination’.
South Australian and V ictorian residents
Two of the four South Australian respon-
dents lived in rural cities, one lived within
a couple of kilometres of the centre of
Adelaide, and one did not indicate where
they lived. Two South Australian residents
were charged a fee by the catcher, and both
believed the fees to be reasonable (one not-
ing that ‘our family safety is worth more').
One respondent offered to pay the snake
catcher, but this payment was refused, and
another noted that they were not charged
since they had caught the snake, and sim-
ply wanted the catcher to relocate it so that
no one would kill it.
All responding Victorian residents lived
in Melbourne suburbs. Three mentioned
weather as a factor contributing to snake
activity ('...we always get a snake after a
really hot, dry day’), and local disturbance,
such as adjacent housing developments,
was also mentioned as a reason for the
presence of snakes.
All respondents expected to encounter
other snakes on their property subsequent
to the initial removal; indeed seven had
done so. The issue of repeat encounters
with snakes elicited both positive and neg-
ative responses from residents; 'removing
the snake has nothing to do with getting
more’, and Tm hoping that once the hous-
es are built behind us, the snakes won’t be
386
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
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387
Research Reports
so prevalent', versus ‘they have every right
to be here’ and ‘1 hope the housing devel-
opment doesn't deprive them of habitat . . .
(1 have found dead snakes that were) prob-
ably killed by feral eats which are a far
worse problem from an ecological stand-
point - at least the snakes are native!’.
Discussion
The response rate of the South Australian
snake catchers (32%) is similar to that
reported by Clemann et al. (2004) for the
same questionnaire sent to Victorian catch-
ers (31%), and is typical for mail surveys,
which usually generate a response rate of
10-50% (Neuman 2000). However, some
snake catchers are wary of interaction with
licensing agencies (pers. obs.). and may
have been reluctant to respond to the ques-
tionnaire, even though it was administered
from a research (rather than regulatory)
government institute. Similarly, some non-
respondents may have been unwilling to
detail practices that infringed their permit
conditions, although others did report such
activities.
The response rate of residents is unknown,
since it is not known how many snake catch-
ers forwarded questionnaires. Some catchers
may have been selective as to whom they
forwarded questionnaires, possibly including
only those residents whom they felt would
provide a positive appraisal of their services.
Since only a third of catchers returned ques-
tionnaires, it is likely that many were simi-
larly casual in forwarding questionnaires to
residents. A similar response rate from resi-
dents who did receive a questionnaire may
have contributed to the very poor response
rate, and it is likely that the responses from
residents represent experiences with only a
couple of catchers in each state.
South Australian snake catchers
The main differences between the prac-
tices of Victorian snake catchers reported
by Clemann et at. (2004) and the present
study relate to differences in species’
abundance and distribution, and differ-
ences in permit stipulations. For example,
whilst Tiger Snakes Notechis scutatus
were the most frequently relocated snake
in most parts of greater Melbourne
(Clemann et al. 2004), Brown Snakes
Pseudonaja spp. were most frequently
relocated in South Australia. Similarly,
most Victorian catchers reported moving
snakes no further than five kilometres from
the point of capture (as per permit stipula-
tions, Clemann et al. 2004), whereas most
catchers in South Australia move snakes
no more than two kilometres, as per their
permit requirements.
In other respects the reported practices of
South Australian catchers mirrored those of
their Victorian counterparts. Snake catchers
from both states may be involved in many
relocations annually (usually tens per catch-
er, but sometimes far more). The months
and seasons reported as having the highest
number of call-outs were spring to autumn
(October to April). This is the period of peak
activity for reptiles in temperate south-east-
ern Australia, where most ectothermic verte-
brates undergo a period of considerably
reduced activity in the colder months. Most
catchers in both states use multiple release
sites, and chose sites that they believed
reduced the chance of further human-snake
conflict, as well as suiting the perceived eco-
logical needs of the snake (Clemann et al.
2004). Finally, most snake catchers in both
states offer information to residents on snake
biology and management.
South Australian atul Victorian residents
Although sample sizes were very small,
there was an apparent difference between
South Australian and Victorian residents in
terms of first contact organisations. Those
in South Australia called specific snake
removal companies, a friend who was a
licensed snake catcher, or a fauna park,
whereas the Victorians contacted their
local council, perhaps reflecting differ-
ences in available services or differential
understanding amongst residents about the
availability of these services. In areas
where snakes commonly occur on private
properties, such as where housing estates
adjoin creeks or bush land, contact between
residents and catcher is often prompted by
kword-of-mouth' recommendation between
neighbours. In this way particular catchers,
businesses or local governments become
known as an effective point of first contact
(S Watharow pers. comm.).
Residents reported three broad beliefs as
to why snakes occurred on or were attract-
ed to their property - proximity to bush-
388
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
land or other snake habitat (especially
when this habitat was being disturbed),
availability of potential prey, or availabili-
ty of shelter. Although sonic of these rea-
sons may be intuitive, in some cases these
opinions are also likely to reflect the
advice or observations of the attending
catchers (Clemann el al. 2004), most of
whom offer information on snake habits.
All respondents believed that they would
encounter more snakes after the initial
removal. Mostly this was due to or rein-
forced by the fact that they had encoun-
tered at least one more snake. Although
improved property management might
minimise the number of snakes subse-
quently occurring on some of these proper-
ties. the removal of a snake clearly does
not provide a lasting solution to unwanted
contact between humans and snakes.
Relocated snakes are part of a larger local
population, and, consequently, it will be
necessary for some residents to accept that
snakes occur on or near their property, and
moving individual snakes several kilome-
tres does not prevent repeat encounters.
Residents from both states were very pos-
itive in their appraisal of the service provid-
ed by catchers, and some specifically men-
tioned the value of the information provid-
ed by the catchers regarding snake biology
and property management. Clearly, snake
catchers provide a valuable community
service that is highly regarded by residents.
However, translocating snakes may be
problematic for the snakes, and does not
provide a lasting solution to human-snake
conflict. Moving snakes over large dis-
tances can lead to aberrant behaviour
(Butler et ai 2005a, b) and elevated mor-
tality rates (e.g. Rcincrt and Rupert 1999).
Additionally, relocated snakes may travel
from release sites into neighbouring pri-
vate properties (Butler et al. 2005a). There
is a need for greater public education
regarding the management of snakes, as
well as the evaluation of alternative man-
agement practices.
Acknowledgements
I thank each of the snake catchers and residents
who participated in this study. Jodie Odgers
(then at Dcakin University) sent and collected
Victorian questionnaires. Jennie Rodrigues
(South Australian DEH) forwarded question-
naires to licensed snake catchers in that state.
Simon Watharow provided information on the
activities of licensed snake catchers in Victoria.
Phoebe Macak and Ian Norman (Victorian DSE)
provided a critique of an earlier draft of this
paper.
References
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effects of translocation on the spatial ecology of tiger
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patterns and habitat preferences of resident and
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urban landscape. Wildlife Research 32, 157-163.
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Urban wildlife: more than meets the eye , edited by
Daniel Lunney and Shelley Burgin. Royal Zoological
Society of New South Wales, Mosman, NSW.
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1 June 2004.
Team S, Robinson B, Samhono .1 and Shine R (2001)
Pythons in the pergola: the ecology of ‘nuisance' ear-
pet pythons ( Morelia spilota ) from suburban habitats
in south-eastern Queensland. Wildlife Research 28,
573-579.
Neuman WL (2000) Social research methods: qualita-
tive and quantitative, approaches. (Allyn and Bacon:
Boston)
Nowak EM (1998) Implications of nuisance rattlesnake
relocation at Montezuma Castle National Monument.
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Reinert HK and Rupert RR (1999) Impacts of trans-
location on behaviour and survival of timber rat-
tlesnakes, Cm talus horridus. Journal of Herpetology
33, 45-61.
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rattlesnakes in a North Carolina state park, a success-
ful conservation and management program. Sonoran
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Shine R and Koenig J (2001) Snakes in the garden: an
analysis of reptiles "rescued" by community-based
wildlife carers. Biological Conservation 102, 271-
283.
Whitaker PB and Shine R (4999) Responses of free-
ranging brownsnakes ( Pseudonaja text His : Elapidae)
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Received 4 August 2005; accepted 2 November 2006
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
389
Research Reports
Sexing Little Penguins Eudyptula minor
using bill measurements
Rebecca Overeenv. Robert Wallis’ and Scott Salzman1
1 School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Warmambool, Victoria 3280
2 Office of the Pro Vice-Chancellor (Rural and Regional), Deakin University, Warmambool, Victoria 3280
School of Information Systems, Deakin University, Warmambool, Victoria 3280
Abstract
In Little Penguins Eudyptula minor there are no reliable plumage or body size differences that can be
used visually to distinguish the sex ol individuals. However, sexual dimorphism of morphometric
measures has been noted, with males always being a little larger than females. In this study, differ-
ences between h. minor sexes at eight colonies in south-eastern Australia were determined statisti-
cally via discriminant function analysis (DFA) and through the utilization of DNA-based techniques
developed lor non-ratite birds. The DFA correctly determined gender in 91.1% of cases and molecu-
lar methods were 100% accurate. Our DFA success rale of classification is similar to that previously
published lor Little Penguins in Victoria. In this study statistically significant differences in mean
bill depths and lengths were found between Little Penguin colonies at hit Kilda, Phillip Island and
Gabo Island, compared to colonies at Kangaroo Island. Granite Island, Middle Island and London
Bridge. As birds in eastern populations (St Kilda, Phillip Island, Gabo Island) exhibit statistically
significantly smaller beaks (bill depth and bill length), separate discriminant functions were investi-
gated lor each phenotypical ly distinct geo-spatial cohort. Interestingly, cluster analysis for bill length
identified three groups: western (Kangaroo Island and Granite Island), eastern (St Kilda, Phillip
Island and Middle Island) and the London Bridge Little Penguin colony, which constituted a sepa-
rate group. We conclude that while there is a slight increase in DF power for colonies west of Cape
Otway and for some specific colonies, colony-specific DFA is not required to identify the sex of
Little Penguins in south-eastern Australia. ( The Victorian Naturalist 123 (6) 2006, 390-395).
Introduction
The Little Penguin Eudyptula minor is
the smallest penguin species and is endem-
ic to temperate seas in Australia and New
Zealand. Australia has one sub-species (E.
minor novae hoi l a n di ae), found from
Fremantle (WA) in the west to northern
NSW and Tasmania in the southeast. There
are five sub-species in New Zealand
(Kinksy and Falla 1976). However, Banks
et al. (2002) recently demonstrated that
molecular results subdivide E . minor into
only two clades: 1) the majority of New
Zealand colonies and 2) Australia (sample
from Phillip Island) and Otago E. minor „
In order to manage Little Penguin popula-
tions effectively, demographic analyses
require the accurate determination of gender
of the animals in the field (Caughley and
Gunn 1996). However, Little Penguins show
no differences in plumage between genders,
and body size is also similar for males and
females (Agnew and Kerry 1 995).
Bill depth has been a useful sexually dis-
tinguishing morphological feature in Little
Penguins from Tasmania (Gales 1988),
New Zealand (Renner and Davis 1999,
Hocken and Russell 2002) and also from
Phillip Island and Gibson Steps in Victoria
(Arnould et al. 2004). Gales (1988) was
the first to use a discriminant Function
(DF) that uses bill depth and length. The
New Zealand work also developed DFs
that demonstrated each sub-species
required different functions. Arnould et al.
(2004) found the DFs derived by workers
for New Zealand populations of E. minor
were poor predictors of gender for Little
Penguins at Phillip Island and Gibson
Steps. Gales’ (1988) DF derived from a
Tasmanian population yielded a reliability
of 89.3% and 92.2% for birds at the two
Victorian sites (Arnould et al. 2004) com-
pared to 94% in Tasmania.
Preliminary results from our studies at
seven colonies of Little Penguins in south-
eastern Australia suggested bill dimensions
of adults varied among colonies. Arnould
et al (2004) found similar differences in
bill depth in their studies that prompted
them to propose colony-specific DFs might
be needed in order to determine the gender
of birds accurately, rather than just using
the one DF for the Australian sub-species.
390
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
The aim of this paper is to see whether it
is possible to derive a single DF that can
be used to determine accurately the gender
of Little Penguins at eight sites in south-
eastern Australia.
Methods
Bill depth (vertical thickness at the nos-
trils) and length (length at exposed culmen
to tip of bill) were measured (± 0.1mm) on
50 adult E. minor at seven of the sites
shown in Fig. 1. To minimize inter-opera-
tor variation the same person took all mea-
surements. Data provided in Amould el al.
(2004) for known-gender birds at Gibson
Steps were used to test both Gales' (1988)
and our overall discriminant function.
Blood samples were collected from the
birds using standard techniques (Ellegren
1996) and gender determined genetically
using the methods of Fridolfsson and
Ellegren (1999) that rely on intron length
variation in the sex chromosome-specific
CHD (chromo-helicase-DNA binding pro-
tein) gene locus. This allowed us to know
the gender of the birds that had previously
had their bill measurements taken.
The molecular method of gender deter-
mination was verified by application to 40
Little Penguin carcasses from Middle
Island, Warrnambool, that had been killed
by foxes and subjected to gender determi-
nation by dissection.
Geographic variation in sexual dimor-
phism was tested using Kruscal-Wallis non
parametric ANOVA. The Mann- Whitney
test was used to assess for post hoc differ-
ences and a P-value of <0.05 was consid-
ered statistically significant. Discriminant
function analysis was used to identify the
gender of individual penguins. We used
both bill depth (BD, mm) and bill length
(BL, mm) in our DF. Assumptions associat-
ed with discriminant function analysis were
not violated. The DF we derived was tested
on 350 birds. Wilk’s Lambda test was used
to determine whether both variables (BD
and BL) contributed significantly to the
model. Canonical discriminant function
coefficients were derived in order to estab-
lish the linear function (Gales 1988).
Cluster analysis was undertaken with
respect to location to determine if there
were any distinct homogeneous sub sets.
Results
Examination of the seven sites for statis-
tically significant differences (Table 1) in
bill length as a function of location (Fig. 1)
revealed that E. minor from the Kangaroo
Island, Granite Island, Middle Island and
London Bridge colonies have significantly
longer bills when compared to birds from
the more eastern colonies (Fig. 2a),
Analysis of the seven sites for statistically
significant differences in bill depth derived
a similar result, with E. minor from
Kangaroo Island, Granite Island and
London Bridge having significantly deeper
bills compared to E. minor from the more
eastern colonies (Fig. 2b).
Cluster analysis was also performed on
the variables Bill Length and Bill Depth as
a function of location. Bill Length proved
the more interesting variable with three
groups identified: western (Kangaroo and
Granite Island), eastern (St Kilda, Phillip
Island and Middle Island) and the London
Bridge Little Penguin colony, which is a
separate group (Fig. 3). Gales’ (1988) had
DF = -83.10 + (10.06 In BL) + (17.99 In
BD), where DS is the discriminant score
and In the natural logarithm. When we
applied this DF, we found it produced dif-
ferences in the success rate of classifica-
tion for predicting the gender of Little
Penguins (Table 1). The DF that Gales
(1988) derived was most reliable for birds
in the east of Victoria.
Arnould et al, (2004) derived the follow-
ing DF for Little Penguins at Phillip Island
and Gibson Steps: DS = 1.242 BD - 16.774
The DF model derived by Arnould et al,
(2004) from Phillip Island and Gibson
Steps E. minor colonies successfully deter-
mined sex for 88.3% of the E. minor
observations from south-eastern Australia.
Testing each of the seven E. minor
colonies separately for the DF model
derived by Gales ( 1 988) and Amould et al.
(2004) resulted in varying success. The
accuracy of both DF models decreased at
the Kangaroo Island, Granite Island,
Middle Island and London Bridge
colonies, while it increased at the St Kilda,
Phillip Island and Gabo Island E. minor
colonies (Table 2).
The DF we derived from all samples
from all locations is: DS = -18.710 +
(1.292 BD) + (0.015 BL).
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
391
Research Reports
Table 1. Mann-Whitney post hoc one-tailed differences for bill length of Eudyptula minor from
seven colonies tabulated (n = 50 individuals /colony, * statistically significant at the 0.05 level) Z =
z-scores, P = p-value.
Kangaroo
Granite
Middle
London
St Kilda
Phillip
Island
Island
Island
Bridge
Island
Granite Island
Z
0.574
1.110
0.707
-3.149
3.623
P
0.566
0.267
0.480
0.001*
0.000*
Middle Island
z
-0.622
1.110
0.565
-1.968
2.385
p
0.534
0.267
0.572
0.025*
0.009*
London Bridge
z
-0.299
0.707
0.565
-2.907
3.167
p
0.765
0.480
0.572
0.002*
0.001*
St Kilda
z
-3.051
-3.149
-1.968
-2.907
0.128
p
0.002*
0.002*
0.049*
0.004*
0.898
K>StK
GrI>StK
MI>StK
LB>StK
Phillip Island
z
3.414
3.623
2.385
3.167
0.128
p
0.001*
0.000*
0.017*
0.002*
0.898
K>PI
GrI>PI
MI>PI
LB>PI
Gabo Island
z
-3.112
3.240
2.197
2.914
-0.073
0.130
p
0.002*
0.001*
0.028*
0.004*
0.941
0.897
K>GI
GrI>GI
MI>GI
LB>GI
Fig. 1. The location of the eight colonies of Little Penguins used in this study.
392
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
60
50
B 30 -
g
-l
= 20 '
03
10 -
0 , !
Kangaroo Is Granite Is Middle Is
*
London Br
St Kilda
Phillip Is Gabo Is
Fig. 2a. Box plot of bill length for the seven Eudyptula minor colonies in south-eastern Australia
(the median is identified within the box, the data spread is identified as the distance between the ends
of the box, and the lines extend to extreme values. X represents outliers).
20 -i
o 10 -
cq 8 -
6 -
4 -
2 -
0 \ 1 T T 1 - T
Kangaroo Is Granite Is Middle Is London Br St Kilda Phillip Is Gabo Is
Site
Fig. 2b. Box plot of bill depth for the seven Eudyptula minor colonies in south-eastern Australia (the
median is identified within the box, the data spread is identified as the distance between the ends of
the box, and the lines extend to extreme values).
Rescaled Distance Cluster Combine
CASE 0 5 10 15 20 25
Label Num + — + + + + +
KI 1
GI 2
SK 5
PI 6
MI 3
GA 7
LB 4
66666660
ch- 11666660
666Q60 6 6
666-^- 116-^ 11666666666666666666666666666666666660
66666^- 6
6666666666666^-
6666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666^
Fig. 3. Cluster Analysis of Eudyptula minor bill length for seven colonies in south-eastern Australia.
(KI: Kangaroo Island, GI: Granite Island, SK: St Kilda Breakwater, PI: Phillip Island, MI: Middle
Island, GA: Gabo Island, LB: London Bridge).
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
393
Research Reports
Table 2. Geographically grouped and colony-specific DFs for the Eudyptula minor breeding in
south-eastern Australia.
Location Discriminant Function Success rate of classification
This Study Gales (1988) Amould et
Tasmania DF at. (2004)
East of Cape
= (BD
X
1.425) + (BL
X
0.048) -21.312
91.3%
Otway
West of Cape
= (BD
X
1.328) + (BL
X
0.011)- 19.692
90.5%
Otway
Kangaroo Island
= (BD
X
1.443) + (BL
X
0.042) -22.148
88.2%
73.0%
74.0%
Granite Island
-(BD
X
1.362) + (BL
X
0.107) -24.1 15
88.0%
80.0%
80.0%
Middle Island
- (BD
X
1 .452) + (BL
X
0.049) -21.889
96.0%
76.0%
76.0%
London Bridge
= (BD
X
1 .37) + (BL X -
0.038) -18.702
94.0%
76.0%
76.0%
St Kilda
- (BD
X
1.236) + (BL
X
0.139) -22.053
88.9%
88.9%
88.0%
Phillip Island
- (BD
X
1.687) + (BL
X
0.169) -29.578
94.3%
94.3%
93.0%
Gabo Island
- (BD
X
1.341) + (BL
X
-0.039) -16.939
94.1%
84.3%
84.0%
Using all samples the DF correctly predict-
ed gender in 91.1% of birds tested, with
DS values >0 as male and those <0
females. This DF was almost as reliable as
the one we derived for determining gender
of birds in the eastern colonies (91.3%)
compared with those in the west (90.5%).
A discriminant function was developed for
each of the seven sites, for sites clustered
both east and west of Cape Otway, and
overall, for all sites (Table 1),
Discussion
We found mean adult Little Penguin bill
depth and length varied between the eight
sites sampled in this study. This supports
the observations reported by Amould et aL
(2004) who also found differences in bill
depth in birds from different colonies;
these differences prompted them to suggest
there might be a need for a different DF for
each colony in Australia. Fig. 2 indicates
that birds from our sites clustered into two
groups - one east of Cape Otway and one
to the west. In all sites, the males had sta-
tistically significantly larger bills than the
females.
When the DF derived by Gales (1988) in
Tasmania was applied for the eight sites
(the seven sites used in this study and
Gibson Steps), gender was successfully
determined in 81.7% of cases. When
Gales’ DF was applied separately to the
data from the seven colonies studied, the
reliability was lowest for the western
colonies and higher for the colonies at St
Kilda, Phillip Island and Gabo Island.
Our DF correctly determined gender in
birds from the eight colonies in 91.1% of
cases. Further, its reliability in determining
gender of birds in the eastern colonies
(91.3%) compared with those in the west
(90.5%) was also high. The colony-specific
DF success rates varied, with a high success
of 96% for the Middle Island colony and a
low of 88% for the Granite Island birds.
The DF wc have derived is thus more
reliable at predicting the gender of pen-
guins in south-east Australia in comparison
with other DFs that have been published
for the same species elsewhere.
Acknowledgements
We thank several field assistants who assisted
with data collection (N Overeem, A Overecm, T
Murray, C MeClusky, S Williamson, A
Chiaradia and L Ren wick) and colleagues at the
Molecular Ecology and Biodiversity Laboratory
at Deakin University. The project could not
have been undertaken without the financial
assistance of a Deakin University Post-Graduate
Research Award and the llolsworth Wildlife
Research Fund. The research was carried out
with permission from the various governing
bodies: Deakin University Animal Ethics
Committee (permit number: A 1 0/2003 ) the
Department of Natural Resources and
Environment/Sustainability and Environment
approved fieldwork to be undertaken at Middle
Island, London Bridge, St Kilda and Gabo
Island (permit number: 10002229) while in
South Australia the Department of Environment
approved work at Kangaroo and Granite Islands
permit number: 1 0/2003) and the Department ol
Environment and Heritage (Z24663). In addi-
tion, the Warrnambool City Council (through
the Coast and Rivers Advisory Committee) and
the St Kilda Penguin Study Group approved
fieldwork at Middle Island and St Kilda.
394
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
References
Agnew DJ and Kerry KR (1995) Sexual dimorphism in
penguins. In The Penguins: Ecology and
Management , pp 299-318. Eds P Dann, I Norman
and P Reilly. (Surrey Beatty & Sons: Sydney)
Arnould JPY, Dann P and Cullen JM (2004)
Determining the sex of Little Penguin ( Eudyptula
minor) in northern Bass Strait using morphometric
measures. Emu 104, 261-265.
Banks J, Mitchell A., Waas .1 and Paterson A (2002).
An unexpected pattern of molecular divergence with-
in the blue penguin ( Eudyptula minor) complex.
Notornis 49, 29-38.
Caughley G and Gunn A (1996) Conservation Biology’
in Theory and Practice. (Blackwell: Melbourne)
Ellegren H (1996) First gene on avian W chromosome
(CHD) provides a tag for universal sexing of non-
ratite birds. Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London B 263. 1 635- 1641.
Fridolfsson A and Ellegren II (1999) A simple and uni-
versal method for molecular sexing of non-ratitie
birds. Journal of Biology’ 30, 116-121.
Gales R (1988) Sexing adult Blue Penguins by external
measurements. Notornis 35. 71-75.
Hocken AG and Russell .1 (2002) A method for deter-
mination of gender from bill measurements in Otago
blue penguins ( Eudyptula minor). New Zealand
Journal of Zoology 29, 63- 69.
Kinsky FC and Falla RA (1976) A subspecific revision
of the Australasian Blue Penguin ( Eudyptula minor)
in the New Zealand area. Records of the National
Museum of New Zealand I. 105-126.
Renner M and Davis LS (1999) Sexing Little Penguins
Eudyptula minor from Cook Strait, New Zealand,
using discriminant function analysis. Emu 99, 74-79.
Received 20 October 2005; accepted 16 November 2006
Is there always a bias towards young males in road kill samples?
The case in Victorian Koalas Phascolarctos cinereus
Natasha McLean1 2
'Department of Zoology, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010
2Current Address: The Department of Sustainability and Environment, 8 Nicholson St,
East Melbourne, Victoria 3002. Email: Natasha.McLean@dse.vic.gov.au
Abstract
Mortality due to road trauma can have large negative impacts on some populations and often is
biased towards age/sex classes that have higher rates of movement: individuals during the breeding
season and juveniles while they are dispersing. A bias towards young males has been found in two
previous studies of road kill Koalas in southeast Queensland. Such a bias was not found in the pre-
sent study of Koala skulls from populations across Victoria. This may be due to the different Koala
population structures and densities or road types and characteristics. {The Victorian Naturalist 123 (6)
2006, 395-399).
Introduction
Individuals of many species are killed on
the roads (Trombulak and Frissell 2000;
Taylor and Goldingay 2004) and this can
have large negative effects on populations
of wild animals (Dufty 1994; Jones 2000;
Hebblewhite et al. 2003; Lopez et aL
2003). Road trauma is known to impact
some Koala populations (Backhouse and
Crouch 1990: Lunney et at. 1996;
Thompson 1996). The Phillip Island Koala
population in Victoria decreased substan-
tially between 1973 and 1988, mostly due
to high mortality from road trauma (Every
1 986; Backhouse and Crouch 1 990).
Mortality rates due to road trauma have
been found to differ between temporal sea-
sons (Taylor and Goldingay 2004) and
may be greater in age/sex classes that have
high dispersal rates or increased activity
levels (Bonnet et al. 1999, Inbar and
Mayer 1999). For example, Coulson
(1989) found that 48% of road killed
Eastern Grey Kangaroos Macropus gigan-
teus were l to 2 years of age, the age when
they were dispersing. A significant bias
towards road kills of two-year-old macrop-
ods was also found by Lee el al. (2004).
Additionally, males were more likely to be
hit than females in live species of macrop-
ods, possibly because of their greater rang-
ing behaviour (Coulson 1997). A high pro-
portion of ungulate road traumas are also
related to dispersal and breeding behaviour
(Groot Bruinderink and Hazebroek 1996).
Similar patterns of male-biased mortality
caused by road trauma have been found in
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
395
Research Reports
Koalas (Weigler et al 1987; Dique et al
2003b).
Methods
Koala skulls were opportunistically col-
lected from Victorian Koala populations
and measured at several Victorian State
and University Museums (Table 1). Fresh
Koala carcasses also were collected oppor-
tunistically from roadsides during travel
throughout Victoria (1999-2002). The pop-
ulations ranged from high density with lit-
tle vehicular traffic or dogs (e.g. Snake
Island) to low density, probably declining
populations with high traffic volumes and
domestic dogs (e.g. Phillip Island).
Skulls collected from Snake Island,
Framlingham and Mt Eccles were assumed
to have resulted from natural mortality, as
road traffic and predation by domestic
dogs Canis familians are considered negli-
gible at these sites. Skulls from other pop-
ulations were allocated a cause of death
including natural mortality, death resulting
from road trauma or unknown cause of
death. Koalas were presumed to have died
from road trauma if the carcass was found
within 50 m of a road (most were detected
on the roadside verge). Koalas were allo-
cated to the ‘unknown cause of death' cat-
egory if there was no information regard-
ing the collection details. Skulls were
pooled across all locations according to the
cause of death.
All skulls were cleaned and the age of the
Koala at death was estimated using a nine-
point tooth wear class (TWC) scoring sys-
tem (see McLean 2003). The length and
width of each skull were measured and
used in combination with TWC to deter-
mine the sex of the Koala (see McLean
2003).
The frequency distribution of skulls
across all TWCs was assessed with
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z, 2 independent
samples tests to compare age and sex-spe-
cific mortality patterns. The overall sex
ratio of Koalas presumed to be killed by
road trauma was compared with Chi-
square tests.
Results
Mortality due to road trauma was spread
over all TWCs greater than TWC I in
females and TWC II in males (Fig. 1). Of
the Koalas that were presumed killed by
road trauma, 39% of females and 17% of
males were in the older TWCs (V VII
combined); only 2.5% of the road trauma
group were in TWC IF The overall sex
ratio of 1:1.35 (17 males: 23 females) for
Koalas presumed killed by road trauma
was not significantly different from parity
Of = 0.9, d.f.= I, P > 0.05).
There was little evidence of a difference
in the pattern of age-specific mortality of
male Koalas that died of natural causes
compared with unknown causes, or natural
causes compared with road trauma, or
unknown causes compared with road trau-
ma (Table 2). Similarly, there was little
evidence of a difference in these same
comparisons for females (Table 2).
Discussion
In the present study, a similar proportion
of male and female skulls were collected
beside roads and these were spread rela-
tively evenly over all TWCs. Additionally,
Koalas presumed killed on the road had a
similar age distribution to those that died
of natural causes in both males and
females. The absence of young Koalas
(TWC 1) in the road kill sample is proba-
bly due to the fact that the skull sutures of
young Koalas are not well formed, and the
skulls break up more quickly than the
skulls of older Koalas, rather than any sug-
gestion that this age class is not subject to
road trauma. The contribution of the older
animals (TWC VI and VII) to the sample
is interesting given that very few individu-
als of that age have been found in live
Koala populations studied in Victoria
(McLean 2003).
The pattern of age- and sex-specific road
trauma in the present study differs from
studies of Koala mortality in ‘near urban’
and ‘heavily urbanised’ environments in
southeast Queensland (Weigler et al. 1987;
Dique et al. 2003b) where it was found
that mortality due to road trauma was
male-biased. Dique et al. (2003b) found
that 61% of the Koalas that died from road
trauma were males, a significantly higher
proportion than in the local population
(41%, n = 58). Additionally, young males
(2-4 years of age) were disproportionate-
ly represented in the road trauma group
compared with the population while no
396
The Victorian Naturalist
Research Reports
Table 1. Number of Koala skulls collected from each Victorian locality. * Sites where a proportion
of the skulls measured were from koalas presumed to be killed by road trauma.
Site
#
skulls
Site
#
skulls
Site
#
skulls
Snake Island
210
Lake Tarli Kam
2
Keilor
1
Unknown*
180
Langwarren
2
Kerang
1
Phillip Island*
101
Rosedale
2
Lang Lang
1
Boho*
65
Sandy Point
2
Launching Place
1
Brisbane Ranges
60
Somerville
2
Lima South
1
French Island
40
St Margaret's Is.
2
Macks Creek
1
Mt Eccles
32
Stony Rises
2
Mallacoota*
1
Zoo
23
Swan Hill
2
Maroondah Weir
1
Walkerville
22
Tyabb
2
Meeniyan
1
Healesville
18
Warneet
2
Mildura
1
Ararat
14
Wartook
2
Molesworth*
1
Mt Macedon*
9
Werribee Goree
2
Monomeik
1
Wilsons Prom
9
Willung
2
Moorodue
1
Creswick
8
Yarck*
2
Momington
1
Wooden d*
7
You Yangs
2
Mt Charlie
1
Framlingham
6
Alexandra
1
Mt Dryden
1
Grey River Reserve
5
Altona
1
Mt Robertson
1
Kennett River
5
Axedale Forest
1
North Mangalore
1
Macedon
5
Baimsdale
1
New Gisborne
1
Bacchus Marsh
4
Bass
1
Nyora*
1
Frankston
4
Beaufort
1
Pearcedale
1
Gisborne
4
Bochara
1
Pental Island
1
Leongatha
4
Boolara
1
Port Franklin
1
Morwell
4
Broadford*
1
Rawson
1
Portland*
4
Broken River
1
Raymond Island*
1
Traralgon
4
Bullengarook
1
Romsey
1
Violet Town
4
B unyip State Park
1
Rosebud
1
Warrandyte
4
Calder Hwy
1
Sale
1
Yarram
4
Chi Item
1
Sassafrass
1
Cran bourne
3
Cobow
1
Sprinvale South
1
Fern tree Gully
3
Corranderk
1
Strezlecki
1
Grampians
3
Dandenong
1
Tarwin Lower*
1
Kyneton
3
Darrimon
1
Toora
1
Monash
3
Deer Park
1
Tooradin
1
Mt Eliza
3
Devon North
1
Torquay
1
Mt Martha
3
Digby
1
Trentham
1
Ralph Illidge
3
Doncaster*
1
Twin Lakes
1
Riddells Creek
3
Ellenbank
1
Upper Beacon she Id
1
Yea*
3
Emerald
1
Warby Ranges
1
Buffalo
2
Fish Creek
1
Welshpool
1
Castlemaine
2
Geelong
1
Winniclad Creek
1
Chinaman Island
2
Hume Hwy
1
Woodside
1
Euroa*
2
Jerralong
1
Woori Yallock
1
Inverloch
2
Kalorama
1
Yarra River
1
such pattern was evident in females (Dique
et al. 2003b). Also, reports and veterinary
examinations of Koala road trauma in
southeast Queensland were male-biased
(Weigler et al. 1987, Nattrass and Fiedler
1996). The results of the present study also
contrast with Canfield (1991) who found
that young to middle-aged male Koalas
were highly represented in road trauma
incidents on the central northern coast of
New South Wales, especially during the
breeding season.
The differences between Queensland and
Victoria in the road kill age and sex biases
are unlikely to be due to differences
between the two areas in a) dispersal pat-
terns or b) sex-biased movements during
the breeding season. Similar patterns of
male-biased dispersal have been found in
Queensland using radio-tracking (Gordon
et al. 1 990, Dique et al. 2003a) and genetic
techniques (Fowler et al. 2000, Ellis et al.
2002) to those found in Victoria (Mitchell
1990b; Mitchell and Martin 1990). Male
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
397
Research Reports
Fig. 1. Frequency of female (hatched bars) and male (tilled bars) Koalas that were presumed killed
as a result of road trauma in each tooth wear class, total = 40.
1 able 2. Comparison of the age distributions of male and female Koala skulls between causes of
death using Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z, 2 independent samples tests. Z is the Kolmogorov-Smirnov
score, n is the sample size and P is the probability.
Comparisons
Z
Males
n
P
Z
Females
n
P
Natural causes and unknown causes
0.52
89, 231
0.95
0.69
81,225
0.72
Natural causes and road trauma
0.61
89, 17
0.86
0.48
81, 23
0.98
Unknown causes and road trauma
0.76
231, 17
0.61
0.28
225, 23
LOO
Koalas also increased their overnight
movement distances (Melzer and Houston
2001) and ranging behaviour (Mitchell
1990a) during the breeding season in both
Queensland and Victoria.
Potential causal factors for differences in
road kill frequencies and sex- and age-
biases are traffic volume and speed, struc-
ture of the roadside verge and the sur-
rounding population density (Dique el al.
2003b, Lee et al. 2004). Unfortunately, lit-
tle is known about the demography or pop-
ulation density of the Victorian Koala pop-
ulations from which the road trauma skulls
were found. The reasons remain unclear as
to why the road kill sample was consistent-
ly biased towards young male Koalas in
other states, yet such a bias was not detect-
ed in Victoria.
Acknowledgements
This work was carried out with the permission
of the Department of Sustainability and
Environment (permit nos. 10 000 383, 10 001
021 and 10 001 584). 1 wish to thank the muse-
ums for allowing me access to their collections:
Museum of Victoria (Lena Frigo and Joan
Dixon, particularly) and the Zoology
Department museums at the University of
Melbourne, Monash University and LaTrobe
University. Thanks also to the Parks Victoria
offices al Brisbane Ranges National Park and
Wilsons Promontory National Park for access to
their skull collections. Thanks to all the Koala
skull collectors, especially Ash Reed of the
Phillip Island Nature Park, the Snake and
French Islands Koala catching teams (particular-
ly Ross Williamson, Les Leunig and Swampy
Thomas) and the Boho South research team
(particularly Kath Handasvde and Jen Martin).
Many thanks to Kirstin Long, Sian McLean and
Sandy Brown for assisting me to collect road
kill Koalas on highways.
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in Western Port Region, Victoria. In Biology of the
Koala , pp 313-317. Eds AK Lee, KA Handasyde and
GD Sanson. (Surrey Beatty & Sons: Chipping
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leaving home: dispersal and mortality in snakes.
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Canfield PJ (1991 ) A survey of koala road kills in New
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Coulson G (1989) The effect of drought on road mor-
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Coulson G (1997) Male bias in road-kills of macrop-
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Dique DS, Thompson J, Preece I1J, de Villicrs DL and
Garrick FN (2003a) Dispersal patterns in a regional
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Dique DS, Thompson I, Prcecc HJ, Pen fold GC, de
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Dufty AC (1994) Population demography of the east-
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F.llis WAH, Hale PT and Garrick F (2002) Breeding
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of the koala, Phascolarctos cinereus (Goldluss) in
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Received 22 December 2005; accepted 23 November
2006
One Hundred Years Ago
EXCURSION TO WILSON’S PROMONTORY
The wood-boring larva? of Hepialm lignivora were plentiful and in all stages of growth, but only
one was found to have changed into Ihe chrysalis stage. This emerged on the 1 2" January follow-
ing. The larva; of the well-known moth Mamas tr a ewingi were extremely plentiful, particularly
on the beach al Oberon Bay, where they were seen in dozens crawling down from the grass tus-
socks over the sand, only to be caught by the incoming tide or eaten by the sea-birds. About 80
species of Coleoplera were taken, among which were 7 species of Buprestidte , none of which
require special mention. Among the other orders, 6 species of Cicadas were bottled, including
several of the brilliant little Cicada aurata , which was numerous on the grass Hals on the Derby
River, and kept up their continuous shrill song from daylight till dark.
From The Victorian Naturalist XXII p 203, March 8, 1906
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
399
Honours
Australian Natural History Medallion 2006
Ian Fraser
In 1980, a few years after completing an
honours degree in ecology at Adelaide
University, Ian Fraser moved to the
Australian Capital Territory. He travelled
extensively in the region, becoming famil-
iar with the complexities of its natural
areas, its flora and fauna and its biodiversi-
ty and ecology. This familiarity always had
its basis in scientific understanding but
was never isolated from his sense of won-
der, the appreciation of beauty and the
sense of awe and excitement that under-
pins his mission to share The bush' with
others. His essential philosophy is that
understanding will lead to appreciation,
and thus foster a conservation ethos.
Through his publications, talks and lec-
tures, radio programs, nature-based tours
and service on conservation committees,
Ian has made a strong contribution to
increasing the knowledge of Australian
natural history.
His service has been recognised with the
honour of the ACT Landcare Media
Award 1995, for his Nature Table contri-
bution to Elaine Harris’ radio programs,
and the ASGAP Australian Plants Award
2001 , for services to conservation and edu-
cation. This presentation was accompanied
by a seminar paper. Maintaining Links
between Landscape , Plant and Animal
Communities , which discussed timescales
in Australian evolution and obligate plant-
animal relationships.
Together with Margaret McJannett, artist
Helen Fitzgerald and photographer col-
leagues, Ian Fraser has written a number of
books portraying the local natural history:
Above the Cotter: a drivers ’ & walkers '
guide to the North Bvindabellas (1991);
Wild about Canberra: a field guide to the
plants and animals of the ACT (1993);
Wildfiowers of the Bush Capital: a field
guide to Canberra Nature Park (1993);
Over the hills and Tharwa Way: Eastern
Namadgi National Park ( 1 994); Neighbours
in trouble: endangered plants and animals
in the ACT (1996); and Wildfiowers of the
Snow Country: a field guide to the
Australian Alps ( 1 998).
Ian’s monthly column in Gang-Gang, the
newsletter of the Canberra Ornithologists
Group, is characteristically called Avian
Whimsy and it encourages readers to think
about many aspects of birds.
There is a long, diverse list of associa-
tions that have benefited by Ian’s talks and
presentations. It includes: Field Naturalists
of Canberra; Canberra Ornithologists
Group; Australian Native Plants Society;
National Parks Association (ACT); Friends
of the Australian National Botanic
Gardens; ACT 4WD Club; Namadgi
National Park; Women’s International
ACT; Wamboin and Murrumbateraan
Landcare Groups; Birds Australia; and
Cumberland Bird Observers Club.
He presents a series of courses with
evocative titles for the Australian National
University Centre for Continuing
Education: ‘Understanding Birds’,
‘Understanding Plants’, ‘Understanding
Orchids’, ‘From Gondwana to Australia’
and ‘But what does it mean?’ which
demystifies the complexity of floral and
faunal names.
Since 1992 Ian has been the guest of a
fortnightly local radio natural history show,
one of ABC Canberra’s longest-running,
regular guest spots. He answers listeners’
queries, comments enthusiastically on their
observations and returns off-line with con-
firmation if he’s unsure of an initial
answer. Through shared and appreciated
observations and deceptive informality, Ian
extends interest in natural history and con-
servation into the general community. He
has also prepared 160 or so 5-minute natur-
al history segments for local radio which
are repeated seasonally. In each of these
snippets he presents information about a
species, a phenomenon, an historical aspect
of Australian natural history or seasonal
insights. These segments have been made
into the four CD set. Four Seasons of the
Bush Capital , issued in 2004.
400
The Victorian Naturalist
Honours
Ian was employed by the Australian
National Botanic Gardens to create the
background material for the widely viewed
2005 exhibition Phoenix - Fire and
Australian Plants . The exhibition would
have increased understanding of Australian
flora for those many national and interna-
tional visitors to the country's national
botanic gardens. He has also been contract-
ed by the National Capital Authority to run
educational bird walks in summer and write
guide sheets for natural history walks.
Because of his breadth of knowledge
about species and ecosystem functions in
the region and his ability to impart this
knowledge to the lay person, the NSW
National Parks and Wildlife Service com-
missioned Ian to research and write some
250 threatened species’ profiles for the
South-East Directorate web-site (120 ani-
mal species and 130 plants). He also wrote
and designed a series of brochures on The
Impact of Bush fires on the Environment
for the same organisation.
Ian Fraser administered the Canberra
Environment Centre for several years,
linking its environmental resource centre
and educative roles to the wider communi-
ty. His nature-based tourism operation,
Environment Tours, continues to operate
in association with the Centre.
Ian was co-founder and first Director of
the Conservation Council of the South East
Region and Canberra (CCSERAC) in the
early 1980s. The Council is the peak con-
servation organisation in the Region, using
its resources to monitor and comment on
changes to the environment on behalf of
many member groups. CCSERAC pro-
motes protection of the environment from
urban encroachment and human impact,
using input from lan and other acknowl-
edged experts.
He also has contributed to the protection
of Australia’s native flora and fauna
through his involvement in two advisory
committees to the ACT Government, viz.
• the ACT Flora and Fauna Committee,
which makes recommendations on plant
and animal species and ecological com-
munities that warrant listing as vulnera-
ble or endangered under the ACT’s
Nature Conservation Act 1980 , and
• the ACT Natural Resource Management
Committee, which advises the ACT
Government on general conservation
and environmental management matters
in the ACT.
The ACT Flora and Fauna Committee
has responsibilities for assessing the con-
servation status of the ACT’s flora and
fauna and the ecological significance of
potentially threatening processes. Assess-
ments are made on nature conservation
grounds and serve to advise the ACT
Government. The Committee develops
Action plans describing the threats to habi-
tats or species, conservation issues relating
to and protective strategies appropriate for
species declared to be in serious decline in
the ACT. lan Fraser has served on the
Committee since its inception in 1995.
He has been a member of the ACT
Government’s advisory committee dealing
with nature conservation and natural
resource management continuously since
1984. He now chairs the ACT Natural
Resource Management Advisory Committee
which is responsible for the development
and implementation of the ACT Natural
Resources Management Plan, as well as
broader advice on land and wildlife manage-
ment matters.
In all of these roles Ian has contributed,
by serving on committees of management,
to the protection and understanding of
Australian native flora and fauna within the
ACT and importantly in a regional context.
The January 2003 bushfires that devastat-
ed Victorian and NSW alpine areas also
altered the region’s Brindabella Ranges
and Namadgi National Park almost beyond
recognition. Ian’s reaction to the virtual
loss of his ‘workplace’ was to make a
series of personal and then official jour-
neys to assess the impact and to interpret it
in the long-term context of the ecology of
fire in the Australian landscape. He was
invited by Environment ACT to accompa-
ny them into the burnt areas, which would
be closed to the public for many months, to
report on them to the Canberra community
via ABC radio and throughout the world
via reports posted on the internet.
His reviews and explanations of plant re-
growth, germination, exceptional flower-
ing patterns and species’ variations stimu-
lated great interest among local amateur
naturalists and the community. Ian helped
many Canberra residents to come to terms
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
401
Honours
with biodiversity losses by explaining the
cycles of fire-related damage. He ran a
specific public course on the effects of fire
its origins in the Australian landscape,
the ecology of fire in different habitats,
and responses of Australian biota to fire. In
this sense the tires were a catalyst for an
extension of interest in natural history and
conservation within the general communi-
ty, which Ian nurtured with great skill.
Working with botanist Geoff Butler, Ian
has professionally carried out many sur-
veys under New South Wales’
Environment Planning and Threatened
Species Act. This has involved assessing
the likely presence of populations of
threatened species and surveying the con-
dition of habitats so that local government
authorities can develop appropriate restric-
tions or controls before development or
rural subdivision proceeds. Local councils
were able to promote environmentally
friendly landscape changes in their juris-
dictions. Nearly 70 such surveys have now
been conducted in NSW, illustrating the
esteem in which Ian's and Geoff’s skills
and integrity are held by local councils, the
NSW NPWS and private developers.
In association with The Environment
Centre (and formerly the Conservation
Council), Environment Tours have been
operating since 1981, ‘to introduce people
to new areas and to increase appreciation
of our region with an emphasis on infor-
mation and fun’. Ian Fraser and Margaret
McJannett co-hosted these tours until 2001
and since then Ian has been running them
alone. By mid 2006 he had led 365 tours
comprising day trips, overnight trips, 3-4
nights away and 2-3 week major tours. The
tours have explored the natural history of
the ACT and hinterland, all non-urban
regions of New South Wales, and included
outstanding areas of Victoria, Tasmania,
South Australia, the Northern Territory’s
‘Red Centre’, Queensland and Western
Australia. Ian incorporates experiences
from prior private visits, meticulous
research, knowledge of botany, zoology,
geology, Aboriginal heritage, land-use
changes and local expertise in presenting
these popular trips. He is leader, guide,
mentor, teacher as he extends participants’
interest in natural history and conservation
and nurtures their own skills as naturalists
and observers.
The nomination for the Australian Natural
History Medallion was made by the Field
Naturalists Association of Canberra and let-
ters of support were received from
Canberra Ornithologists Group, Australian
Native Plants Association (Canberra
region), 666 ABC Radio Canberra, Office
of the Commissioner for the Environment
ACT, Executive Director Arts Heritage and
Environment, and the Department of
Environment and Conservation NSW.
Ian Endersby
56 Looker Road
Montmorency Vic 3094
One Hundred Years Ago
EXCURSION TO WILSON’S PROMONTORY
The only objectionable animals in the Park are wild dogs and snakes. Rabbits, we
were glad to find, had not reached the Promontory. The dogs are not true Dingoes, but
have escaped from fishermen, hunting parties, and selectors, and have interbred with
the Dingo to such an extent as to have amost effaced the latter.
From The Victorian Naturalist XXII p 195, March 8, 1906
402
The Victorian Naturalist
Tribute
Brian Smith
24 June 1939- 19 July 2006
His car’s number plate, “SNAIL7”, said
it all - here was someone with a quirky
sense of humour and whose passion was
terrestrial molluscs. The number plate
belonged to Brian Smith, who died recent-
ly in Launceston, Tasmania.
Born and educated in Stockport, near
Manchester, he studied for his undergradu-
ate degree and his doctorate at Bangor
University in Wales. In 1964 he decided
that Australia would be a much better
place than Britain for a zoologist, so
migrated with his first wife to Melbourne.
Brian lectured at Monash University for a
time before joining the then National
Museum of Victoria as Curator of
Invertebrates in July 1967.
Brian met Helen, who was to become his
second wife, at the Museum of Victoria in
the early 1970s. At the time she was
Assistant Curator of Entomology. In 1985,
Brian left the museum and, having married
Helen, moved with her to Mildura then
Wangaratta, where he worked on
melanoma research in the pathology
department of Wangaratta hospital. During
several subsequent moves Brian continued
his work on native Australian snails, par-
ticularly with the development of a mas-
sive database to catalogue the entire fauna.
In 1987, Brian and Helen moved to the UK
to obtain qualifications in tropical medi-
cine, with the aim of going to Tanzania in
1990. After eight months in Tanzania
Brian became ill and returned to Australia
where he lived for a time with his old
friends Ron and Win Kershaw in
Launceston, while working at the Queen
Victoria Museum and Art Gallery. In due
course Brian and Helen moved to
Scottsdale, Tasmania, and he was able to
continue with his work in Launceston for
the next eight years before they moved
back to Victoria, living in Bendigo for
about three years. However, the call of the
Queen Victoria Museum was strong and,
in 2003, they returned to Launceston.
As stated above, Brian’s great passion
was snails and he made a major contribu-
tion to the knowledge of the land snail
fauna of Australia. His many publications
included two excellent handbooks on the
non-marine mollusca of South-Eastern
Australia and Tasmania, to say nothing of
numerous articles in The Victorian
Naturalist. He also was a major contributor
to the mollusc volumes of the Fauna of
Australia Series. He had a huge impact on
natural history societies, in particular the
FNCV, which he joined in October, 1966.
He was a member of the council from
1973 to 1978 and also 1981 to 1982,
President from 1978 to 1981 and again in
1985; he was convenor of the editorial
committee of The Victorian Naturalist
from April 1976 to January 1977 and
Acting Editor from January 1979 to March
1980."
Brian was heavily involved with the
Malacological Society of Australia and
also the Marine Study Group of Victoria
(later the Marine Research Group). With
this group, he helped set up a census of
Victorian intertidal species from 1977 to
1 984, which culminated in the publication
of an excellent handbook Coastal
Invertebrates of Victoria. He instigated
Saturday work-days at the museum in
Melbourne in July 1967, at which interest-
ed amateurs could spend a day each month
working on their particular interest within
the collections. These work-days have con-
tinued right up to the present.
Following Brian’s resignation from the
Museum of Victoria in 1986, he was
appointed as an Honorary Associate in
recognition of his outstanding work there.
In March 1988, he was elevated to the sta-
tus of Curator Emeritus. In early April this
year, Brian was diagnosed with a malig-
nant brain tumour and, following surgery,
he slowly returned to work as Curator of
Zoology at the Queen Victoria Museum.
He had virtually completed another major
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
403
Tribute
project, a new census of the marine mol-
luscan fauna of Tasmania, and continued
with this until his final few weeks.
The snail world, and also field naturalists
everywhere, have lost a great mentor, but
his memory will live on through his large
output of publications and the many
friends he made during his time among us.
Alan Monger
10 Hiscock Crt
Benalla, Victoria 3672
Thank you from the Editors
The Victorian Naturalist would not be successful without the enormous amount of time
and effort given voluntarily by a large number of people who work behind the scenes.
One of the most important editorial tasks is to have papers refereed. The Editors would like
to say thank you to the following people who refereed manuscripts published during 2006:
Graham Ambrose
David Beardsell
Karen Beckman
Ashley Bunce
Malcolm C'alder
David Cameron
Chantal Carrigan
David Cheal
Nick Clemann
Paddy Dalton
Ian Davidson
Joan Dixon
Ross Field
Maria Gisbon
Linden Gillbank
Sheila Houghton
Neils Klazenga
Doug McCann
Janine McBurney
David Meagher
Peter Mcnkhorst
Pina Milne
Sharon Morley
Dale Nimmo
Gary Presland
David Ratkowsky
Peter Robertson
Noel Schleiger
John Sherwood
Dianne Simmons
Chris Tyshing
Yolanda van Heezik
Rob Wallis
Eric Woehler
Jeff Yugovic
The Victorian Naturalist publishes articles for a wide and varied audience. We have a
team of dedicated proofreaders who help with the readability and expression of our
articles. Our thanks go to:
Andrea Ballinger
Ken Bell
Andrew Bennett
Melanie Birtchnell
Arthur Carew
Chantal Carrigan
Leon Costermans
Amis Dzedins
Ian Endersby
Maria Gibson
Linden Gillbank
Ken Green
Pat Grey
Murray Haby
Jamie Harris
Virgil Hubregtse
Michael McBain
David Meagher
Sharon Morley
Fiona Murdoch
Geoff Paterson
Bernadette Sinclair
Simon Townsend
Christine Tyshing
Lyndsey Vivian
Rob Wallis
Alan Yen
404
The Victorian Naturalist
Naturalist Note
The Mountain Katydid Acripeza reticulata (Orthoptera):
a tourist to Wilsons Promontory, Victoria?
Introduction
The Mountain Katydid (sometimes, but
less properly, known as the Mountain
Grasshopper) Acripeza reticulata Guerin
(Tettigoniidae, Phaneropterinae) is one of
the more distinctive endemic Orthoptera in
Australia, and can not be confused easily
with any other species. Males are fully
winged, and females flightless with short-
ened tegmina and no hind wings. Both
sexes are dark grey to black, with the
abdomen ringed with dorsal bands of
bright blue and red (or orange) that are
exposed by raising the wings if the insect
is disturbed. Acripeza is thus highly apose-
matic, and is characteristically alpine or
subalpine, and widespread in the southern
alps (Rentz 1996). where it can be locally
common in summer, usually conspicuous
on the ground or low vegetation. However,
Rentz noted that lowland populations of
Acripeza are known from near Nyngan
(New South Wales) and Moonie (southern
Queensland). Green and Osborne (1994)
noted that, although Acripeza occurs above
the treeline in Tasmania, it is common
only in the lower subalpine zones on the
mainland mountains, and extends as far as
The plains towards Broken Hill’.
In this note, the finding of a living female
of A. reticulata in Wilsons Promontory
National Park, southern Victoria, is report-
ed, representing a considerable outlier
from the previously recorded range of the
species.
Victorian distribution
Acripeza is distributed widely in
Victoria’s alpine and subalpine zones. The
Museum Victoria Orthoptera collection
includes specimens of Acripeza from the
following localities: Mt Bogong, Mt
Hotham, Corryong, Whisky Flat, Mt
Buller, Mt Skene, Mt McKay. However,
and more intriguingly, there are also indi-
vidual specimens from three more souther-
ly localities (presumed approximate coor-
dinates not on data labels have been insert-
ed by me), as follows: Lerderderg Gorge
(37° 33’S, 144° 24’E), Warmambool (38°
23’S, 142° 30’E), and Mt Sabene (sic)
(presumed Mt Sabine, 38° 38’S, 143°
44’E).
New record
Victoria, Wilsons Promontory National
Park, 38° 54’$, 146° 15’E, sandy heath-
land, on ground, 1?, 21 February 2006, L.
Murray.
The capture site, some 150 m west of the
main north-south road to Tidal River, was
in an open sandy dune-swale system with
sporadic Leptospermum laevigatum cover,
open understorey and much near-bare
ground. The insect was photographed alive
and, with permission of Parks Victoria
staff, retained as a voucher to be deposited
in Museum Victoria.
Discussion
The origin of this specimen is unclear. It
seems highly improbable that such a con-
spicuous insect would have escaped earlier
notice on Wilsons Promontory if a resident
population occurs there. The alternative
option is that it was transported there in a
vehicle, with one of the vehicles from La
Trobe University present at the time of dis-
covery the most likely candidate. This
vehicle had been used for fieldwork in the
Victorian alps from 13-17 February,
including visits to Mt Hotham (1600 m, 15
February) and Mt Sarah (1550 m, 16-17
February). It had then been returned to
Melbourne, the interior emptied and vacu-
umed and the outside washed, before it
was driven to Tidal River on 19 February,
and to various sites on the Promontory
over the following days. The clear implica-
tion is that the Acripeza could have
entered the car during the previous week
and escaped detection during cleaning,
repacking and again emptying the vehicle
and eventually left the car at the site of
discovery. The insect was discovered
about 60 m from the nearest vehicle, about
45 minutes after arrival at the site.
Further searches will be made to deter-
mine whether a resident population exists.
However, even if introduced as above, the
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
405
Naturalist Note
female was alive, active and apparently
healthy when found and the possibility
cannot be dismissed that it could have been
a successful colonist. For the present, this
intriguing record is best treated as an iso-
lated stowaway individual, but it demon-
strates the ease with which such inadver-
tent introductions may be made and the
care needed to prevent them. In this case,
the projected scenario entails the insect
being in the vehicle, eluding deliberate
sanitation and repeated use, for a period of
(probably) some six days, and transport
over some 600 km (Hotham-Melbourne,
Melbourne- Tidal River, subsequent trips).
Nevertheless, the incidence of the other
southern Victoria specimens listed above
leaves the possibility of a more natural
occurrence of the species on Wilsons
Promontory, and the precise locality is thus
not advertised here. The purpose of this
note is to alert entomological visitors to
this possibility, in the hope that further
specimens of this striking orthopteran may
indeed be found.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Lewis Murray for alerting me to
this exciting find, to Elaine Thomas (Parks
Victoria). Ken Walker (Museum Victoria) and
Pete Green (Botany, La Trobe University), for
advice and help.
References
Green K and Osborne W (1994) Wildlife of the
Australian snow-country. (Reed Books: Chatswood,
NSW).
Rcntz D (1996) Grasshopper eountry. (University of
New South Wales Press: Greenwich, NSW)
TR New
Department of Zoology,
La Trobe University, Victoria 3086
Email:T.New@latrobe. edu.au
Australian Natural History Medallion Trust Fund
Donations were gratefully received during 2006 from the following:
$
Andrew Isles 1000
Albury Wodonga Field Naturalists Club Inc • 20
Helen Aston 50
Field Naturalist Club of Ballarat 25
Bumie Field Naturalists Club Inc 30
Field Naturalists Asociation of Canberra 75
Julia Davis 10
Clarrie Handrek 20
Mid Mauuray Field Naturalists Inc 50
Brendan Murphy 50
Geoffrey Paterson 20
Alan Reid 1 0
The Royal Society of Victoria Inc. 100
Upper Goulbum Field Naturalists Club 50
If you would like to contribute to the fund, which supports the Australian Natural History Medallion,
donations should be sent to: The Treasurer, Field Naturalists Club of Victoria, Locked Bag 3,
Blackburn, Vie. 3130. Cheques should be made payable to ‘Australian Natural History Medallion
Trust Fund’.
The medallion is awarded annually to a person who is considered to have made the most significant
contribution to the understaning of Australian natural history in the past ten years.
406
The Victorian Naturalist
Book Reviews
Successfully Growing Australian Native Plants
and ...
Colour Your Garden with Australian Natives
by Geoff and Bev Rigby
Publisher: Bloomings Books, 2005 compendium edition. 224 pages, hardback; colour
photographs. ISBN 0646451057. RRP $39.95
This compendium edition consists of two
books bound together. Successfully
Growing Australian Plants by Geoff Rigby
and Colour Your Garden with Australian
Natives by Geoff and Bev Rigby. In these
well presented books the authors have
shared with the reader their many years of
expertise and passion for our Australian
natives. Successfully Growing Australian
Plants is ‘a practical guide to simple do’s
and don’ts when planning, establishing and
developing a home garden and growing and
propagating your own plants.’ Colour Your
Garden with Australian Natives is a
coloured guide to native plants for the
home garden.
Successfully Growing Australian Plants
has chapters on: Planning Your Garden,
Establishing and Maintaining Your Garden,
Garden Development and Propagating Your
Own Plants. The book also includes infor-
mation on flower arrangements, pressed
flowers and photography. Each chapter is
colour coded and concludes with a summary
of do's and don’ts with page references back
to the text. There are just over 30 tables with
plant lists for a wide variety of locations and
conditions, for example: native plants that
will Power reasonably well in shaded condi-
tions, plants for cold frosty conditions,
plants with perfumed flowers, plants with
perfumed foliage, plants suitable for pots,
plants suitable for Bonsai culture, shrubs
suitable for screens or hedges, vines and
creepers for fences and trellises and many
more. I thought these tables were particular-
ly useful. This book has many beautiful pho-
tographs of gardens throughout, including
photos of botanic gardens, bushland, street
plantings and private gardens.
The second book. Colour Your Garden
with Australian Natives by Geoff and Bev
Rigby, has chapters on different coloured
flowers, e.g. ‘reds and pinks’, ‘yellows and
green’ and ‘blues, purples and mauves’.
For each species in each of these chapters
there is a very clear photograph, a short
description on plant form, and useful notes
on plant cultivation. Following the flower
colour chapters is an interesting chapter on
‘Colour without flowers', which includes
fruits, nuts and colour in foliage, tree
trunks and bark. Again, all species
described are beautifully illustrated with
photographs. The book concludes with a
summary of plants and flowering times for
all flowers described, and for ‘Colour with-
out flowers’ there is a summary of plants
and their features.
Another dimension to Successfully
Growing Australian Plants is the addition
of two traditional stories: The Flannel
Flower Story from the D’harawal People
and The War at ah Story — How the
Waratah became Red - from the Awabakal
People. Similarly, in Colour Your Garden
with Australian Natives each chapter
begins with a gorgeous short poem or part
poem: for example ‘Colour Without
Flowers’ begins with -
Flowers that smell like sweetest honey
Flowers like puffs of snow
Fruits like little wooden goblets
Buds a dark-red glow -
Darling of the summertime.
Wherever it may grow.
Nuri Mass. Australian Wildflower Magic
(the Writers Press, 1967)
This adds a nice touch to both books and
illustrates the authors’ love of our native
flora.
The last chapter in Colour Your Garden
with Australian Natives is a guide to native
gardens around our big beautiful country.
Descriptions are provided for 37 gardens.
Each of these gardens is described with
interesting notes on its history and devel-
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
407
Book Reviews
opment. I was pleased to see this updated
with a table in Successfully Growing
Australian Plants, with the addition of
another 6 gardens around Australia. Only
one native garden is listed in the vast and
diverse Northern Territory: the Darwin
Botanic Garden. Given the size and diver-
sity of vegetation in this state, the Olive
Pink Botanic Garden in Alice Springs and
the Alice Springs Desert Park arc notable
omissions from this list.
A main disappointment with both books is
that no mention is made of the potential
threat of some native species as environmen-
tal weeds. A few examples of known envi-
ronmental weeds include: Acacia saligna
(Golden Wreath Wattle), Pittosporum imclu-
latum (Sweet Pittosporum) and So Ilya het-
erophylla (Bluebell Creeper). In my opinion
the authors should have either excluded
known environmental weeds or highlighted
their potential threat to surrounding remnant
bushland.
If you are looking to establish a native
garden, or add some native plants to your
garden, this compendium edition is well
worth a look. Bev and Geoff Rigby’s
books have a lot of practical information to
offer. The strength of these two books is
the high quality colour photographs
throughout, which beautifully illustrate the
text.
Maria Belvedere
I N Stradbrokc Road
Boronia, Victoria 3155
Thankyou from the Editors
Sincere thanks to our book reviewers for 2006 who provided interesting and insightful
comments on a wide range of books and other materials:
Eve Almond
Peter Beech
Maria Belvedere
Sarah Bouma
Rohan Clarke
Nick Clemann
Raelene Cooke
Kelvyn Dunn
Ian Endersby
David Geering
Maria Gibson
Merilyn Grey
Virgil Hubregtse
Bernie Joyce
Roger Pierson
Gary Presland
John Wainer
As always we particularly thank our authors, who provide us with excellent material for
publication.
On the production side, thank you to:
Ken Bell, who prepares the annual index,
Virgil Hubregtse for editorial assistance,
Helen McNally for printing the mailing labels,
Dorothy Mahler for administrative assistance, and
Printers. BPA Print Group, especially Tom Markovski.
408
The Victorian Naturalist
Book Reviews
Wedge-tailed Eagle
by Penny Olsen; illustrations by Humphrey Price- Jones;
colour photographs by Peter Merritt
Publisher: CSIRO Publishing, 2005. Ill pages , 22 colour photographs,
21 pencil drawings. Paperback, ISBN 0643091653. RRP $39.95
Many years ago, I went for a picnic in the
country with seven friends who were not
particularly interested in birds. We were
playing a game with bats and tennis balls
when someone noticed that a pair of
Wedge-tailed Eagles had come into view.
We all paused to gaze admiringly at those
magnificent birds as they passed gracefully
overhead, and our day was richer for the
experience.
It is always exciting to see a Wedge-tailed
Eagle, whether soaring, gliding, perched, or
taking off laboriously from a kangaroo car-
cass at the side of a road. If you are curious
about how this bird lives, when it breeds,
how fast it can fly, why it can see so well,
how many types of animal it eats, and so
on, you will find the answers in this book.
Author Penny Olsen, an expert on birds of
prey, provides a comprehensive, very read-
able overview of what is currently known
about this impressive bird, from its appear-
ance in Aboriginal rock paintings 5000
years ago to details revealed by modern
research; from relentless persecution as a
killer of lambs, to protection, conservation
and now, regrettably, suffering habitat
destruction. Surprisingly for such an iconic
species, there are still several gaps in our
knowledge, and more research needs to be
done: as the author states, "Where the facts
are unknown but there is strong basis for
assumption. I have taken a lew liberties, but
I have generally stuck to the known.' (p. 3).
There are 1 1 chapters: Musings, Eagles
and Aborigines, Early records and names.
Eagles and their relatives. The eagle’s
country. Eagle specifics, Flight and sight,
Reproduction, From egg to adult, Hunting
and prey, and Threats. These are followed
by a list of scientific names of animals and
plants mentioned in the text, a 14 page bib-
liography, and an index. The text is liberal-
ly sprinkled with quotes from many
authors, and is illustrated by 22 clear colour
photographs by Peter Merritt, and 21 pencil
drawings by Humphrey Price-Jones.
f AUSTRALIAN MAT URAL HISTORY SERIES j
WEDGE-TAILED
EAGLE
Unfortunately, in addition to a number of
typographical errors, there are a few inac-
curate statements. For example, the
Wedge-tailed Eagle’s tail is not 85-105
cm, as stated on p. 30, but 35-48 cm. In the
caption at the bottom of p. 59, ‘reduce’
should presumably be ‘increase’; and,
w orst of all, in the sentence at the bottom
of p. 85, "... the number of lambs taken
recently justifies the removal of eagles’,
‘recently’ should be ‘rarely’.
Nevertheless the book contains a great
deal of interesting - and often entertaining
information. It is a very good summary
of current knowledge about this eagle, and
will appeal to ornithologists, nature lovers,
conservationists and, of course, all eagle
enthusiasts.
Virgil Hubregtse
6 Saniky Street
Notting Hill, Victoria 3168
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
409
Guidelines for Authors - The Victorian Naturalist
Submission of all Manuscripts
Submission of a manuscript will he taken to
mean that the material has not been published,
nor is being considered for publication,
elsewhere, and that all authors agree to its
submission.
Authors may submit material in the form of
research reports, contributions, naturalist notes,
letters to the editor and book reviews. A
Research Report is a succinct and original sci-
entific paper written in the traditional format
including abstract, introduction, methods, results
and discussion. A Contribution may consist of
reports, comments, observations, survey results,
bibliographies or other material relating to nat-
ural history. The scope of a contribution is broad
and little delined to encourage material on a
wide range of topics and in a range of styles.
This allows inclusion of material that makes a
contribution to our knowledge of natural history
but for which the traditional format of scientific
papers is not appropriate. Research reports and
contributions will be refereed by external refer-
ees. Naturalist Notes are generally short, per-
sonal accounts of observations made in the field
by anyone with an interest in natural history.
These may also include reports on excursions
and talks, where appropriate, or comment on
matters relating to natural history. Letters to the
Editor must be no longer than 500 words. Book
Reviews are usually commissioned, but the edi-
tors also welcome enquiries from potential
reviewers.
Guidelines for presentation of papers
Research reports and contributions must be
accompanied by an abstract of not more than 200
words. The abstract should state the scope of the
work, give the principal findings and be com-
plete enough for use by abstracting services.
Three copies of the manuscript should be pro-
vided, each including all tables and copies of llg-
ures. Original artwork and photos can be withheld
by the author until acceptance of the manuscript.
Manuscripts should be typed, double spaced with
wide margins and pages numbered. Please indi-
cate the telephone number (and email address if
available) of the author who is to receive corre-
spondence. Submission of manuscripts should be
accompanied by a covering letter.
An electronic version and one hard copy of the
manuscript are required upon resubmission after
referees’ comments have been incorporated.
Documents should be in Microsoft Word or RTF
format.
Taxonomic Names
Cite references used for taxonomic names.
References used by The Victorian Naturalist are
listed at the end of these guidelines.
Abbreviations
The following abbreviations should be used in
the manuscript (with italics where indicated): et
a/.; pers. obs.; unpubl. data; and pers. comm,
which arc cited in the text as (RG Brown 1994
pers. comm. 3 May). Use ‘subsp.’ for subspecies.
Units
The International System of Units (SI units)
should be used for exact measurement of physi-
cal quantities.
Figures and Tables
All illustrations (including photographs) are
considered as figures and will be designed to fit
within a page (115 mm) or a column (55 mm)
width. It is important that the legend is clear-
ly visible at these sizes. For preference, pho-
tographs should be of high qualily/high contrast
which will reproduce clearly in black-and-white.
They may be colour slides or colour or black-
and-white prints. Line drawings, maps and graphs
may be computer generated or in black Indian Ink
on stout white or tracing paper. The figure num-
ber and the paper’s title should be written on the
back of each figure in pencil. If a hand-drawn fig-
ure is scanned it must be done at a minimum of
600 dpi.
Computer-generated figures should be submitted
as high-quality TIFT, encapsulated postscript (EPS)
or high quality JPG files scanned at 600 dpi or
more, separately on disc and not embedded into a
MS Word document. Low-resolution JPG files will
not be accepted.
Tables must fit into 55 mm or 1 15 mm. If
using a table editor, such as that in MS Word,
do not use carriage returns within cells. Use tabs
and not spaces when setting up columns without
a table editor.
All figures and tables should be referred to in the
text and numbered consecutively. Their captions
must be numbered consecutively (Fig. 1, Fig. 2,
etc. ) and put on a separate page at the end of the
manuscript. Tables should be numbered consecu-
tively (Table I. Table 2, etc.) anti have an explana-
tory caption at the top.
Please consult the editors if additional details are
required regarding document formats and image
specifications. Authors who are not computer liter-
ate should contact the editors to make special
arrangements.
Sequence Data
All nucleotide sequence data and alignments
should be submitted to an appropriate public
database, such as Genbank or EMBL. The
accession numbers for all sequences must be
cited in the article.
Journal Style
Authors are advised to note the layout of head-
ings, tables and illustrations as given in recent
issues of the Journal. Single spaces are used
410
The Victorian Naturalist
Contributions
after full stops, and single quotation marks are
used throughout.
In all papers, first reference to a species should
use both the common name and binomial. This
journal uses capitalised common names for
species, followed by the binomial in italics with-
out brackets, e.g. Kangaroo Grass Themeda
triandra. However, where many species are
mentioned, a list (an appendix at the end), with
both common and binomial names, may be pre-
ferred. Lists must be in taxonomic order using
the order in which they appear in the references
recommended below.
References
References in the text should cite author and
year, e.g. Brown (1990), (Brown 1990), (Brown
1990, 1991 ), (Brown 1995 unpubl.), (Brown and
Green 1990), (Brown and Green 1990; Blue
1990; Red 1990). If there are more than two
authors for a paper use (Brown et al. 1990).
These should be included under References, in
alphabetical order, at the end of the text (see
below). The use of unpublished data is accepted
only if the data is available on request for view-
ing. Pers. obs. and pers. comm, should not be
included in the list of references. Journal titles
should be quoted in full.
Leigh J, Boden R and Briggs J (1984) Extinct
and Endangered Plants of Australia.
(Macmillan: South Melbourne)
Lunney D (1995) Bush Rat, In The Mammals of
Australia , pp 651-653. Ed R Strahan.
(Australian Museum/Reed New Holland:
Sydney)
Phillips A and Watson R (1991) Xanthorrhoea :
consequences of ‘horticultural fashion’. The
Victorian Naturalist 1 08, 130-133.
Smith AB (1995) Flowering plants in north-
eastern Victoria. (Unpublished PhD thesis,
University of Melbourne)
Wolf L and Chippendale GM (1981 ) The natural
distribution of Eucalyptus in Australia.
Australian National Parks and Wildlife
Service, Special Publications No 6, Canberra.
Other methods of referencing may be acceptable
in manuscripts other than research reports, and
the editors should be consulted. The biblio-
graphic software ‘EndNote’ should NOT be
used. A style guide for The Victorian Naturalist
is available on our website. For further informa-
tion on style, write to the editors, or consult the
latest issue of The Victorian Naturalist or edi-
tion of Style Manual for Authors, Editors and
Printers (John Wiley & Sons: Milton, Qld).
Manuscript Corrections
Authors can verify the final copy of their manu-
script before it goes to the primer. A copy of their
article as ‘ready for the printer’ will be sent and
only minor changes may be made at this stage.
Complimentary Copies
After publication of an article in the journal,
five complimentary copies of that issue are sent
to the author(s) 'for each paper. Authors of
Naturalist Notes and Book Reviews will receive
two complimentary copies of the journal.
Checking species names is the responsibility of authors. The books we use as references for articles
in The Victorian Naturalist arc listed below.' Authors should refer to the source used for species
names in their manuscripts. In every case, the latest edition of the book should be used.
Mammals - Menkhorst PW (ed) (1995)
Mammals of Victoria: Distribution, Ecology
and Conservation. (Oxford University Press:
South Melbourne)
Reptiles and Amphibians - Cogger H (2000)
Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia, 6 ed.
(Reed Books: Chatswood, NSW)
Insects - CSIRO (1991) The Insects of Australia:
a textbook for students and research workers.
Vol I and II. (MUP: Melbourne)
Birds - Christidis L and Boles W (1994) The
Taxonomy and Species of Birds of Australia
and its' Territories. Royal Australian
Ornithologists Union Monograph 2. (RAOU:
Melbourne)
Plants - Ross JH (ed) (2000) A Census of the
Vascular Plants of Victoria , 6 ed. (Royal
Botanic Gardens of Victoria: Melbourne)
Please submit manuscripts and enquiries to:
The Editor
The Victorian Naturalist
Locked Bag 3, P.O.
Blackburn, Victoria 3130
Phone/Fax (03) 9877 9860. Email vicnat@vicnet.net.au
Web address: http://www.vicnet.net.au/~fncv/vicnat.htm
Vol. 123 (6) 2006
411
Haiku Series
the ant zigzags
under the weight of its payload
the ant threatens me
as I approach-
one against one
the ant
buries the dead
tiny undertaker
underworld
of silent clones
the ant nest
Christopher M Palmer
Biodiversity Conservation South, Parks and Wildlife Service.
Department of Natural Resources, Environment and the Arte?
PO Box 1 120, Alice Springs, Northern Territory 087 11
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